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History of science

Science Science

Science in the broadest sense refers to any system of knowledge attained by verifiable means.... 

 is a body of empirical and theoretical knowledge, produced by a global community of researchers, making use of specific techniques for the observation and explanation of real phenomena, this techne as a whole being summed up under the heading of scientific method Scientific method

Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena [i] and acquiring new knowledge [i] ... 

. As such, the history of science draws on the historical methods of both intellectual history and social history. The Scientific Revolution of the sixteenth and early seventeenth century saw the inception of modern scientific methods to guide the evaluation of knowledge.

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Timeline

1828   Science History of science

Science [i] is a body of empirical [i] and theoretical [i] knowledge, produced by a ... 

: Friedrich Wöhler Friedrich Wöhler

Friedrich Whler was a German [i] chemist [i], best-known for his synthesis of urea [i], but als ... 

 synthesizes Urea Urea

Urea is an organic compound [i] of carbon [i], nitrogen [i], oxygen [i] and hydrogen [i], with the formula [i] ... 

, disproving a cornerstone of vitalism Vitalism

Vitalism, as defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary, is ... 

.



Encyclopedia

Science Science

Science in the broadest sense refers to any system of knowledge attained by verifiable means.... 

 is a body of empirical and theoretical knowledge, produced by a global community of researchers, making use of specific techniques for the observation and explanation of real phenomena, this techne as a whole being summed up under the heading of scientific method Scientific method

Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena [i] and acquiring new knowledge [i] ... 

. As such, the history of science draws on the historical methods of both intellectual history and social history.

The Scientific Revolution of the sixteenth and early seventeenth century saw the inception of modern scientific methods to guide the evaluation of knowledge. This change is considered to be so fundamental that some — especially philosophers of science and practicing scientists — consider such earlier inquiries into nature to be pre-scientific. Traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those inquiries.

The history of mathematics History of mathematics

The word "mathematics [i]" comes from the Greek [i] ???a which means "science, knowledge, or l ... 

, history of technology History of technology

The history of technology is the history of useful tool [i]s and techniques for doing practical things. ... 

, and history of philosophy History of philosophy

The history of philosophy is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time.... 

 are covered in other articles. Mathematics is closely related to, but distinct from science . Technology concerns the creative process of designing useful objects and systems, which differs from the search for empirical truth. Philosophy differs from science in that, while both the natural Natural science

In science [i], natural science is the rational [i] study of the universe [i] via rules or laws o ... 

 and the social science Social sciences

The social sciences are groups of academic disciplines that study the human aspects of the world.... 

s attempt to base their theories on established fact, philosophy also enquires about other areas of knowledge, notably ethics. In practice, each of these fields is heavily used by the others as an external tool.

Theories and sociology of the history of science


Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends. The sociology of science in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they "produce" and "construct" scientific knowledge. Since the 1960s, a common trend in the science studies  has been to emphasize the "human component" to scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data is self-evident, value-free, and context-free.

A major subject of concern and controversy in the philosophy of science has been to inquire about the nature of theory change in science. Three philosophers in particular who represent the primary poles in this debate have been Karl Popper, who argued that scientific knowledge is progressive and cumulative; Thomas Kuhn Thomas Samuel Kuhn

Thomas Samuel Kuhn was an American intellectual who wrote extensively on the history of science [i] and ... 

, who argued that scientific knowledge moves through "paradigm shift Paradigm shift

Paradigm shift is the term first used by Thomas Kuhn [i] in his 1962 [i] book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions [i] ... 

s" and is not necessarily progressive; and Paul Feyerabend, who argued that scientific knowledge is not cumulative or progressive, and that there can be no demarcation between science and any other form of investigation.

Since the publication of Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions is an analysis of the history of science [i]. ... 

in 1962, there has been much debate in the academic community over the meaning and objectivity of "science." Often, but not always, a conflict over the "truth" of science has split along the lines of those in the scientific community and those in the social sciences or humanities .

Early cultures


In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge was passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition. The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity. Combined with the development of agriculture, which allowed for a surplus of food, it became possible for early civilizations to develop, because more time could be devoted to tasks other than survival.

Many ancient civilizations collected astronomical information in a systematic manner through simple observation. Though they had no knowledge of the real physical structure of the planets and stars, many theoretical explanations were proposed.

Basic facts about human physiology were known in some places, and alchemy Alchemy

Alchemy refers to both an early form of the investigation of nature [i] and an early philosophical [i]... 

 was practiced in several civilizations. Considerable observation of macrobiotic flora and fauna was also performed.

Science in Classical Antiquity




In Antiquity Classical antiquity

Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history [i] centered on the Mediterranean Sea [i] ... 

, the inquiry into the workings of the universe took place both in investigations aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and in those abstract investegations known as natural philosophy. The ancient peoples who are considered the first scientists Scientist

A scientist is an expert [i] in at least one area of science [i] who uses the scientific method [i] to d ... 

may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a skilled profession , or as followers of a religious tradition .

The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics Pre-Socratic philosophy

The Pre-Socratic philosopher [i]s were active before Socrates [i] or contemporaneously, but expounding k ... 

, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos Cosmos

In its most general sense, a cosmos is an orderly or harmonious system.... 

 in which we live come to be?" Subsequently, Plato and Aristotle produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations into nature.

The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, and astronomy; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research.

Science in China

China has a long and rich history of scientific and technological contributions. The Four Great Inventions of ancient China are the compass Compass

A compass is a navigational instrument for finding directions on the earth.... 

, gunpowder Gunpowder

Gunpowder, whether black powder [i] or smokeless powder [i], is a substance that burns [i] ... 

, papermaking Papermaking

Papermaking refers to the process of making modern-day paper [i], a material which is ubiquitous today f ... 

, and printing Printing

Printing is a process for production of text [i]s and , typically with ink [i] on paper [i] using a printing press [i] ... 

. These four discoveries had an enormous impact on the development of Chinese civilization China

China is a cultural region [i] and ancient civilization [i] in East Asia [i]. ... 

 and a far-ranging global impact. According to English England

England is the largest and most populous constituent country [i] of the United Kingdom [i]. ... 

 philosopher Philosophy

[i]
... 

 Francis Bacon Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, KC [i] was an English [i] philosopher [i], ... 

, writing in Novum Organum,
Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in literature Literature

Literature is literally "acquaintance with letters" as in the first sense given in the Oxford English Dictionary [i] ... 

, the second in warfare War

War is a conflict involving the organized use of weapon [i]s and physical force by state [i]s or other l ... 

, the third in navigation Navigation

There are several traditions of navigation.... 

; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries."

In regards to mathematics, two early works on mathematics were The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art

The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is a Chinese mathematics [i] book, probably composed by th ... 


Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the scientific accomplishments of China were early seismological Seismology

Seismology is the scientific study of earthquake [i]s and the movement of waves through the Earth [i]. ... 

 detectors, match Match

A match is a simple and convenient means of producing fire [i] under controlled circumstances on demand, ... 

es, the independent discovery of the decimal system, dry dock Dry dock

A dry dock is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a load to be floated in, then draine... 

s, sliding calipers Caliper

A caliper is a device used to measure [i] the distance between two symmetrically opposing si ... 

, the double-action piston pump Piston

In general, a piston is a sliding plug [i] that fits closely inside the bore [i] of a cylinder [i]... 

, cast iron Cast iron

Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but can mean any of a group of iron [i]-based alloys contain... 

, the iron Iron

Iron is a chemical element [i] with the symbol Fe and atomic number [i] 26. ... 

 plough Plough

The plough is a tool [i] used in farming [i] for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing ... 

, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow Wheelbarrow

A wheelbarrow is a small one- or two-wheel [i]ed cart [i] designed to be pushed by a single person using ... 

, the suspension bridge Suspension bridge

A suspension bridge is a type of bridge [i] that has been made since ancient times. ... 

, the parachute Parachute

A parachute is a soft fabric device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere by creati... 

, natural gas Natural gas

Natural gas, commonly referred to as gas, is a gas [i]eous fossil fuel [i] consisting primarily of ... 

 as fuel, , the relief map, the propeller Propeller

A propeller is a device which transmits power by converting it into thrust [i] for propulsion [i] of a v ... 

, the crossbow Crossbow

A crossbow is a weapon [i]. ... 

, a solid fuel rocket Rocket

The traditional definition of a rocket is a vehicle [i], missile [i] or aircraft [i] which obtains thrust [i] ... 

, and the cannon Cannon

A cannon is any large tubular firearm [i] designed to fire a heavy projectile [i] over a considerable di ... 

 along with other contributions in logic, astronomy Astronomy

Astronomy is the science [i] of celestial objects and phenomena [i] that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere [i] ... 

, medicine Medicine

Medicine is the branch of health science [i] and the sector of public life concerned with maintaining or ... 

, and numerous other fields.

The Middle Ages


Medieval Indian science and technology

Main articles: Indian science Science and technology in ancient India

Science and technology in ancient India covered all the major branches of human knowledge and activities... 

 and Indian science and technology Science and technology in ancient India

Science and technology in ancient India covered all the major branches of human knowledge and activities... 




Before the Middle Ages, Indian philosophers in ancient India History of India

The history of India [i] can be traced in fragments to as far back as 9500 years ago. ... 

 developed atomic theories Atomic theory

In chemistry [i] and physics [i], atomic theory is a theory [i] of the nature of matter [i].... 

, which included formulating ideas about the atom Atom

In chemistry [i] and physics [i], an atom is the smallest possible particle of a chemical element [i] t ... 

 in a systematic manner and propounding ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. The principle of relativity was also available in an early embryonic form in the Indian philosophical concept of "sapekshavad". The literal translation of this Sanskrit Sanskrit

The Sanskrit language is a classical language [i] of India [i], a liturgical language [i] ... 

 word is "theory of relativity" .

By the beginning of the Middle Ages, the wootz, crucible and stainless Stainless steel

In metallurgy [i], stainless steel is defined as a ferrous [i] alloy [i] with a minimum of 10% chromium [i] ... 

 steels Steel

Steel is a metal [i] alloy [i] whose major component is iron [i], with carbon [i] content between 0.02% ... 

 were discovered in India. By the end of the Middle Ages, iron Iron

Iron is a chemical element [i] with the symbol Fe and atomic number [i] 26. ... 

 rocket Rocket

The traditional definition of a rocket is a vehicle [i], missile [i] or aircraft [i] which obtains thrust [i] ... 

s were developed in the kingdom of Mysore Kingdom of Mysore

The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom of southern India [i], which was founded about AD [i] 14 ... 

 in South India South India

South India is a linguistic-cultural region of India [i] that comprises the four Indian states [i] ... 

.

Aryabhata in 499 presented a heliocentric Heliocentrism

In astronomy [i], heliocentrism is the theory [i] that the Sun [i] is at the center of the Universe [i]... 

 solar system Solar System

The Solar System or solar system is the stellar system [i] comprising the Sun [i] and ... 

 of gravitation Gravitation

In physics [i], gravitation or gravity is the tendency of objects with mass [i] to accelerate [i] ... 

 where he presented astronomical and mathematical theories in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given as elliptical Ellipse

The search term "Elliptical" redirects to this page; for the exercise machine, see Elliptical trainer [i] ... 

 orbits with respect to the sun. He also believed that the moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight and that the orbits of the planets are ellipses. He carried out accurate calculations of astronomical constants based on this system, such as the periods of the planets, the circumference of the earth Earth

Earth is the third planet [i] in the solar system [i] in terms of distance from the Sun [i], and the fi ... 

, the solar eclipse Solar eclipse

A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon [i] passes between Earth [i] and the Sun [i], thereby totally or pa ... 

 and lunar eclipse Lunar eclipse

An eclipse [i] refers to the phenomenon of one body passing into the shadow cast by another body. ... 

, the time taken for a single rotation of the Earth on its axis, the length of earth's revolution around the sun, and the longitudes of planets using eccentrics and epicycle Deferent and epicycle

In the Ptolemaic system [i] of astronomy [i], the epicycle was a geometric model to explain the variatio ... 

s. He also introduced a number of trigonometric functions Trigonometric function

In mathematics [i], the trigonometric functions are function [i]s of an angle [i]; they are im ... 

 , trigonometric Trigonometry

Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics [i] dealing with angle [i]s, triangle [i]s and trigonometric function [i] ... 

 tables, and techniques and algorithm Algorithm

In mathematics [i] and computing [i], an algorithm is a procedure for accomplishing some task which, gi... 

s of algebra Algebra

Algebra is a branch of mathematics [i] concerning the study of structure [i], relation [i] ... 

. Arabic Arabic language

The Arabic language , or simply Arabic , is the largest member of the Semitic [i] branch of the Afro-Asiatic [i] ... 

 translations of his texts were available in the Islamic world Caliph

Caliph is the title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah [i], or community of Islam [i].... 

 by the 8th 8th century

The 8th century is the period from 701 [i] - 800 [i] in accordance with the Julian calendar [i] in the Christian Era [i]... 

-10th century 10th century

As a means of recording the passage of time [i], the 10th century was that century [i] which lasted from ... 

.

In the 7th century 7th century

The 7th century is the period from 601 [i] - 700 [i] in accordance with the Julian calendar [i] in the Christian Era [i]... 

, Brahmagupta briefly described the law of gravitation Gravitation

In physics [i], gravitation or gravity is the tendency of objects with mass [i] to accelerate [i] ... 

, and recognized gravity Gravitation

In physics [i], gravitation or gravity is the tendency of objects with mass [i] to accelerate [i] ... 

 as a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numerals Arabic numerals

Arabic numerals, known formally as Hindu-Arabic numerals, and also known as [[Indian numerals]... 

 now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of his texts introduced this number system to the Islamic world, where it was adapted as Arabic numerals Arabic numerals

Arabic numerals, known formally as Hindu-Arabic numerals, and also known as [[Indian numerals]... 

.

The Siddhanta Shiromani was a mathematical astronomy text written by Bhaskara in the 12th century 12th century

As a means of recording the passage of time [i], the 12th century was that century [i] which lasted from ... 

. The 12 chapters of the first part cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The second part contains thirteen chapters on the sphere. It covers topics such as: praise of study of the sphere; nature of the sphere; cosmography and geography; planetary mean motion; eccentric epicyclic model of the planets; the armillary sphere; spherical trigonometry; ellipse calculations; first visibilities of the planets; calculating the lunar crescent; astronomical instruments; the seasons; and problems of astronomical calculations.

From the 12th century 12th century

As a means of recording the passage of time [i], the 12th century was that century [i] which lasted from ... 

, Bhaskara and various Keralese mathematicians first conceived differential calculus, mathematical analysis, trigonometric Trigonometry

Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics [i] dealing with angle [i]s, triangle [i]s and trigonometric function [i] ... 

 series, floating point numbers, and concepts foundational to the overall development of calculus Calculus

Calculus is a central branch of mathematics [i], developed from algebra [i] and geometry [i]. ... 

.

Medieval Islamic and European science


With the loss of the Western Roman Empire Western Roman Empire

The Western Roman Empire is the name given to the western half of the Roman Empire [i] after its divisio ... 

, much of Europe Europe

Europe is one of the seven traditional continent [i]s of the Earth [i]. ... 

 lost contact with the knowledge of the past. While the Byzantine Empire Byzantine Empire

Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used since the 19th century [i] to describe the Greek-spea ... 

 still held learning centers such as Alexandria Alexandria

Alexandria , , is the second-largest city in Egypt [i], and its largest seaport. ... 

 and Constantinople Constantinople

Constantinople was the capital of the Byzantine Empire [i] and following its fall in 1453 [i], of the O ... 

, Western Europe Western Europe

Western Europe is mainly a socio-political concept coined [i], forged and used during the Cold War [i]. ... 

's knowledge was concentrated in monasteries Monastery

Monastery, a term derived from the Greek [i] word ??ast????? monasterion, denotes the ... 

. The Library of Alexandria Library of Alexandria

The Royal Library of Alexandria in Alexandria [i], Egypt [i], was once the largest library [i] in the wo ... 

, which had suffered during and after the period of Roman rule, had been destroyed by 642, shortly after the Arab conquest of Egypt Egypt

[i] country in [[North Africa]... 

. Philosophical and scientific teaching of the period was based upon few copies and commentaries of ancient Greek texts that remained in Western Europe and the Middle East Middle East

The Middle East is a subcontinent [i] for the historical [i] and cultural [i] ... 

.
Islamic philosophy


Meanwhile, in the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support by the newly created Arab Caliphate Caliph

Caliph is the title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah [i], or community of Islam [i].... 

. With the spread of Islam Islam

Islam is a monotheistic [i] religion [i] based upon the Qur'an [i], which adherents believe w ... 

 in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Islamic scholarship lasted until the 14th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic Arabic language

The Arabic language , or simply Arabic , is the largest member of the Semitic [i] branch of the Afro-Asiatic [i] ... 

, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek and Roman texts from the Byzantine Empire Byzantine Empire

Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used since the 19th century [i] to describe the Greek-spea ... 

 along with Indian sources of learning provided Islamic scholars a knowledge base to build upon. In addition, there was the Hajj Hajj

The Hajj,, is the Pilgrimage to Mecca in Islam [i].... 

, which facilitated scholarly collaboration by bringing together people and new ideas from all over the Islamic world.

Islamic scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment Experiment

In the scientific method [i], an experiment , is a set of actions and observation [i]s, performed in the ... 

 than had the Greeks Greeks

The Greeks are an ethnic group [i] mostly found in the southern Balkan peninsula [i] of southeastern Europe [i] ... 

. In mathematics, the Persian Persian people

The Persians are an Iranian people [i] who speak the Persian language [i] and share a co ... 

 scholar Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

was a Persian [i] mathematician [i], astronomer [i], astrologer [i]... 

 gave his name to the Indian concept of the algorithm Algorithm

In mathematics [i] and computing [i], an algorithm is a procedure for accomplishing some task which, gi... 

, while the term algebra Algebra

Algebra is a branch of mathematics [i] concerning the study of structure [i], relation [i] ... 

 is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. Sabian mathematician Al-Batani Al-Battani

Abu ?Abdullah Mu?ammad ibn Jabir ibn Sinan ar-Raqqi al-?arrani a?-?abi? al-Battani was an Arab [i] astronomer [i] ... 

  contributed to astronomy and mathematics and Persian Persian people

The Persians are an Iranian people [i] who speak the Persian language [i] and share a co ... 

 scholar Al-Razi Al-Razi

Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi.... 

 to chemistry. In astronomy, Al-Batani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of the Greek Hè Megalè Syntaxis translated as Almagest Almagest

Almagest is the Latin [i] form of the Arabic [i] name of an astronomical [i] treatis ... 

. Al-Batani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the earth's axis. Arab alchemy Alchemy

Alchemy refers to both an early form of the investigation of nature [i] and an early philosophical [i]... 

, though flawed as a science, inspired Roger Bacon Roger Bacon

Roger Bacon , also known as Doctor Mirabilis , was one of the most famous Franciscan [i] friars of... 

 , and later Isaac Newton Isaac Newton

[i] [[[Old Style and New Style dates|OS]] [i]: [[25 December]] [i] [[1642]] [i]... 

.
European science from the 12th century Renaissance



An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities Medieval university

The first European [i] medieval institutions generally considered to be universities [i] wer... 

 in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily after the Reconquista Reconquista

The Reconquista was the process by which the Christian Kingdoms of northern Hispania [i] defeated ... 

 and during the Crusades Crusades

The Crusades were a series of military campaigns waged in the name of Christendom [i] This term refers t ... 

 allowed Europeans access to preserved copies of the Ancient Greek and Roman works along with the works of Islamic philosophers, specially Averroes Averroes

Ibn Rushd, known as Averroes , was an Andalusian [i]-Arab [i] philosopher [i] ... 

. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. As well as this, Europeans began to venture further and further east as a result of the Pax Mongolica. This led to the increased influence of Indian and even Chinese science on the European tradition. Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of Eilmer of Malmesbury Eilmer of Malmesbury

Eilmer of Malmesbury, an 11th century [i] English Benedictine monk [i]. ... 

  , and the metallurgical achievements of the Cistercian Cistercians

The Order of Cistercians , otherwise White Monks is a Roman Catholic [i] order [i] ... 

 blast furnace Blast furnace

A blast furnace is a type of furnace [i] for smelting [i] iron ore [i].... 

 at Laskill Laskill

[i], [[North Yorkshire]... 

.



At the beginning of the 13th century there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste Robert Grosseteste

Robert Grosseteste, English [i] statesman, scholastic philosopher [i], theologian [i] ... 

, Roger Bacon Roger Bacon

Roger Bacon , also known as Doctor Mirabilis , was one of the most famous Franciscan [i] friars of... 

, Albertus Magnus Albertus Magnus

Albertus Magnus , also known as Saint Albert the Great and Albert of Cologne, was a Dominican [i] ... 

 and Duns Scotus Duns Scotus

Blessed [i] John Duns Scotus was a theologian [i], philosopher [i], and logician [i] ... 

. Precursors of the modern scientific method can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon. According to Pierre Duhem Pierre Duhem

Pierre Maurice Marie Duhem French physicist [i] and philosopher of science [i] ... 

, the Condemnation of 1277 led to the birth of modern science, because it forced thinkers to break from relying so much on Aristotle Aristotle

Aristotle was an ancient Greek [i] philosopher [i], a student of Plato [i] ... 

, and to think about the world in new ways.

The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. William of Ockham William of Ockham

William of Ockham was an English [i] Franciscan [i] friar and scholastic [i] philosopher [i], ... 

 introduced the principle of parsimony Occam's razor

Occam's razor is a principle attributed to the 14th-century [i] English logician [i] and Franciscan [i] ... 

: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicolas Oresme Nicolas Oresme

Nicole Oresme or Nicolas d'Oresme was one of the most famous and influential philosophers [i] of t... 

 started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.

In 1348, the Black Death Black Death

The Black Death, also known as the Black Plague, was a devastating pandemic [i] that first struck ... 

 and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the Fall of Constantinople Fall of Constantinople

The Fall of Constantinople was the conquest of the Byzantine [i] capital by the Ottoman Empire [i] under ... 

 in 1453, when many Byzantine Byzantine Empire

Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used since the 19th century [i] to describe the Greek-spea ... 

 scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at this point: not least the introduction of Algebra Algebra

Algebra is a branch of mathematics [i] concerning the study of structure [i], relation [i] ... 

. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific change, halted at the start of the Black Death.

The Scientific Revolution




The renewal of learning in Europe that began with 12th century Scholasticism came to an end about the time of the Black Death, and the initial period of the subsequent Italian Renaissance Italian Renaissance

The Italian Renaissance began the opening phase of the Renaissance [i], a period of great cultural chang ... 

 is sometimes seen as a lull in scientific activity. The Northern Renaissance Northern Renaissance

The Northern Renaissance is the term used to describe the Renaissance [i] in northern Europe [i], or mor ... 

, on the other hand, showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristoteleian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences . Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation, also referred to as the Protestant Revolution, was a movement in the 1... 

 and Catholic Roman Catholic Church

The Roman Catholic Church or Catholic Church is the Christian [i] Church [i] ... 

 Counter-Reformation Counter-Reformation

The Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation was a movement within the Catholic Church [i] ... 

; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus Italian [i] Cristoforo Colombo; Spanish [i]: ... 

; the Fall of Constantinople Fall of Constantinople

The Fall of Constantinople was the conquest of the Byzantine [i] capital by the Ottoman Empire [i] under ... 

; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther Martin Luther

Martin Luther was a German [i] monk [i], priest [i], professor [i], theologian [i]... 

 and John Calvin John Calvin

John Calvin was a French [i] Christian [i] theologian [i] during the Protestant Reformation [i] ... 

 questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy Ptolemy

Claudius Ptolemaeus , known in English as Ptolemy, was a Greek-speaking geographer [i], astronomer [i]... 

 , Galen Galen

Greek [i]: Ga?????, Latin [i]: Claudius Galenus of Pergamum , better ... 

 , and Aristotle Aristotle

Aristotle was an ancient Greek [i] philosopher [i], a student of Plato [i] ... 

  were found not always to match everyday observations. For example, an arrow flying through the air after leaving a bow contradicts Aristotle's laws of motion, which say that a moving object must be constantly under influence of an external force, as the natural state of earthly objects is to be at rest. Work by Vesalius Vesalius

Andreas Vesalius was an anatomist [i], physician [i], and author of one of the most influential ... 

 on human cadavers also found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.


The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when De Revolutionibus De revolutionibus orbium coelestium

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg [i], is the seminal work on ... 

, by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus was an astronomer [i] who provided the first modern formulation of a heliocentric [i] ... 

, was first printed. The thesis of this book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica

The Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica is a three-volume work by Isaac Newton [i] publish ... 

in 1687 by Isaac Newton Isaac Newton

[i] [[[Old Style and New Style dates|OS]] [i]: [[25 December]] [i] [[1642]] [i]... 

.

Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilei was an Italian [i] physicist [i], astronomer [i], astrologer [i] and philosopher [i] ... 

, Edmond Halley Edmond Halley

Edmond Halley was an English [i] astronomer [i], geophysicist [i], mathematician [i], meteorologist [i] ... 

, Robert Hooke Robert Hooke

Robert Hooke, FRS [i] was an English [i] polymath [i] who played an ... 

, Christiaan Huygens Christiaan Huygens

Christiaan Huygens , was a Dutch [i] mathematician [i] and physicist [i] ... 

, Tycho Brahe Tycho Brahe

Tycho Brahe , born Tyge Ottesen Brahe , was a Danish [i] nobleman [i] best know ... 

, Johannes Kepler Johannes Kepler

Johannes Kepler , a key figure in the scientific revolution [i], was a German [i] mathematician [i] ... 

, Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Leibniz

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a German [i] polymath [i] who wrote mostly in French and Latin.
... 

, and Blaise Pascal Blaise Pascal

Blaise Pascal was a French [i] mathematician [i], physicist [i], and religious [i] philosopher [i] ... 

. In philosophy, major contributions were made by Francis Bacon Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, KC [i] was an English [i] philosopher [i], ... 

, Sir Thomas Browne Thomas Browne

e Theosophist [i] Madame Blavatsky [i]
... 

, René Descartes René Descartes

Ren Descartes
, also known as Cartesius, was a noted French philosopher [i], mathematician [i]... 

, and Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes was an English [i] philosopher [i], whose famous 1651 book Leviathan [i] ... 

. The basics of scientific method were also developed: the new way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations.

Modern science


The Scientific Revolution established science as the preeminent source for the growth of knowledge. During the 19th century, the practice of science became professionalized and institutionalized in ways which would continue through the 20th century, as the role of scientific knowledge grew and became incorporated with many aspects of the functioning of nation-states.

Natural science Natural science

In science [i], natural science is the rational [i] study of the universe [i] via rules or laws o ... 

s


Physics

The Scientific Revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus was an astronomer [i] who provided the first modern formulation of a heliocentric [i] ... 

 revived the heliocentric Heliocentrism

In astronomy [i], heliocentrism is the theory [i] that the Sun [i] is at the center of the Universe [i]... 

 model of the solar system first devised by Aristarchus of Samos Aristarchus of Samos

Aristarchus was a Greek [i] astronomer [i] and mathematician [i], born on the island of Samos [i]... 

. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Kepler Johannes Kepler

Johannes Kepler , a key figure in the scientific revolution [i], was a German [i] mathematician [i] ... 

 in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical Ellipse

The search term "Elliptical" redirects to this page; for the exercise machine, see Elliptical trainer [i] ... 

 orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Also, Galileo Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilei was an Italian [i] physicist [i], astronomer [i], astrologer [i] and philosopher [i] ... 

 pioneered the use of experiment to validate physical theories, a key idea in scientific method.

In 1687, Isaac Newton Isaac Newton

[i] [[[Old Style and New Style dates|OS]] [i]: [[25 December]] [i] [[1642]] [i]... 

 published the Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica

The Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica is a three-volume work by Isaac Newton [i] publish ... 

,
detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion Newton's laws of motion

Newton's Laws of Motion are three physical law [i]s which provide relationships [i] ... 

, which lead to classical mechanics; and Newton's Law of Gravitation Gravitation

In physics [i], gravitation or gravity is the tendency of objects with mass [i] to accelerate [i] ... 

, which describes the fundamental force of gravity. The behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Faraday Michael Faraday

Michael Faraday, FRS [i] was an English [i] chemist [i] and physicist [i] ... 

, Ohm Georg Ohm

Georg Simon Ohm, German [i] physicist [i], was born in Erlangen [i] and educated at the univer ... 

, and others during the early 19th century. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by Maxwell James Clerk Maxwell

James Clerk Maxwell was a Scottish [i] mathematical physicist [i], born i ... 

 .

The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck Max Planck

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was a German [i] physicist [i]. ... 

, Albert Einstein Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein was a German [i]-born theoretical physicist [i]. ... 

, Niels Bohr Niels Bohr

Niels Bohr was a Danish [i] physicist [i] who made fundamental contributions to understanding ... 

 and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of general relativity General relativity

General relativity is the geometrical [i] theory [i] of gravitation [i] published by Albert Einstein [i] ... 

, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics Newton's laws of motion

Newton's Laws of Motion are three physical law [i]s which provide relationships [i] ... 

 and special relativity Special relativity

The special theory of relativity was proposed in 1905 [i] by Albert Einstein [i] in his article "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies [i] ... 

 depended, could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg Werner Heisenberg

Werner Karl Heisenberg was a celebrated German [i] physicist [i] and Nobel laureate [i] ... 

 and Erwin Schrödinger Erwin Schrödinger

Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrdinger , an Austria [i]n physicist [i], achieved fame for his contribut ... 

 formulated quantum mechanics Quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics is a first quantized [i] quantum theory [i] that supersedes classical mechanics [i] ... 

, which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by Edwin Hubble Edwin Hubble

Edwin Powell Hubble was an American [i] astronomer [i], noted for his discovery of galaxies [i] ... 

 in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang Big Bang

In physical cosmology [i], the Big Bang is the scientific [i] theory [i] of how t ... 

 theory by George Gamow.



Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar Radar

RADAR is a system that uses radio [i] waves to detect, determine the direction and distance and/or speed ... 

 and the development and use of the atomic bomb Nuclear weapon

A nuclear weapon derives its destructive force from nuclear reaction [i]s of fission [i] ... 

. Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron Cyclotron

A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator [i]. ... 

 by Ernest O. Lawrence Ernest Lawrence

Ernest Orlando Lawrence was an American [i] physicist and Nobel Laureate best known for h ... 

 in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "Big Science Big Science

Big Science is a term used by scientists [i] and historians of science [i] ... 

", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.
Chemistry


The history of modern chemistry can be taken to begin with the distinction of chemistry from