See Also

Rigveda

The Rigveda is a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns counted as the holiest of the four religious texts of Hindu Hindu

A Hindu , as per modern definition, is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of [[Hinduism]... 

s, known as the Vedas. It is also the oldest known collection of ideas of mankind. Geographical and ethnological passages in the Rigveda provide evidence that the Rigveda was composed c. 3000 BCE during the Vedic period in the Punjab Punjab region

[Image:Punjab 1909.jpg|thumb|350px|Punjab Province, 1909]] [i] ... 

 , making it one of the oldest texts of any Indo-European language Indo-European languages

The Indo-European languages comprise a family [i] of several hundred language [i]s and ... 

 and one of the world's oldest religious texts Religious text

Most religions have religious texts they view as sacred.... 

. It was preserved over centuries by oral tradition alone and was probably not put in writing until Late Antiquity Late Antiquity

Late Antiquity is a rough periodization [i] used by historians and other scholars to describe the interv ... 

 or even the early Middle Ages Early Middle Ages

The Early Middle Ages are a period in the history of Europe [i] following the fall of the Western Roman Empire [i] ... 

.

Discussions

  Discussion Features

   Ask a question about 'Rigveda'

   Start a new discussion about 'Rigveda'

   Answer questions about 'Rigveda'

   'Rigveda' discussion forum


Encyclopedia

The Rigveda is a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns counted as the holiest of the four religious texts of Hindu Hindu

A Hindu , as per modern definition, is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of [[Hinduism]... 

s, known as the Vedas. It is also the oldest known collection of ideas of mankind. Geographical and ethnological passages in the Rigveda provide evidence that the Rigveda was composed c. 3000 BCE during the Vedic period in the Punjab Punjab region

[Image:Punjab 1909.jpg|thumb|350px|Punjab Province, 1909]] [i]
... 

 , making it one of the oldest texts of any Indo-European language Indo-European languages

The Indo-European languages comprise a family [i] of several hundred language [i]s and ... 

 and one of the world's oldest religious texts Religious text

Most religions have religious texts they view as sacred.... 

. It was preserved over centuries by oral tradition alone and was probably not put in writing until Late Antiquity Late Antiquity

Late Antiquity is a rough periodization [i] used by historians and other scholars to describe the interv ... 

 or even the early Middle Ages Early Middle Ages

The Early Middle Ages are a period in the history of Europe [i] following the fall of the Western Roman Empire [i] ... 

.

Text

The Rigveda consists
of 1,028 hymns composed in Vedic Sanskrit, many of which are intended for various sacrifical Sacrifice

Sacrifice is commonly known as the practice of offering food, or the lives of animals or people to the gods [i] ... 

 ritual Ritual

A ritual is a set of actions, performed mainly for their symbol [i]ic value, which is prescribed by a religion [i] ... 

s. This long collection of short hymns is mostly devoted to the praise of the gods. It is organized into 10 books, known as Mandala Mandala

Mandala is of Hindu [i] origin and is also used in most Dharmic religions [i], such as Buddhism [i] ... 

s. Each mandala is comprised of hymns, called sukta, which are further comprised of individual verses called , plural . The Mandalas are by no means of equal length or age: The "family books", mandalas 2-7, are considered the oldest part and comprise the shortest books, arranged by length, accounting for 38% of the text. RV 8 and RV 9, likely comprising hymns of mixed age, account for 15% and 9%, respectively. RV 1 and RV 10, finally, are both the latest and the longest books, accounting for 37% of the text.

The older passages of the Rigveda refer to three Vedic Gods and record the Vedic Aryans' epic struggle with the original inhabitants, referred to as "Dasyas" and "Simyus". Vedic hyms impose taboos on Vedic tribes from venturing southward to the land of the dasyas and there are disparaging references to "Krishna-yoni-dasyas". Later gangetic literature consisting of the Puranas also depicts a war between the Vedic god Indra and the local god Krishna.

Preservation


The Rigveda is preserved by two major shakha Shakha

Shakha, literally "branch" or "limb", is the Sanskrit [i] term for a recension or version of Vedic [i] ... 

s , and . Considering its great age, the text is spectacularly well preserved and uncorrupted, the two recensions being practically identical, so that scholarly editions can mostly do without a critical apparatus. Associated to is the Aitareya-Brahmana. The includes the Khilani and has the Kausitaki-Brahmana associated to it.

This compilation or redaction included the arrangement in books as well as orthoepic changes, such as regularization of sandhi . It took place centuries after the composition of the earliest hymns, about co-eval to the redaction of the other Vedas.

From the time of its redaction, the text has been handed down in two versions: The Samhitapatha has all Sanskrit rules of sandhi applied and is the text used for recitation. The Padapatha has each word isolated in its pausa form and is used for memorization. The Padapatha is, as it were, a commentary to the Samhitapatha, but the two seem to be about co-eval. The original text as reconstructed on metrical grounds lies somewhere between the two, but closer to the Samhitapatha.

Organization


The most common numbering scheme is by book, hymn and verse . E. g. the first pada is
  • 1.1.1a "Agni I laud, the high priest"

and the final pada is
  • 10.191.4d "for your being in good company"


Hermann Grassmann has though numbered the hymns 1 through to 1028, putting the valakhilya at the end. The entire 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, in the 1877 edition of Aufrecht, contain a total of 10,552 verses, or 39,831 padas. The Shatapatha Brahmana gives the number of syllables to be 432,000, while the metrical text of van Nooten and Holland has a total of 395,563 syllables ; counting the number of syllables is not straightforward because of issues with sandhi. Most verses are jagati , trishtubh , viraj  or gayatri Gayatri

Gayatri is the feminine form of gayatra, a Sanskrit [i] word for a song or a hymn. ... 

 or anushtubh .

Contents

See also: Rigvedic deities

The chief gods of the Rigveda are Agni, the sacrificial fire, Indra, a heroic god who is praised for having slain his enemy Vrtra Vritra

In the early Vedic religion [i], Vritra "the enveloper", was an Asura [i] and ... 

, and Soma, the sacred potion, or the plant it is made from. Other prominent gods are Mitra , Varuna  and Ushas Ushas

Ushas, Sanskrit [i] for "dawn [i]", is a Vedic deity [i]. ... 

  and the Ashvins. Also invoked are Savitar, Vishnu Vishnu

Vishnu , is a form of God [i], in Hinduism [i]. ... 

, Rudra, Pushan, Brihaspati Brihaspati

In Hindu mythology [i], Brihaspati is the guru [i] of the Deva [i]s and the chief nemesis of Shukracharya [i] ... 

, Brahmanaspati Brihaspati

In Hindu mythology [i], Brihaspati is the guru [i] of the Deva [i]s and the chief nemesis of Shukracharya [i] ... 

, Dyaus Pita , Prithivi , Surya Surya

In Hinduism [i], Surya is the chief solar deity [i], son of Dyaus Pitar [i].... 

 , Vayu , Apas , Parjanya Parjanya

In Hinduism [i], Parjanya is the Vedic Sanskrit [i] for "rain [i]" or "raincloud". ... 

 , Vac , the Maruts, the Adityas, the Rbhus, the Vishvadevas , many rivers Rigvedic rivers

River [i]s play a prominent part in the hymns of the Rigveda [i], and consequently in early Vedic religion [i] ... 

 , as well as various further minor gods, persons, concepts, phenomena and items. It also contains fragmentary references to possible historical events, notably the struggle between the early Vedic people and their enemies, the Dasa DASA

DASA was the aerospace subsidiary of Daimler-Benz AG [i] from 1989. ... 

.


  • Mandala 1 comprises 191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni, and his name is the first word of the Rigveda. The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra. Hymns 1.154 to 1.156 are addressed to Vishnu Vishnu

    Vishnu , is a form of God [i], in Hinduism [i]. ... 

    .
  • Mandala 2 comprises 43 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. It is chiefly attributed to the Rishi .
  • Mandala 3 comprises 62 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. The verse 3.62.10 has great importance in Hinduism Hinduism

    [i]

... 

 as the Gayatri Mantra Gayatri

Gayatri is the feminine form of gayatra, a Sanskrit [i] word for a song or a hymn. ... 

. Most hymns in this book are attributed to .
  • Mandala 4 consists of 58 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to .
  • Mandala 5 comprises 87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, the Visvadevas , the Maruts, the twin-deity Mitra-Varuna and the Asvins. Two hymns each are dedicated to Ushas Ushas

    Ushas, Sanskrit [i] for "dawn [i]", is a Vedic deity [i]. ... 

      and to Savitar. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the family.
  • Mandala 6 comprises 75 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the family of Angirasas.
  • Mandala 7 comprises 104 hymns, to Agni, Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, the Asvins, Ushas Ushas

    Ushas, Sanskrit [i] for "dawn [i]", is a Vedic deity [i]. ... 

    , Indra-Varuna, Varuna, Vayu , two each to Sarasvati Saraswati

    Saraswati is the first of the three great goddess [i]es of Hinduism [i], the other two being Lakshmi [i] ... 

      and Vishnu Vishnu

    Vishnu , is a form of God [i], in Hinduism [i]. ... 

    , and to others. Most hymns in this book are attributed to .
  • Mandala 8 comprises 103 hymns to different gods. Hymns 8.49 to 8.59 are the apocryphal . Most hymns in this book are attributed to the family.
  • Mandala 9 comprises 114 hymns, entirely devoted to Soma Pavamana, the plant of the sacred potion of the Vedic religion.
  • Mandala 10 comprises 191 hymns, to Agni and other gods. It contains the Nadistuti sukta which is in praise of rivers and is important for the reconstruction of the geography of the Vedic civilization and the Purusha sukta Purusha sukta

    Purusha sukta is hymn 10 [i].90 of the Rigveda [i], dedicated to Purusha [i], the "cosmic man". ... 

     which has significance in Hindu tradition. It also contains the Nasadiya sukta , probably the most celebrated hymns in the west, which deals with creation.

Rishis

Each hymn of the Rigveda is traditionally attributed to a specific rishi, and the "family books" are said to have been composed by one family of rishis each. The main families, listed by the number of verses ascribed to them are:
  • Angirasas: 3619
  • Kanvas: 1315
  • Vasishthas: 1267
  • Vaishvamitras Viswamitra

    Brahmarishi [i] Visvamitra or Vishvamitra is one of the most venerated rishi [i] or sages of ... 

    : 983
  • Atris: 885
  • Bhrgus: 473
  • Kashyapas: 415
  • Grtsamadas: 401
  • Agastyas: 316
  • Bharatas: 170

Translations

The Rigveda was translated into English by Ralph T.H. Griffith in 1896. Partial English translations by Maurice Bloomfield and William Dwight Whitney exist. Griffith's translation is good, considering its age, but it is no replacement for Geldner's 1951 translation , the only independent scholarly translation so far. The later translations by Elizarenkova depends heavily on Geldner, but Elizarenkova's translation is valuable in taking into account scholarly literature up to 1990.

Hindu tradition


According to Indian tradition, the Rigvedic hymns were collected by Paila under the guidance of Vyasa

Vyasa or Veda Vyasa is an important and much revered figure in the Hindu [i] tradition and its lit ... 

, who formed the Rigveda Samhita as we know it. According to the , the number of syllables in the Rigveda is 432,000, equalling the number of muhurtas in forty years. This statement stresses the underlying philosophy of the Vedic books that there is a connection between the astronomical, the physiological, and the spiritual.

The authors of the  literature described and interpreted the Rigvedic ritual. Yaska was an early commentator of the Rigveda. In the 14th century 14th century

As a means of recording the passage of time [i], the 14th century was that century [i] which lasted from ... 

,  wrote an exhaustive commentary on it. Other s that have been preserved up to present times are those by ,  and .

Dating and historical reconstruction



The Rigveda is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text. For this reason, it was in the center of attention of western scholarship from the times of Max Müller Max Müller

Friedrich Max Mller, more commonly known as Max Mller, was a German [i] philologist [i] ... 

. The Rigveda records an early stage of Vedic religion, still closely tied to the pre-Zoroastrian Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet Zoroaster [i] ... 

 Persian Persian people

The Persians are an Iranian people [i] who speak the Persian language [i] and share a co ... 

 religion. It is thought that Zoroastrianism and Vedic Hinduism evolved from an earlier common religious Indo-Iranian Indo-Iranians

Indo-Iranian peoples consist of the Indo-Aryan [i], Iranian [i], Dardic [i] ... 

 culture.

The Rigveda's core is accepted to date to the late Bronze Age Bronze Age

... 

, making it the only example of Bronze Age literature with an unbroken tradition. Its composition is usually dated to roughly between 1700–1100 BC. Although this is hard to confirm as much of the Rig Veda was transmitted orally over its history. Archaeoastronomical evidence from the Rig Veda itself suggests an origin of at least a millenium before that. The text in the following centuries underwent pronunciation revisions and standardization . This redaction would have been completed in about the 7th century BC.
Writing appears in India in ca. the 5th century BC in the form of the Brahmi Brahmi

refers to the pre-modern members of the Brahmic family [i] of scripts. ... 

 script, but texts of the length of the Rigveda were likely not written down before the Early Middle Ages, in the Gupta or Siddham  scripts, and while written manuscripts were used for teaching in medieval times, they played a minor role in the preservation of knowledge because of their ephemereal nature until the advent of the printing press in British India British Raj

The British Raj refers to the British rule of the Indian subcontinent [i], or present-day India [i], Bangladesh [i] ... 

. The hymns were thus preserved by oral tradition for up to a millennium from the time of their composition until the redaction of the Rigveda, and the entire Rigveda was preserved in shakha Shakha

Shakha, literally "branch" or "limb", is the Sanskrit [i] term for a recension or version of Vedic [i] ... 

s for another 2,500 years from the time of its redaction until the editio princeps by Müller, a collective feat of memorization unparalleled in any other known society.

Puranic literature names Vidagdha as the author of the Pada-text. Other scholars argue that Sthavira Sak of the Aitareya Aranyaka is the padakara of the RV. After their composition, the texts were preserved and codified by a vast body of Vedic priesthood as the central philosophy of the Iron Age Vedic civilization.

The Rigveda describes a mobile, nomad Nomad

Communities of nomadic people move from place to place, rather than settling down [i] in one loc ... 

ic culture, with horse-drawn chariot Chariot

A chariot is a two-wheel [i]ed, horse [i]-drawn vehicle [i]. ... 

s and metal weapons. According to some scholars the geography described is consistent with that of the Punjab Punjab region

[Image:Punjab 1909.jpg|thumb|350px|Punjab Province, 1909]] [i]
... 

 : Rivers Rigvedic rivers

River [i]s play a prominent part in the hymns of the Rigveda [i], and consequently in early Vedic religion [i] ... 

 flow north to south, the mountains are relatively remote but still reachable . Nevertheless, the hymns were certainly composed over a long period, with the oldest elements possibly reaching back before the split of Proto-Indo-Iranian, or the early 4th millennium BC.
Thus there is some debate over whether the boasts of the destruction of stone forts by the Vedic Aryans and particularly by Indra refer to cities of the Indus Valley civilization Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilisation was an ancient civilisation [i] thriving along the Indus River [i] and th ... 

 or whether they hark back to clashes between the early Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans

The Indo-Aryans are a wide collection of peoples united by their common status as the ethno-linguistic d... 

 with the Indo-Iranians Indo-Iranians

Indo-Iranian peoples consist of the Indo-Aryan [i], Iranian [i], Dardic [i] ... 

 during the split of their culture in c. 3000 BCE, in what is now northern Afghanistan Afghanistan

Afghanistan ; Persian [i]: ?????? ?????? ?????????, Pashto [i]:' ... 

 and southern Turkmenistan Turkmenistan

Turkmenistan is a country in Central Asia [i]. ... 

 . In any case, while it is highly likely that the bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the Punjab, even if based on earlier poetic traditions, there is no mention of either tiger Tiger

Tigers are mammal [i]s of the Felidae [i] family and one of four "big cat [i]s" in the Panthera [i]... 

s or rice Rice

Rice refers to two species of grass [i], native to tropical and subtropical southern & southeas ... 

 in the Rigveda , suggesting that Vedic culture only penetrated into the plains of India after its completion. Similarly, it is assumed that there is no mention of iron Iron

Iron is a chemical element [i] with the symbol Fe and atomic number [i] 26. ... 

 although the term ayas occurs in the Rig Veda. The Iron Age in northern India begins in the 12th century BC with the Black and Red Ware culture. This is a widely accepted timeframe for the beginning codification of the Rigveda , and the composition of the younger Vedas. This time probably coincides with the early Kuru kingdom, shifting the center of Vedic culture east from the Punjab into what is now Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh , also popularly known by its abbreviation U.P., means the 'northern province'.... 

.

Some of the names of gods and goddesses found in the Rigveda are found amongst other belief systems based on Proto-Indo-European religion Proto-Indo-European religion

The existence of similarities among the deities [i] and religious practices [i] of the Indo-European [i] ... 

 as well: Dyaus-Pita is cognate with Greek Zeus Zeus

In Greek mythology [i], Zeus is the highest ranking god [i] among the Olympian gods [i] ... 

, Latin Latin

Latin is an ancient Indo-European language [i] originally spoken in Latium [i], ... 

 Jupiter Jupiter

Jupiter is the fifth planet [i] from the Sun [i] and the largest [i] within the solar system [i] ... 

 , and Germanic Germanic languages

The Germanic languages are a group of related languages constituting a branch of the Indo-European language family [i] ... 

 Tyr Tyr

Tyr is the god of single combat and heroic glory in Norse mythology [i], portrayed as a one-handed man. ... 

; while Mitra is cognate with Persian Persian language

[i] , [[Afghanistan]... 

 Mithra; also, Ushas with Greek Eos Eos

Eos was, in Greek mythology [i], the Titan [i] goddess [i] of the dawn, who rose from her home a ... 

 and Latin Aurora; and, less certainly, Varuna with Greek Uranos Uranus (mythology)

Uranus is the Latinized [i] form of Ouranos , the Greek [i] word for sky [i]. ... 

. Finally, Agni is cognate with Latin ignis and Russian ogon, both meaning "fire".

Some writers have traced astronomical references Archaeoastronomy

Archaeoastronomy is the study of ancient or traditional astronomies [i] in their cultural cont ... 

in the Rigveda dating it to as early as 4000 BC, a date well within the Indian Neolithic. Claims of such evidence remain controversial. but are a key factor in the development of the Proto-Vedic Continuity Out of India theory

Out of India Theory is the argument that the Indo-European languages [i] originated in India [i] ... 

 theory.

Kazanas in a polemic against the "Aryan Invasion Theory" suggests a date as early as 3100 BC, based on an identification of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati River as the Ghaggar-Hakra and on glottochronological arguments. Being a polemic against mainstream scholarship, this is in diametral opposition to views in mainstream historical linguistics, and supports the controversial Out of India theory Out of India theory

Out of India Theory is the argument that the Indo-European languages [i] originated in India [i] ... 

, which assumes a date as late as 3000 BC for the age of late Proto-Indo-European itself.

Flora and Fauna in the Rigveda


The horse Horse

The horse is a large odd-toed ungulate [i] mammal [i], one of ten modern species of the genus Equus [i]... 

  and cattle Cattle

Cattle are domesticated [i] ungulate [i]s, a member of the subfamily [i] Bovinae [i] of t ... 

 play an important role in the Rigveda. There are also references to the elephant Elephant

Elephantidae is a family [i] of pachyderm [i], and the only remaining family in th... 

 , Camel Camel

Camel refers to either of the two species of Camelid [i]. ... 

 , Buffalo , lion Lion

The lion is a mammal [i] of the family Felidae [i] and one of four "big cat [i]s" in the genus [i] Panthera [i] ... 

  and to the Gaur Gaur

The Gaur is a large, dark-coated ox [i] of the hilly areas of South Asia [i] and Southeast Asia [i], whi ... 

 in the Rigveda. The peafowl Peafowl

The term peafowl can refer to any of three species [i] of bird [i] in the genera [i] Pavo' ... 

  and the Chakravaka are birds mentioned in the Rigveda.

More recent Indian views

The Hindu perception of the Rigveda has moved away from the original ritualistic content to a more symbolic or mystical interpretation. For example, instances of animal sacrifice Animal sacrifice

Animal sacrifice [i] is the ritual [i] killing of an animal [i] as part of a religion [i].... 

 are not seen as literal slaughtering but as transcendental processes. The Rigvedic view is seen to consider the universe to be infinite in size, dividing knowledge into two categories: lower and higher . Swami Dayananda, who started the Arya Samaj and Sri Aurobindo Sri Aurobindo

Sri Aurobindo was an India [i]n nationalist, scholar, poet, mystic [i], evolutionary [i] philosopher [i] ... 

 have emphasized a spiritual interpretation of the book.

The Sarasvati river, lauded in RV 7.95 as the greatest river flowing from the mountain to the sea is sometimes equated with the Ghaggar-Hakra river, which went dry perhaps before 2600 BC or certainly before 1900 BC. Others argue that the Sarasvati was originally the Helmand in Afghanistan Afghanistan

Afghanistan ; Persian [i]: ?????? ?????? ?????????, Pashto [i]:' ... 

. These questions are tied to the debate about the Indo-Aryan migration Indo-Aryan migration

"Indo-Aryan migration" refers to the theory that speakers of Indo-Aryan languages [i] migrated into the ... 

  vs. the claim that Vedic culture together with Vedic Sanskrit originated in the Indus Valley Civilisation Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilisation was an ancient civilisation [i] thriving along the Indus River [i] and th ... 

 , a topic of great significance in Hindu nationalism, addressed for example by Amal Kiran and Shrikant G. Talageri. Subhash Kak has claimed that there is an astronomical code in the organization of the hymns. Bal Gangadhar Tilak Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Ba? Ga?gadhar ?i?ak , was an Indian nationalist [i], social reformer and freedom fighter [i] ... 

, also based on astronomical alignments in the Rigveda, in his "The Orion" claimed presence of the Rigvedic culture in India in the 4th millennium BC, and in his "Arctic Home in the Vedas" even argued that the Aryans originated near the North Pole and came south during the Ice Age Ice age

An ice age is a period of long-term downturn in the temperature [i] of Earth [i]'s climate [i], resultin ... 

.

Notes


Editions

  • Friedrich Max Müller, The Hymns of the Rigveda, with Sayana's commentary, London, 1849-75, 6 vols., 2nd ed. 4 vols., Oxford, 1890-92.
  • Theodor Aufrecht, 2nd ed., Bonn, 1877.
  • V. K. Rajawade et. al., Rgveda-samhita with the commentary of Sayanacarya, Pune, 1933-46, 5 vols. Reprint 1983.
  • B. van Nooten und G. Holland, Rig Veda, a metrically restored text, Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England, 1994.

Translations

  • Latin: F. Rosen, Rigvedae specimen, London, 1830
  • French: A. Langlois, Paris 1948-51 ISBN 2-7200-1029-4
  • English: Ralph T.H. Griffith, Hymns of the Rig Veda
  • German: Karl Friedrich Geldner, Der Rig-Veda: Aus dem Sanskrit ins Deutsche übersetzt Harvard Oriental Studies, vols. 33, 34, 35 , reprint Harvard University Press ISBN 0-674-01226-7
  • Russian: Tatyana Ya. Elizarenkova, Nauka Nauka

    Nauka is a Russia [i]n publisher [i] of academic books and journals.... 

    , Moscow 1989-1999.

Bibliography

Commentary
  • Sayana , ed. Müller 1849-75
  • Sri Aurobindo Sri Aurobindo

    Sri Aurobindo was an India [i]n nationalist, scholar, poet, mystic [i], evolutionary [i] philosopher [i] ... 

    : Hymns of the Mystic Fire , Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin ISBN 0-914955-22-5


Philology
  • Thomas Oberlies, Die Religion des Rgveda, Wien 1998.
  • Oldenberg, Hermann: Hymnen des Rigveda. 1. Teil: Metrische und textgeschichtliche Prolegomena. Berlin 1888; Wiesbaden 1982.
  • Die Religion des Veda. Berlin 1894; Stuttgart 1917; Stuttgart 1927; Darmstadt 1977
  • Vedic Hymns, The sacred books of the East vo,l. 46 ed. Friedrich Max Müller, Oxford 1897


Historical
  • Frawley David: The Rig Veda and the History of India, 2001., ISBN 81-7742-039-9
  • N. Kazanas, Philosophy and Chronology, ed. G C Pande & D Krishna, special issue of Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research
  • Lal, B.B. 2005. The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology, New Delhi, Aryan Books International.
  • Talageri, Shrikant: , 2000. ISBN 81-7742-010-0


Archaeoastronomy
  • Kak, Subhash: The Astronomical Code of the Rigveda, Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 2000, ISBN 81-215-0986-6.
  • Tilak, Bal Gangadhar Bal Gangadhar Tilak

    Ba? Ga?gadhar ?i?ak , was an Indian nationalist [i], social reformer and freedom fighter [i] ... 

    : The Orion, 1893.

External links

Text



Other links
  • Sri Aurobindo Kapali Sastry Institute