Hippocrates of Cos or
Hippokrates of Kos (
ca. 460 BC –
ca. 370 BC) -
GreekAncient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning across the Archaic , Classical , and Hellenistic periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek...
: ; Hippokrátēs was an
ancient GreekAncient Greece is the civilisation belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca. 1100 BC and the Dorian invasion, to 146 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. It is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the...
physicianA physician — also known as medical practitioner, doctor of medicine, medical doctor, or simply doctor — practices the ancient profession of medicine, which is concerned with maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease or injury...
of the
Age of PericlesThe Golden Age is the term used to denote the historical period in Ancient Greece lasting roughly from the end of the Persian Wars in 448 BC to either the death of Pericles 429 BCE or the end of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BCE...
, and was considered one of the most outstanding figures in the
history of medicineAll human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, death, and disease. Throughout history, illness has been attributed to witchcraft, demons, adverse astral influence, or the will of the gods...
. He is referred to as the "father of medicine" in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic School of medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized
medicine in ancient GreeceThe first known Greek medical school opened in Cnidus in 700 BC. Alcmaeon, author of the first anatomical work, worked at this school, and it was here that the practice of observing patients was established. Hippocrates established his own medical school at Cos...
, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with (notably
theurgyTheurgy describes the practice of rituals, sometimes seen as magical in nature, performed with the intention of invoking the action or presence of one or more gods, especially with the goal of uniting with the divine, achieving henosis, and perfecting oneself.See also...
and
philosophyPhilosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing these questions by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on reasoned...
), thus making medicine a profession.
However, the achievements of the writers of the
CorpusThe Hippocratic Corpus , Hippocratic Collection, or Hippocratic Canon, is a collection of around seventy early medical works from ancient Greece strongly associated with the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates and his teachings. They are, however, varied in content, age and style, and are largely...
, the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine, and the actions of Hippocrates himself are often commingled; thus very little is known about what Hippocrates actually thought, wrote, and did. Nevertheless, Hippocrates is commonly portrayed as the paragon of the ancient physician. In particular, he is credited with greatly advancing the systematic study of
clinical medicineClinical Medicine, formerly The Journal of the Royal College of Physicians, is a medical journal published bimonthly by the Royal College of Physicians in London. Originally titled Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London it commenced publication in 1966...
, summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing practices for physicians through the
Hippocratic OathThe Hippocratic Oath is an oath traditionally taken by doctors swearing to ethically practice medicine. It is widely believed to have been written by Hippocrates, the father of western medicine, in Ionic Greek , or by one of his students, and is usually included in the Hippocratic Corpus...
and other works.
Biography
Historians accept that Hippocrates was born around the year 460 BC on the
GreekGreece , officially the Hellenic Republic , is a country in southeastern Europe, situated on the southern end of the Balkan Peninsula....
island of
KosKos or Cos is a Greek island in the south Sporades group of the Dodecanese, next to the Gulf of Gökova/Cos. It measures by , and is from the coast of Bodrum, Turkey and the ancient region of Caria. The island has both fertile plains and mountainous highlands with a population of 30,947...
(Cos), and became a famous physician and teacher of medicine. Other biographical information, however, is likely to be untrue (
see Legends).
Soranus of Ephesus, a 2nd-century Greek gynecologist, was Hippocrates' first biographer and is the source of most information on Hippocrates' person. Information about Hippocrates can also be found in the writings of
AristotleAristotle was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology.Together with Plato and Socrates , Aristotle is one of...
, which date from the 4th century BC, in the
SudaThe Suda or Souda is a massive 10th century historical encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean world, formerly wrongfully attributed to an author called Suidas. The text belongs to the Byzantine Empire and was written in Greek...
of the 10th century AD, and in the works of
John TzetzesJohn Tzetzes , was a Byzantine poet and grammarian, known to have lived at Constantinople during the 12th century.Tzetzes was Georgian on his mother's side...
, which date from the 12th century AD.
Soranus wrote that Hippocrates' father was Heraclides, a physician; his mother was Praxitela, daughter of Tizane. The two sons of Hippocrates,
ThessalusThessalus, , a physician from ancient Greece, and the son of Hippocrates, the famous physician. He was the brother of Draco, and father of Gorgias, Hippocrates III, and Draco II. He lived in the 5th and 4th centuries BC and passed some of his time at the court of Archelaus I of Macedon,...
and
DracoDraco was the name of several physicians in the family of Hippocrates.*Draco I. Lived 5th to 4th centuries BC, was the son of Hippocrates, the famous physician . He was the the brother of Thessalus. Galen tells us that some of the writings of Hippocrates was attributed to his son Draco.*Draco II...
, and his son-in-law, Polybus, were his students. According to
GalenAelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus , better known as Galen of Pergamum , was a prominent Greek physician and philosopher and probably the most accomplished medical researcher of the Roman period. His theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for well over a millennium...
, a later physician, Polybus was Hippocrates' true successor, while Thessalus and Draco each had a son named
HippocratesHippocrates was the name of several physicians in the time of Ancient Greece, some of whom were in the same family as the celebrated Hippocrates of Cos ....
.
Soranus said that Hippocrates learned medicine from his father and grandfather, and studied other subjects with
DemocritusDemocritus was an Ancient Greek philosopher born in Abdera in the north of Greece. He was the most prolific, and ultimately the most influential, of the pre-Socratic philosophers; his atomic theory may be regarded as the culmination of early Greek thought.His exact contributions are difficult to...
and
GorgiasGorgias "the Nihilist", Greek sophist, pre-socratic philosopher and rhetorician, was a native of Leontini in Sicily. Along with Protagoras, he forms the first generation of Sophists. Several doxographers report that he was a pupil of Empedocles, although he would only have been a few years younger...
. Hippocrates was probably trained at the
asklepieionIn ancient Greece and Rome, an asclepeion was a healing temple, sacred to the god Asclepius....
of
KosKos or Cos is a Greek island in the south Sporades group of the Dodecanese, next to the Gulf of Gökova/Cos. It measures by , and is from the coast of Bodrum, Turkey and the ancient region of Caria. The island has both fertile plains and mountainous highlands with a population of 30,947...
, and took lessons from the
ThracianThrace is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. As a geographical concept, Thrace designates a region bounded on the north by the Balkan Mountains, on the south by the Rhodope Mountains and the Aegean Sea and on the east by the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara...
physician
Herodicus of SelymbriaHerodicus was a Greek physician of the fifth century BC, and a native of Selymbria. The first use of therapeutic exercise for the treatment of disease and maintenance of health is credited to him, and he is believed to have been one of the tutors of Hippocrates...
. The only contemporaneous mention of Hippocrates is in
PlatoPlato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world...
's dialogue
ProtagorasProtagoras is a dialogue of Plato. The main argument is between the elderly Protagoras, a celebrated sophist, and Socrates. The discussion takes place at the home of Callias, who is host to Protagoras while he is in town, and concerns a familiar theme in the dialogues: the teachability of virtue...
, where Plato describes Hippocrates as "Hippocrates of Kos, the
AsclepiadFor other uses, see AsclepiadIt is uncertain as to who an Asclepiad was. Some theories hold that they were priests of an Asclepion in ancient Greece. The Asclepiadae could also have been a guild in honour of Asclepius, the Greek god of healing, separate from the healing temples and closely related...
". Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine throughout his life, traveling at least as far as
ThessalyThessaly is one of the 13 peripheries of Greece, and is further sub-divided into 4 prefectures. The capital of the periphery and traditional geographical region is Larissa. Together with the regions of Macedonia and Thrace, it is often referred to unofficially as Northern Greece...
,
ThraceThrace is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. As a geographical concept, Thrace designates a region bounded on the north by the Balkan Mountains, on the south by the Rhodope Mountains and the Aegean Sea and on the east by the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara...
, and the
Sea of MarmaraThe Sea of Marmara , also known as the Sea of Marmora or the Marmara Sea, and in the context of classical antiquity as Propontis , is the inland sea that connects the Black Sea to the Aegean Sea, thus separating Turkey's Asian and European parts. The Bosporus strait connects it to the Black Sea and...
. He probably died in
LarissaLarissa is a city and the capital of the Thessaly periphery of Greece, and capital of the Larissa Prefecture. It is a principal agricultural centre and a national transportation hub, linked by rail with the port of Volos and with Thessaloniki and Athens...
at the age of 83 or 90, though some accounts say he lived to be well over 100; several different accounts of his death exist.
Hippocratic theory
Hippocrates is credited with being the first physician to reject superstitions, legends and beliefs that credited supernatural or divine forces with causing illness. Hippocrates was credited by the disciples of
PythagorasPythagoras of Samos was an Ionian Greek philosopher and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. He is often revered as a great mathematician, mystic and scientist; however some have questioned the scope of his contributions to mathematics and natural philosophy...
of allying philosophy and medicine. He separated the discipline of medicine from religion, believing and arguing that disease was not a punishment inflicted by the gods but rather the product of environmental factors, diet, and living habits. Indeed there is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. However, Hippocrates did work with many convictions that were based on what is now known to be incorrect
anatomyAnatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy and plant anatomy...
and
physiologyPhysiology is the science of the functioning of living systems. It is a subcategory of biology...
, such as
HumorismHumorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers...
.
Ancient Greek schools of medicine were split (into the Knidian and Koan) on how to deal with disease. The
KnidianKnidos or Cnidus was an ancient Greek city of Caria, part of the Dorian Hexapolis. It was situated on the Datça peninsula, which forms the southern side of the Sinus Ceramicus or Gulf of Gökova. By the fourth century BCE, Knidos was located at the site of modern Tekir, opposite Triopion Island...
school of medicine focused on diagnosis. Medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost nothing of human anatomy and physiology because of the Greek
tabooA taboo is a strong social prohibition relating to any area of human activity or social custom that is sacred and forbidden. Breaking the taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent by society. The term comes from the Tongan language, and appears in many Polynesian cultures...
forbidding the dissection of humans. The Knidian school consequently failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms. The Hippocratic school or
KoanKos or Cos is a Greek island in the south Sporades group of the Dodecanese, next to the Gulf of Gökova/Cos. It measures by , and is from the coast of Bodrum, Turkey and the ancient region of Caria. The island has both fertile plains and mountainous highlands with a population of 30,947...
school achieved greater success by applying general
diagnosesIn medicine, diagnosis is a label given for a medical condition or disease identified by its signs, symptoms, and from the results of various diagnostic procedures...
and passive treatments. Its focus was on patient care and
prognosisPrognosis is a medical term to describe the likely outcome of an illness. When applied to large populations, prognostic estimates can be very accurate: for example the statement "45% of patients with severe septic shock will die within 28 days" can be made with some confidence, because previous...
, not
diagnosisIn medicine, diagnosis is a label given for a medical condition or disease identified by its signs, symptoms, and from the results of various diagnostic procedures...
. It could effectively treat diseases and allowed for a great development in clinical practice.
Hippocratic medicine and its philosophy are far removed from that of modern medicine. Now, the physician focuses on specific diagnosis and specialized treatment, both of which were espoused by the Knidian school. This shift in medical thought since Hippocrates' day has caused serious criticism over the past two millennia, with the passivity of Hippocratic treatment being the subject of particularly strong denunciations; for example, the
FrenchFrench people can refer to:* The legal residents and citizens of France, regardless of ancestry. For a legal discussion, see French nationality law.* People whose ancestors lived in France or the area that later became France....
doctor M. S. Houdart called the Hippocratic treatment a "meditation upon death".
Humorism and crisis
The Hippocratic school held that all illness was the result of an imbalance in the body of the
four humoursFour Temperaments is a theory of psychology that stems from the ancient medical concept of humorism, or "humours" in UK English.- History and development :Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient four humors theory...
, fluids which in health were naturally equal in proportion (
pepsis). When the four humours,
bloodBlood is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells — such as nutrients and oxygen — and transports waste products away from those same cells....
, black bile, yellow bile and
phlegmPhlegm is a sticky fluid secreted by the mucous membranes of humans and other animals. Its definition is limited to the mucus produced by the respiratory system, excluding that from the nasal passages, and particularly that which is expelled by coughing...
, were not in balance (
dyscrasia, meaning "bad mixture"), a person would become sick and remain that way until the balance was somehow restored. Hippocratic therapy was directed towards restoring this balance. For instance, using
citrusCitrus is a common term and genus of flowering plants in the family Rutaceae, originating in tropical and subtropical southeast regions of the world. The most well known examples are the orange, the lemon, the grapefruit, and the lime. The Latin word citrus was borrowed from ancient Greek kedros...
was thought to be beneficial when phlegm was overabundant.
Another important concept in Hippocratic medicine was that of a
crisis, a point in the progression of disease at which either the illness would begin to triumph and the patient would succumb to death, or the opposite would occur and natural processes would make the patient recover. After a crisis, a relapse might follow, and then another deciding crisis. According to this doctrine, crises tend to occur on
critical days, which were supposed to be a fixed time after the contraction of a disease. If a crisis occurred on a day far from a
critical day, a relapse might be expected. Galen believed that this idea originated with Hippocrates, though it is possible that it predated him.
Hippocratic medicine was humble and passive. The therapeutic approach was based on "the healing power of nature" ("
vis medicatrix naturaeVis medicatrix naturae is the Latin translation of the Greek, νονσων φνσεις ιητροι, a phrase attributed to Hippocrates but which he did not actually use...
" in
LatinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Roman conquest, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe...
). According to this doctrine, the body contains within itself the power to re-balance the four humours and heal itself (
physis). Hippocratic therapy focused on simply easing this natural process. To this end, Hippocrates believed "rest and immobilization [were] of capital importance". In general, the Hippocratic medicine was very kind to the patient; treatment was gentle, and emphasized keeping the patient clean and sterile. For example, only clean water or wine were ever used on wounds, though "dry" treatment was preferable. Soothing
balmBalm can refer to:*Liniment, a topical medical preparation*Melissa , a plant genus, particularly the species commonly known as Lemon balm*Balm of Gilead, a medicinal resin from the North American species Populus candicans...
s were sometimes employed.
Hippocrates was reluctant to administer drugs and engage in specialized treatment that might prove to be wrongly chosen; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis. Potent drugs were, however, used on certain occasions. This passive approach was very successful in treating relatively simple ailments such as broken bones which required
tractionIn orthopedic medicine, traction refers to the set of mechanisms for straightening broken bones or relieving pressure on the skeletal system.There are two types of traction: skin traction and skeletal traction....
to stretch the skeletal system and relieve pressure on the injured area. The
Hippocratic benchThe Hypocratic bench or scamnum was a device invented by Hippocrates which used tension to aid in setting bones. It is a forerunner of the traction devices used in modern orthopedics, as well as of the rack, an instrument of torture.The patient would lie on a bench, at an adjustable angle, and...
and other devices were used to this end.
One of the strengths of Hippocratic medicine was its emphasis on
prognosisPrognosis is a medical term to describe the likely outcome of an illness. When applied to large populations, prognostic estimates can be very accurate: for example the statement "45% of patients with severe septic shock will die within 28 days" can be made with some confidence, because previous...
. At Hippocrates' time, medicinal therapy was quite immature, and often the best thing that physicians could do was to evaluate an illness and induce its likely progression based upon data collected in detailed case histories.
Professionalism
Hippocratic medicine was notable for its strict professionalism, discipline and rigorous practice. The Hippocratic work
On the Physician recommends that physicians always be well-kempt, honest, calm, understanding, and serious. The Hippocratic physician paid careful attention to all aspects of his practice: he followed detailed specifications for, "lighting, personnel, instruments, positioning of the patient, and techniques of bandaging and splinting" in the ancient operating room. He even kept his fingernails to a precise length.
The Hippocratic School gave importance to the clinical doctrines of observation and documentation. These doctrines dictate that physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods in a very clear and objective manner, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians. Hippocrates made careful, regular note of many symptoms including complexion, pulse, fever, pains, movement, and excretions. He is said to have measured a patient's pulse when taking a case history to know if the patient lied. Hippocrates extended clinical observations into family history and environment. "To him medicine owes the art of clinical inspection and observation". For this reason, he may more properly be termed as the "Father of
Clinical Medicine".
Direct contributions to medicine
Hippocrates and his followers were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. He is given credit for the first description of
clubbingIn medicine, clubbing is a deformity of the fingers and fingernails that is associated with a number of diseases, mostly of the heart and lungs. Idiopathic clubbing can also occur...
of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic suppurative lung disease,
lung cancerLung cancer is a disease of uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung. This growth may lead to metastasis, which is the invasion of adjacent tissue and infiltration beyond the lungs. The vast majority of primary lung cancers are carcinomas of the lung, derived from epithelial cells...
and
cyanotic heart diseaseA cyanotic heart defect is a group-type of congenital heart defects . The patient appears blue , due to deoxygenated blood bypassing the lungs and entering the systemic circulation...
. For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers". Hippocrates was also the first physician to describe
Hippocratic faceThe Hippocratic face is the change produced in the face by impending death, or long sickness, excessive evacuations, excessive hunger, and the like....
in
Prognosis. Shakespeare famously alludes to this description when writing of
FalstaffSir John Falstaff is a fictional character who appears in three plays by William Shakespeare as a companion to Prince Hal, the future King Henry V...
's death in Act II, Scene iii. of
Henry VHenry V is a history play by William Shakespeare, written in 1599. It is based on the life of King Henry V of England, and focuses on events immediately before and after the Battle of Agincourt during the Hundred Years' War....
.
Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as acute,
chronicIn medicine, a chronic disease is a disease that is long-lasting or recurrent. The term chronic describes the course of the disease, or its rate of onset and development. A chronic course is distinguished from a recurrent course; recurrent diseases relapse repeatedly, with periods of remission in...
,
endemicIn epidemiology, an infection is said to be endemic in a population when that infection is maintained in the population without the need for external inputs. For example, chickenpox is endemic in the UK, but malaria is not...
and
epidemicDefining an epidemic can be subjective, depending in part on what is "expected". An epidemic may be restricted to one locale , more general or even global...
, and use terms such as, "exacerbation,
relapseA relapse occurs when a person is affected again by a condition that affected them in the past. This could be a medical or psychological condition such as depression, an eating disorder, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, multiple sclerosis, cancer or an addiction to a drug.For example, if someone...
, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and
convalescenceConvalescence is the gradual recovery of health and strength after illness. It refers to the later stage of an infectious disease or illness when the patient recovers and returns to normal, but may continue to be a source of infection even if feeling better...
." Another of Hippocrates' major contributions may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical treatment and prognosis of
thoracic empyemaPleural empyema is an accumulation of pus in the pleural cavity. Most pleural empyemas arise from an infection within the lung , often associated with parapneumonic effusions. There are three stages: exudative, fibrinopurulent and organizing. In the exudative stage, the pus accumulates...
, i.e. suppuration of the lining of the chest cavity. His teachings remain relevant to present-day students of
pulmonary medicineIn medicine, pulmonology is the specialty that deals with diseases of the lungs and the respiratory tract. It is called chest medicine and respiratory medicine in some countries and areas...
and surgery. Hippocrates was the first documented
chest surgeonCardiothoracic surgery is the field of medicine involved in surgical treatment of diseases affecting organs inside the thorax . Generally treatment of conditions of the heart and lungs .-Cardiac / Thoracic:...
and his findings are still valid.
The Hippocratic school of medicine described well the ailments of the human
rectumThe rectum is the final straight portion of the large intestine in some mammals, and the gut in others, terminating in the anus. The human rectum is about 12 cm long...
and the treatment thereof, despite the school's poor theory of medicine. Hemorrhoids, for instance, though believed to be caused by an excess of bile and phlegm, were treated by Hippocratic physicians in relatively advanced ways. Cautery and
excisionExcision means "to remove by cutting".* In surgery, an excision is the complete removal of an organ, tissue, or tumor from a body, as opposed to a biopsy. An "excisional biopsy" is the removal of a tumor with a minimum of healthy tissue...
are described in the Hippocratic Corpus, in addition to the preferred methods:
ligatingIn surgery or medical procedure, a ligature consists of a piece of thread tied around an anatomical structure, usually a blood vessel or an other hollow structure to shut it off...
the hemorrhoids and drying them with a hot iron. Other treatments such as applying various salves are suggested as well. Today, "treatment [for hemorrhoids] still includes burning, strangling, and excising". Also, some of the fundamental concepts of
proctoscopyProctoscopy is a common medical procedure in which an instrument called a proctoscope is used to examine the anal cavity, rectum or sigmoid colon. A proctoscope is a short , straight, rigid, hollow metal tube, and usually has a small light bulb mounted at the end...
outlined in the Corpus are still in use. For example, the uses of the rectal
speculumThe term speculum, Latin for "mirror," may refer to:* Speculum , a medical tool used for examining body cavities* Speculum , a journal of medieval studies published by the Medieval Academy of America...
, a common medical device, are discussed in the Hippocratic Corpus. This constitutes the earliest recorded reference to
endoscopyEndoscopy means looking inside and typically refers to looking inside the body for medical reasons using an instrument called an endoscope...
.
Hippocratic Corpus
The Hippocratic Corpus (Latin:
Corpus Hippocraticum) is a collection of around seventy early medical works from ancient Greece, written in Ionic Greek. The question of whether Hippocrates himself was the author of the corpus has not been conclusively answered, but the volumes were probably produced by his students and followers. Because of the variety of subjects, writing styles and apparent date of construction, scholars believe Hippocratic Corpus could not have been written by one person (Ermerins numbers the authors at nineteen). The corpus was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity, and its teaching generally followed principles of his; thus it came to be known by his name. It might be the remains of a library of Kos, or a collection compiled in the 3rd century BC in
AlexandriaAlexandria , with a population of 4.1 million, is the second-largest city in Egypt, and is the country's largest seaport, serving about 80% of Egypt's imports and exports...
.
The Hippocratic Corpus contains textbooks, lectures, research, notes and philosophical essays on various subjects in medicine, in no particular order. These works were written for different audiences, both specialists and laymen, and were sometimes written from opposing view points; significant contradictions can be found between works in the Corpus. Notable among the treatises of the Corpus are
The Hippocratic OathThe Hippocratic Oath is an oath traditionally taken by doctors swearing to ethically practice medicine. It is widely believed to have been written by Hippocrates, the father of western medicine, in Ionic Greek , or by one of his students, and is usually included in the Hippocratic Corpus...
;
The Book of Prognostics;
On Regimen in Acute Diseases;
Aphorisms;
On Airs, Waters and Places;
Instruments of Reduction;
On The Sacred Disease; etc.
Hippocratic Oath
The
Hippocratic OathThe Hippocratic Oath is an oath traditionally taken by doctors swearing to ethically practice medicine. It is widely believed to have been written by Hippocrates, the father of western medicine, in Ionic Greek , or by one of his students, and is usually included in the Hippocratic Corpus...
, a seminal document on the
ethicsEthics is a branch of philosophy which seeks to address questions about morality, such as what the fundamental semantic, ontological, and epistemic nature of ethics or morality is , how moral values should be determined , how a moral outcome can be achieved in specific situations , how moral...
of medical practice, was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity although new information shows it may have been written after his death. This is probably the most famous document of the Hippocratic Corpus. Recently the authenticity of the documents author has come under scrutiny. While the Oath is rarely used in its original form today, it serves as a foundation for other, similar
oathAn oath is either a promise or a statement of fact calling upon something or someone that the oath maker considers sacred, usually God, as a witness to the binding nature of the promise or the truth of the statement of fact...
s and laws that define good medical practice and morals. Such derivatives are regularly taken today by medical graduates about to enter medical practice.
Legacy
Hippocrates is widely considered to be the "Father of Medicine". His contributions revolutionized the practice of medicine; but after his death the advancement stalled. So revered was Hippocrates that his teachings were largely taken as too great to be improved upon and no significant advancements of his methods were made for a long time. The centuries after Hippocrates' death were marked as much by retrograde movement as by further advancement. For instance, "after the Hippocratic period, the practice of taking clinical case-histories died out...", according to
Fielding GarrisonColonel Fielding Hudson Garrison, MD was an acclaimed medical historian, bibliographer, and librarian of medicine. Garrison's An Introduction to the History of Medicine is a landmark text in this field....
.
After Hippocrates, the next significant physician was
GalenAelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus , better known as Galen of Pergamum , was a prominent Greek physician and philosopher and probably the most accomplished medical researcher of the Roman period. His theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for well over a millennium...
, a
GreekAncient Greece is the civilisation belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca. 1100 BC and the Dorian invasion, to 146 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. It is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the...
who lived from 129 to 200 AD. Galen perpetuated Hippocratic medicine, moving both forward and backward. In the
Middle AgesThe Middle Ages of European history is a period of European history covering roughly a millennium in the 5th century through 16th centuries. More specific starting and ending points are sometimes adopted by scholars to suit their respective specializations or current focus...
,
ArabArab people or Arabs are an ethnic group whose members identify along linguistic, cultural or genealogical grounds...
s adopted Hippocratic methods. After the European Renaissance, Hippocratic methods were revived in Europe and even further expanded in the 19th century. Notable among those who employed Hippocrates' rigorous clinical techniques were
SydenhamThomas Sydenham , was an English physician. He was born at Wynford Eagle in Dorset, where his father was a gentleman of property. His brother was Colonel William Sydenham. Thomas fought for the Parliament throughout the English Civil War, and, at its end, resumed his medical studies at Oxford...
,
HeberdenWilliam Heberden , English physician, was born in London.At the end of 1724 he was sent to St John's College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship, around 1730, became master of arts in 1732, and took the degree of MD in 1739. He remained at Cambridge nearly ten years longer practising...
,
CharcotJean-Martin Charcot was a French neurologist and professor of anatomical pathology. He is known as "the founder of modern neurology" and is "associated with at least 15 medical eponyms", including Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis .His work greatly influenced the...
and
OslerSir William Osler, M.D.,C.M., 1st Baronet was a Canadian physician.He has been called one of the greatest icons of modern medicine and described as the Father of Modern Medicine...
.
Henri HuchardHenri Huchard was a French neurologist and cardiologist born in Auxon, Aube.He studied medicine at the University of Paris, later being appointed médecin des hôpitaux. During his career he was associated with the Bichat and Necker hospitals in Paris...
, a French physician, said that these revivals make up "the whole history of internal medicine".
Image
According to
AristotleAristotle was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology.Together with Plato and Socrates , Aristotle is one of...
's testimony, Hippocrates was known as "the Great Hippocrates". Concerning his disposition, Hippocrates was first portrayed as a "kind, dignified, old country doctor'" and later as "stern and forbidding". He is certainly considered wise, of very great intellect and especially as very practical.
Francis AdamsFrancis Adams was a Scottish medical doctor and translator of Greek medical works.Adams had a practice in Banchory, Kincardineshire, from 1819 to 1861...
describes him as "strictly the physician of experience and common sense".
His image as the wise, old doctor is reinforced by busts of him, which wear large beards on a wrinkled face. Many physicians of the time wore their hair in the style of
JoveIn Roman mythology, Jupiter or Jove was the king of the gods, and the god of sky and thunder. He is the equivalent of Zeus in the Greek pantheon. He was called Iuppiter Optimus Maximus ; as the patron deity of the Roman state, he ruled over laws and social order...
and Asklepius. Accordingly, the busts of Hippocrates that we have could be only altered versions of portraits of these deities. Hippocrates and the beliefs that he embodied are considered medical ideals. Fielding Garrison, an authority on medical history, stated, "He is, above all, the exemplar of that flexible, critical, well-poised attitude of mind, ever on the lookout for sources of error, which is the very essence of the scientific spirit". "His figure... stands for all time as that of the ideal physician”, according to
A Short History of Medicine, inspiring the medical profession since his death.
Legends
Most stories of Hippocrates' life are likely to be untrue because of their inconsistency with historical evidence, and because similar or identical stories are told of other figures such as
Avicenna, known as Abū Alī Sīnā or Ibn Sīnā , and commonly known in English by his Latinized name Avicenna , was a Persian polymath and the foremost physician and philosopher of his time...
and
Socrates Socrates was a Classical Greek philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known only through the classical accounts of his students...
, suggesting a legendary origin. Even during his life, Hippocrates' renown was great, and stories of miraculous cures arose. For example, Hippocrates was supposed to have aided in the healing of Athenians during the
Plague of AthensThe Plague of Athens was a devastating epidemic which hit the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece during the second year of the Peloponnesian War , when an Athenian victory still seemed within reach. It is believed to have entered Athens through Piraeus, the city's port and sole source of food...
by lighting great fires as "disinfectants" and engaging in other treatments. There is a story of Hippocrates curing
PerdiccasPerdiccas II was King of Macedonia from about 454 BC to about 413 BC.He was the son of Alexander I.-Background:After the death of Alexander in 452, Macedon began to fall apart. Macedonian tribes became almost completely autonomous, and were only loosely allied to the king...
, a
MacedonMacedonia or Macedon was an ancient kingdom, centered in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, bordered by Epirus to the west, Paionia to the north, the region of Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south...
ian king, of "
love sicknessLove sickness is a non-medical term used to describe mental and physical symptoms associated with falling in love.Historically, love sickness has been viewed as a short-lived mental illness brought on by the intense changes associated with love. Universally acknowledged polymath Avicenna, a...
". Neither of these accounts is corroborated by any historians and they are thus unlikely to have ever occurred.
Another legend concerns how Hippocrates rejected a formal request to visit the court of
ArtaxerxesArtaxerxes may refer to:The throne name of several Achaemenid rulers of the 1st Persian Empire:* Artaxerxes I of Persia, Artaxerxes I Longimanus, r. 465–424 BC, son and successor of Xerxes I...
, the King of Persia. The validity of this is accepted by ancient sources but denied by some modern ones, and is thus under contention. Another tale states that
DemocritusDemocritus was an Ancient Greek philosopher born in Abdera in the north of Greece. He was the most prolific, and ultimately the most influential, of the pre-Socratic philosophers; his atomic theory may be regarded as the culmination of early Greek thought.His exact contributions are difficult to...
was supposed to be mad because he laughed at everything, and so he was sent to Hippocrates to be cured. Hippocrates diagnosed him as having a merely happy disposition. Democritus has since been called "the laughing philosopher".
Not all stories of Hippocrates portrayed him in a positive manner. In one legend, Hippocrates is said to have fled after setting fire to a
healing templeSleep temples are regarded by some as an early instance of hypnosis over 4000 years ago, under the influence of Imhotep. Imhotep served as Chancellor, and High Priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis...
in Greece. Soranus of Ephesus, the source of this story, names the temple as the one of
KnidosKnidos or Cnidus was an ancient Greek city of Caria, part of the Dorian Hexapolis. It was situated on the Datça peninsula, which forms the southern side of the Sinus Ceramicus or Gulf of Gökova. By the fourth century BCE, Knidos was located at the site of modern Tekir, opposite Triopion Island...
. However centuries later, the
ByzantineThe word Byzantine may refer to:Topics directly related to the Byzantine Empire* A citizen of The Byzantine Empire, or native Greek during the Middle Ages...
Greek grammarian
John TzetzesJohn Tzetzes , was a Byzantine poet and grammarian, known to have lived at Constantinople during the 12th century.Tzetzes was Georgian on his mother's side...
, writes that Hippocrates burned down his own temple, the Temple of Cos, speculating that he did it to maintain a
monopolyIn economics, a monopoly exists when a specific individual or an enterprise has sufficient control over a particular product or service to determine significantly the terms on which other individuals shall have access to it...
of medical knowledge. This account is very much in conflict with traditional estimations of Hippocrates' personality. Other legends tell of his
resurrectionThe resurrection of dead humans is a central doctrine of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It may refer either to the resurrection of particular individuals, or a general resurrection of humanity....
of
AugustusGaius Julius Caesar Augustus was the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.
[These are the contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian after 45 BC...]
's nephew; this feat was supposedly created by the erection of a statue of Hippocrates and the establishment of a professorship in his honor in Rome.
Genealogy
Hippocrates' legendary genealogy traces his paternal heritage directly to Asklepius and his maternal ancestry to
HeraclesIn Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles , Alcides or Alcaeus , was a divine hero, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, foster son of Amphitryon and great-grandson of Perseus...
. According to Tzetzes's
ChiliadesThe Chiliades is a work of the 12th century by John Tzetzes, a Byzantine grammarian.The Chiliades is based upon a collection of Letters , which has been called an index to the larger work, itself described as a versified commentary on the letters...
, the
ahnentafelAn Ahnentafel or Ahnenreihe is a genealogical numbering system that allows one to list a person's ancestors in a particular order...
of Hippocrates II is:
1.
Hippocrates II. “The Father of Medicine”
2. Heraclides
4. Hippocrates I.
8. Gnosidicus
16. Nebrus
32. Sostratus III.
64. Theodorus II.
128. Sostratus, II.
256. Thedorus
512. Cleomyttades
1024. Crisamis
2048. Dardanus
4096. Sostatus
8192. Hippolochus
16384. Podalirius
32768. Asklepius
Namesakes
Some clinical symptoms and signs have been named after Hippocrates as he is believed to be the first person to describe those.
Hippocratic faceThe Hippocratic face is the change produced in the face by impending death, or long sickness, excessive evacuations, excessive hunger, and the like....
is the change produced in the countenance by death, or long sickness, excessive evacuations, excessive hunger, and the like.
ClubbingIn medicine, clubbing is a deformity of the fingers and fingernails that is associated with a number of diseases, mostly of the heart and lungs. Idiopathic clubbing can also occur...
, a deformity of the fingers and fingernails, is also known as Hippocratic fingers. Hippocratic succussion is the internal splashing noise of
hydropneumothoraxHydropneumothorax implies presence of both air and fluid in the pleural space . An erect chest xray will show air fluid level.The horizontal fluid level is usually well defined and extends across the whole length of hemithorax.- Causes :* Iatrogenic: Introduction of air during pleural fluid...
or pyopneumothorax.
Hippocratic benchThe Hypocratic bench or scamnum was a device invented by Hippocrates which used tension to aid in setting bones. It is a forerunner of the traction devices used in modern orthopedics, as well as of the rack, an instrument of torture.The patient would lie on a bench, at an adjustable angle, and...
(a device which uses tension to aid in setting bones) and Hippocratic cap-shaped bandage are two devices named after Hippocrates.
Hippocratic CorpusThe Hippocratic Corpus , Hippocratic Collection, or Hippocratic Canon, is a collection of around seventy early medical works from ancient Greece strongly associated with the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates and his teachings. They are, however, varied in content, age and style, and are largely...
and
Hippocratic OathThe Hippocratic Oath is an oath traditionally taken by doctors swearing to ethically practice medicine. It is widely believed to have been written by Hippocrates, the father of western medicine, in Ionic Greek , or by one of his students, and is usually included in the Hippocratic Corpus...
are also his namesakes. The drink
hypocrasHippocras , sometimes spelled hipocras or hypocras, is a drink made from wine, mixed with spices, most notably cinnamon, and possibly heated. Its invention was traditionally attributed to the Greek physician Hippocrates , whose name would have been given to the concoction...
is also believed to be invented by Hippocrates.
Risus sardonicusRisus sardonicus is a highly characteristic, abnormal, sustained spasm of the facial muscles that appears to produce grinning.The name of the condition derives from the appearance of raised eyebrows and an open "grin" - which can appear malevolent to the lay observer - displayed by those suffering...
, a sustained spasming of the face muscles may also be termed the Hippocratic Smile.
In the modern age, a lunar crater has been named
HippocratesHippocrates is a lunar crater on the far side of the Moon. It is located in the northern region of the lunar surface, to the north of the crater Stebbins. To the southwest of Hippocrates are Kirkwood and the large Sommerfeld....
. The
Hippocratic MuseumThe Hippocratic Museum is a museum, on the Greek island of Kos, dedicated to the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates who was believed to have been born there....
, a
museumA museum is a building or institution which houses a collection of artifacts.Museums collect and care for objects of scientific, artistic, or historical importance and make them available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary...
on the Greek island of Kos is dedicated to him.
The Hippocrates ProjectThe Hippocrates Project is a program of the New York University Medical Center which works with modern technologies to "enhance the learning process"...
is a program of the
New York UniversityNew York University is a private, nonsectarian, research university in New York City. NYU's main campus is situated in the Greenwich Village section of Manhattan...
Medical Center to enhance education through use of technology.
Project HippocratesProject Hippocrates is an effort of the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science and Shadyside Medical Center, "to develop advanced planning, simulation, and execution technologies for the next generation of computer-assisted surgical robots."...
(an acronym of "
HIgh
Perf
Ormance
Computing for
Robot-
Assis
TEd
Surgery") is an effort of the
Carnegie Mellon School of Computer ScienceThe School of Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA is a leading private school for computer science....
and Shadyside Medical Center, "to develop advanced planning, simulation, and execution technologies for the next generation of computer-assisted surgical robots." Both the
Canadian Hippocratic Registry and American Hippocratic Registry are organizations of physicians who uphold the principles of the original Hippocratic Oath as inviolable through changing social times.
Further reading
- Wesley D. Smith. Hippocrates. Free full-text article from Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Last accessed 19 Sep. 2008.....
- Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was an author, naturalist, and natural philosopher as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
, Natural History: Book XXIX., translated by John BostockJohn Bostock MD FRS was a physician, scientist and geologist from Liverpool. After graduating in Medicine at the University of Edinburgh and practising medicine in Liverpool, he moved to London in 1817 where he concentrated on general science. In 1819, Bostock was first to accurately describe hay...
. See original text in Perseus program.