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Sushruta Samhita
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The Sushruta Samhita is a Sanskrit text on surgery, attributed to Sushruta, (6th century BCE), the "father of Surgery". The original manuscript has not survived, and only "copies of copies and revisions of revisions" exist. The Bower Manuscript holds some of the most important information related to the early Ayurvedic documents.
The text as preserved dates to the 3rd or 4th century CE. Amongst the eight divisions of medical knowledge, surgery was considered the most important branch.
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The Sushruta Samhita is a Sanskrit text on surgery, attributed to Sushruta, (6th century BCE), the "father of Surgery". The original manuscript has not survived, and only "copies of copies and revisions of revisions" exist. The Bower Manuscript holds some of the most important information related to the early Ayurvedic documents.
The text as preserved dates to the 3rd or 4th century CE. Amongst the eight divisions of medical knowledge, surgery was considered the most important branch. The text was translated into Arabic in the 8th century. However, Richard Salomon states that the earliest confirmed specimens of India's earliest written script, the Brahmi script, are rock-cut inscriptions called the Edicts of Ashoka and are dated to the 3rd century BC; any excavated evidence for writing in India that may predate these Edicts (such as graffiti on pottery shards from Sri Lanka that may date to the 4th century BC) are controversial and their dating ambiguous.
Kalpas
The ancient thoughts on medicine and surgery were perhaps confined to texts called Kalpas, small monographs. Early Indian medical literature was full of such monographs or handbooks. Agnivesa gave shape to such knowledge by gathering, pruning, enlarging and emphasising important aspects into text-books of medicine as early as 1200 B.C. The ancient Indian medical practitioners were divided into two classes: the Salya-chikitsakas (surgeons) and the Kaya-chikitsakas (physicians). Surgery had not yet been incorporated into the encyclopaedic tradition as represented by the Agnivesatantra. It was through the efforts of Sushruta that surgery achieved a leading position in general medical training.
Sushruta Samhita is the translation of what he learnt at the feet of his preceptor Divodasa Dhanvantari. We have seen that along with Sushruta, Aupadhenava, Vaitarana and others too had their instruction from Divodasa and each in his turn prepared a treatise on Salyatantra. The present Samhita itself reveals that there existed many such works on surgery and the one belonging to Aupadhenava, Aurabhra, Pauskalavata and Sushruta were the source books for the rest of the treatises. Amongst these compositions, only the Sushrutasamhita is extant, and apart from the redactions by Nagarjuna, Candrata and the commentators, it has remained the only treatise for two of the eight branches of Ayurveda, namely Salya and Salakya.
After attaining such great heights in the remote past, surgery was subsequently neglected; abandonment of cadaver dissection and relegation of the manual work to inferior artisans gradually deprived those who studied the work of Sushruta of practical knowledge. Thus while internal medicine advanced with time, surgery declined and was finally reduced to mere theory, except for some traditional families practicing it.
Contents
The Sushrutasamhita is in two parts, the Purva-tantra in five sections and the Uttara-tantra. Those two parts together encompass, apart from Salya and Salakya, the other specialities like medicine, pediatrics, geriatrics, diseases of the ear, nose, throat and eye, toxicology, aphrodisiacs and psychiatry. Thus the whole Samhita, devoted as it is to the science of surgery, does not fail to include the salient portions of other disciplines too. In fact, Sushruta emphasises in his text that unless one possesses enough knowledge of relevant sister branches of learning, one cannot attain proficiency in one's own subject of study. The Samhita is thus an encyclopaedia of medical learning with special emphasis on Salya and Salakya. Sutra-sthana, Nidana-sthana, Sarira-sthana, Kalpa-sthana and Chikitsa-sthana are the five books of the Purvatantra containing one hundred and twenty chapters. Incidentally, the Agnivesatantra known better as the Charaksamhita and the Astangahrdaya of Vagbhata also contain one hundred and twenty chapters in all. The Nidana-sthana gives the student the knowledge of aetiology, signs and symptoms of important surgical diseases and those ailments, which have a bearing on surgery. The rudiments of embryology and anatomy of human body along with instructions for venesection (cutting of veins), the positioning of the patient for each vein, and protection of vital structures (marma) are dealt with in the Sarira-sthana. This also includes the essentials of obstetrics. Principles of management of surgical conditions including obstetrical emergencies are contained in the Chikitsa-sthana, which also includes a few chapters on geriatrics and aphrodisiacs. The Kalpa-sthana is mainly Visa-tantra, dealing with the nature of poisons and their management. Thus the Purva-tantra embraces four branches of Ayurveda. The Uttara-tantra, contains the remaining four specialities, namely Salakya, Kaumarabhrtya, Kayacikitsa and Bhutavidya. The entire Uttara-tantra has been called Aupadravika since many of the complications of surgical procedures like fever, dysentery, cough, hiccough, krmi-roga, pandu, kamala, etc., are briefly described here. The Salakya-tantra portion of the Uttara-tantra contains various diseases of the eye, the ear, the nose and the head. Thus the whole Samhita is one comprehensive treatise on the entire medical discipline.
It is generally agreed that this Samhita in the present shape is the outcome of the efforts of not one person but of several. Sushruta, the son of Visvamitra and student of Divodasa Dhanvantari, the king of Kasi, should have been the first author of this Samhita as a whole or of the portion short of Uttara-tantra. A certain Vrddha Sushruta or Sushruta the elder is also mentioned by some commentators of this Samhita. Dalhana says that the Pratisamskarta or redactor of this Sushruta-samhita was Nagarjuna. Who this Nagarujuna was is not clear, although renowned published author and Ayurvedic physician Dr. Vasant Lad claims it is the Buddhist Monk Bhikshu Nagarjuna, the Abbot of Nalanda University. There had been many Nagarjunas in the past.
On the whole, the entire Samhita is a complete work on medicine with special attention to Salya and Salakya tantras. The succinct and sombre style and the overall superiority of the Sushrutasamhita led to the extinction of other treatises which preceded this compilation or were contemporary. As a text-book, it is unrivalled in respect of composite teaching of the subject of surgery with reference to all allied branches of medical learning required by a surgeon. It is a forerunner of Vagbhata's Astanga-sangraha.
Sushruta ordains that anyone who wants to attain surgical skill should study anatomy by practical observation of the various structures composing the body. The study of anatomy is dealt with in the Sarirasthana of the Sushrutasamhita. He proposed first to deal with embryology and then anatomy of human body which is an extension of the embryo. He further deals with obstetrics and embryology together. After this, the Samhita describes the sequential development of the structures of the foetus. For this study of anatomy, Sushruta advocates dissection of dead body.
Perhaps we could evaluate the status of surgery during any period by the type of instruments in vogue during that period. Sushruta gives a list of blunt and sharp instruments and adds that a surgeon, by his own experience and intelligence, may invent and add new instruments to facilitate the surgical procedures. He points out that the hand is the most important and the best instrument but for which the operation of other instruments ceases. The blunt instruments are meant for removal of foreign bodies, for sucking the fluids, for facilitating the various surgical procedures and for visualising the lesions. The double-armed axile instruments, which have two moving limbs to hold and pull any object are called svastika-yantras and they resemble the various types of forceps. Sushruta's classification and description became the basis for the development of instruments. In fact he can be said to have been the first person to introduce the diagnostic instruments and their principles, which were modified later with the introduction of optical system in their construction. Fourteen types of bandaging capable of covering almost all the regions of the body are described for the practice of the student on dummies. Some important procedures, which preceded actual surgery, as cauterisation by Ksaras (alkaline substances) or Agni and application of leeches were being practised extensively. Thermal cauterisation for therapeutic purposes has been advocated by heating various substances and applying them at the desired sites. This type of practice seems to be quite old and is used in the Himalayan Medicine system also and is known as Tau-Dam. Sushruta has covered the accidental burns in its four degrees, the effect of heat-stroke, sun-stroke and frost-bite due to excessive cold and also the effect of lightning which he calls vidyut-dagdha. This classification underlines his view that all thermogenic trauma, whether due to extreme cold or heat, either wet or dry, chemical or inert fluid, produces damage almost similar and hence has to be managed as one entity. The great value of Sushruta's classification could be realised from the fact that this concept gained validity in modern surgery only recently after 1950 and is now uniformly accepted in the classification and management of these injuries.
Sushruta has pointed out that haemorrhage can be arrested by apposition of the cut edges with stitches, application of styptic decoctions, by cauterisation with chemicals or heat. That the progress of surgery and its development is closely associated with the great wars of the past is well known. The vrana or injury, says Sushruta, involves breakdown of body-components and may have one or more of the following seats for occurrence, viz., skin, flesh, blood-vessels, sinews, bones, joints, internal organs of chest and abdomen and vital structures. Classically vrana, the wound, is the ultimate explosion of the underlying pathological structure. It is, in Sushruta's words, the sixth stage of a continuous process, which starts with sotha (inflammation). Sushruta says that in the first stage, the ulcer is unclean and hence called a dusta-vrana. By proper management it becomes a clean wound, a suddha-vrana. Then there is an attempt at healing and is called ruhyamana-vrana and when the ulcer is completely healed, it is a rudha-vrana. Sushruta has advocated the use of wine with incense of cannabis for anaesthesia. Although the use of henbane and of Sammohini and Sanjivani are reported at a later period, Sushruta was the pioneer of anaesthesia.
Sushruta describes eight types of surgical procedures: Excision (chedana) is a procedure whereby a part or whole of the limb is cut off from the parent. Incision (bhedana) is made to achieve effective drainage or exposure of underlying structures to let the content out. Scraping (lekhana) or scooping is carried out to remove a growth or flesh of an ulcer, tartar of teeth, etc. the veins, hydrocele and ascitic fluid in the abdomen are drained by puncturing with special instrument (vyadhana). The sinuses and cavities with foreign bodies are probed (esana) for establishing their size, site, number, shape, position, situation, etc. Sravana (blood-letting) is to be carried out in skin diseases, vidradhis, localised swelling, etc. in case of accidental injuries and in intentional incisions, the lips of the wound are apposed and united by stitching (svana).
To obtain proficiency and acquiring skill and speed in these different types of surgical manipulations, Sushruta had devised various experimental modules for trying each procedure. For example, incision and excision are to be practised on vegetables and leather bags filled with mud of different densities; scraping on hairy skin of animals; puncturing on the vein of dead animals and lotus stalks; probing on moth-eaten wood or bamboo; scarification on wooden planks smeared with beeswax, etc. On the subject of trauma, Sushruta speaks of six varieties of accidental injuries encompassing almost all parts of the body.
Sushruta also gives classification of the bones and their reaction to injuries. varieties of dislocation of joints (sandhimukta) and fractures of the shaft (kanda-bhagna) are given systematically. He classifies and gives the details of the six types of dislocations and twelve varieties of fractures. He gives the principles of fracture treatment, viz., traction, manipulation, appositions and stabilisation. Sushruta has described the entire orthopaedic surgery, including some measures of rehabilitation, in his work.
As war was a major cause of injury, the name Salya-tantra for this branch of medical learning is derived from Salya, the arrow of the enemy, which in fights used to be lodged in the body of the soldiers. He emphasises that removal of foreign bodies is fraught with certain complications if the seat of the Salya be a marma.
Sushruta also discusses certain surgical conditions of ano-rectal region, he has given all the methods of management of both haemorrhoids and fistulae. Different types of incision to remove the fistulous tract as langalaka, ardhalangalaka, sarvabhadra, candraadha (curved) and kharjurapatraka (serrated) are described for adoption according to the type of fistula.
Sushruta was well aware of the urinary stones, their varieties; the anatomy of urinary bladder along with its relations is well recorded in the chapter on urinary stones. Varieties of stones, their signs and symptoms, the method of extraction and operative complication are given in detail. Apart from the above, surgery of intestinal obstruction (baddha-gudodara), perforated intestines (chidrodara), accidental injuries to abdomen (assaya-bhinna) in which protrusion of omentum occurs are also described along with their management.
Sushruta also says benefits of walk in these word:
yatu chakramanam natidehapidakaram bhavet!
tadayurbalamedhagnipradmindriyabodhanam!!
Plastic Surgery
Sushruta lays down the basic principles of plastic surgery by advocating a proper physiotherapy before the operation and describes various methods or different types of defects, viz., (1) release of the skin for covering small defects, (2) rotation of the flaps to make up for the partial loss and (3) pedicle flaps for covering complete loss of skin from an area. He has mentioned various methods including sliding graft, rotation graft and pedicle graft. Nasal repair or rhinoplasty has been described in greater detail, which to this day has stood the test of time and is mentioned as the Indian method of rhinoplasty in the books of plastic surgery. Lastly, labioplasty too has received his attention. In short, all the principles of plastic surgery, viz., accuracy, precision, economy, haemostasis and perfection find an important place in Sushruta's writings on this subject.
Surgical science – Salyantantra – embraces all processes aiming at the removal of factors responsible for producing pain or misery to the body or mind. Health is, according to Sushruta, a state of physical and mental well-being brought about and preserved by the maintenance of humours, good nutrition, proper elimination of waste products and a pleasant harmony of the body and the mind.
Sushruta warns that improper intervention with surgical manoeuvre due either to ignorance of the progress of the disease-process, greed for money or lack of judgement, lead only to complications. A conscientious surgeon, on the other hand, considers his patient as a whole. For diseases divorced from patients are abstractions from reality. Any surgical manoeuvre is a phased programme planned well and then executed. The pascatkarman included the rehabilitation and removal of complications.
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