Encyclopedia
Jordan , officially the
Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan , is an
Arab country in the
Middle East. It is bordered by
Syria to the north,
Iraq to the north-east,
Saudi Arabia to the east and south, and
Israel and the
Palestinian Territories to the west. It shares with
Israel and the
Palestinian Territories the coastlines of the
Dead Sea, and the
Gulf of Aqaba with
Israel,
Saudi Arabia, and
Egypt.
History
Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
At the end of WWI, with the break up of the
Ottoman Empire, the
League of Nations created French Mandate Syria and British Mandate Palestine. 80% of the Mandate was East of the Jordan river, or "Transjordan." In 1921, the British gave semi-autonomous control of Transjordan to the Hashemite family, who had lost their civil war for control of Mecca and Medina.
The Hashemites continued to rule Transjordan until after WWII. In 1946, the British requested from the UN an end to British Mandate rule in Transjordan Palestine. When the request was approved by the UN, the Parliament proclaimed King Abdullah the first ruler of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. It is one of only two countries that is named after a family, the other being Saudi Arabia, named after the family Saud, the winners in the civil war against the Hashemites.
In 1950, Transjordan annexed the
West Bank, which it had conquered in the Arab League's war against Israel in 1948. The annexation was recognised only by the United Kingdom.
Following the formation of the
United Arab Republic by
Egypt and
Syria, and the
Iraqi Revolution in 1958, the Hashemite kingdom was threatened, its trade routes and Iraqi oil supply cut. In consequence, Jordan had to request aid from the
USA and
United Kingdom, which prevented escalations between Jordan and the UAR.
In the year 1965 there was an exchange of territories between
Saudi Arabia and Jordan. Jordan gave up a relatively large area of inland desert in return for a small piece of sea-shore near Aqaba.
Jordan signed a mutual defense pact in May 1967 with Egypt, and it participated in the June 1967 war against
Israel along with
Syria, Egypt, and
Iraq. During the war, Jordan lost its control of the
West Bank and all of
Jerusalem. In 1988, Jordan renounced all claims to the West Bank but retained an administrative role pending a final settlement, and its 1994 treaty with Israel allowed for a continuing Jordanian role in Muslim and Christian holy places in Jerusalem. The international community as represented in the
United Nations considers the West Bank to be territory occupied by Israel and believes that its final status should be determined through direct negotiations among the parties concerned on the basis of UN Security Council Resolution 242 and UN Security Council Resolution 338.
Refugees and Black September
The 1967 war led to a dramatic increase in the number of Palestinians, especially from the West Bank, living in Jordan. Its Palestinian refugee population – 700,000 in 1966 – grew by another 300,000 from the West Bank. The period following the 1967 war saw an upsurge in the power and importance of Palestinian resistance elements in Jordan. The heavily armed
fedayeen constituted a growing threat to the sovereignty and security of the Hashemite state, and open fighting erupted in June 1970. The battle in which Palestinian fighters from various
Palestinian Liberation Organization groups were expelled from Jordan is commonly known as Black September, and this was from Palestinians point of view.
Other Arab governments attempted to work out a peaceful solution, but by September, continuing
fedayeen actions in Jordan – including the destruction of three international airliners hijacked by the
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine and held in the desert east of
Amman – prompted the government to take action to regain control over its territory and population. In the ensuing heavy fighting, a Syrian tank force invaded northern Jordan to support the
fedayeen but subsequently retreated. It is said by some people, such as
Ahmad Jubreel, that King
Hussein has asked the help from Israel, then Israel threatened that it will invade Jordan if Syria internvenes. By 22 September, Arab foreign ministers meeting at Cairo had arranged a cease-fire beginning the following day. Sporadic violence continued, however, until Jordanian forces led by
Habis Al-Majali and with the help of the Iraqi forces won a decisive victory over the
fedayeen in July 1971, expelling them from the country.
At the Rabat summit conference in 1974, Jordan agreed, along with the rest of the
Arab League, that the PLO was the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people", thereby relinquishing to that organization its role as representative of the West Bank Palestinians.
Post Black September and Peace Treaty
No fighting occurred along the 1967 Jordan River cease-fire line during the October 1973 Arab-Israeli war, but Jordan sent a brigade to Syria to fight Israeli units on Syrian territory. Jordan did not participate in the
Gulf War of 1990-91. In 1991, Jordan agreed, along with Syria,
Lebanon, and
Palestinian representatives, to participate in direct peace negotiations with Israel at the Madrid Conference, sponsored by the U.S. and
Russia. It negotiated an end to hostilities with Israel and signed a declaration to that effect on July 25, 1994 . As a result, an Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty was concluded on October 26, 1994. Following the outbreak of Israeli-Palestinian fighting in September 2000, the Jordanian government offered its good offices to both parties. Jordan has since sought to remain at peace with all of its neighbors.
Modern History
On November 9, 2005, Jordan experienced
three simultaneous bombings at hotels in Amman. At least 57 people died and 115 were wounded.
Al-Qaeda in
Iraq, a group led by native Jordanian
Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, claimed responsibility.
On September 4, 2006, 38 year old Nabil Ahmed Issa Jaoura, a welder from the nearby town of al Kadisyeh, took a pistol to a Roman amphitheatre in the capital of Amman and proceeded to shoot at a group of 12 Western tourists. One British man was killed and five others tourists wounded, including a Jordanian tourist security guard. Jaoura came from a family of Palestinian descent.
Politics
Constitution
Jordan is a
constitutional monarchy based on the
constitution promulgated on January 8, 1952. Executive authority is vested in the king and his council of ministers. The king signs and executes all
laws. His veto power may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the National Assembly. He appoints and may dismiss all judges by decree, approves amendments to the constitution, declares
war, and commands the armed forces. Cabinet decisions,
court judgments, and the national currency are issued in his name. The council of ministers, led by a
prime minister, is appointed by the king, who may dismiss other cabinet members at the prime minister's request. The cabinet is responsible to the Chamber of Deputies on matters of general policy and can be forced to resign by a two-thirds vote of "no confidence" by that body.
The constitution provides for three categories of courts – civil, religious, and special. Administratively, Jordan is divided into twelve governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the king. They are the sole authorities for all government departments and development projects in their respective areas.
The Royal Armed Forces and
General Intelligence Department of Jordan are under the control of the king.
Legal System and Legislation
The Legal System of Jordan is based on
Islamic law and
French codes; judicial review of legislative acts in a specially provided High Tribunal; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction.
Legislative power rests in the
bicameral National Assembly. The 110-member Chamber of Deputies, elected by universal suffrage, based on one man one vote, to a 4-year term, is subject to dissolution by the king. Nine seats are reserved for Christians, six for women, and three for Circassians and
Chechens. The 40-member Senate is appointed by the king for an 8-year term.
Kings of Jordan and Political Events
King Abdullah I ruled Jordan after independence from Britain. After the assassination of King Abdullah I in 1951, his son
King Talal ruled briefly. King Talal's major accomplishment was the Jordanian constitution. King Talal was removed from the throne in 1952 due to mental illness. At that time his son,
Hussein, was too young to rule, and hence a committee ruled over Jordan.
After Hussein reached 18, he ruled Jordan as king from 1953 to 1999, surviving a number of challenges to his rule, drawing on the loyalty of his military, and serving as a symbol of unity and stability for both the
East Bank and
Palestinian communities in Jordan. King Hussein ended martial law in 1991 and legalized
political parties in 1992. In 1989 and 1993, Jordan held free and fair
parliamentary elections. Controversial changes in the election law led
Islamist parties to boycott the 1997 elections.
King Abdullah II succeeded his father Hussein following the latter's death in February 1999. Abdullah moved quickly to reaffirm Jordan's peace treaty with
Israel and its relations with the
United States. Abdullah, during the first year in power, refocused the government's agenda on economic reform.
Jordan's continuing structural economic difficulties, burgeoning population, and more open political environment led to the emergence of a variety of political parties. Moving toward greater independence, Jordan's parliament has investigated corruption charges against several regime figures and has become the major forum in which differing political views, including those of political Islamists, are expressed. While King Abdullah remains the ultimate authority in Jordan, the parliament plays an important role.
Administrative Divisions
Administratively, Jordan is divided into 12 governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the king. They are the sole authorities for all government departments and development projects in their respective areas. The
governorates are subdivided into approximately 52 nahias.
The governorates include:
Geography
Jordan is a
Middle Eastern country, bordered by
Syria to the north,
Iraq to the northeast,
Saudi Arabia to the east and south and both
Israel and the
West Bank to the west. All these border lines add up to 1,619 kilometers . The
Gulf of Aqaba and the
Dead Sea also touch the country, and thus Jordan has a coastline of 26 kilometers .
Jordan consists mostly of arid
desert plateau in the east, with Highland area in the west. The
Great Rift Valley of the
Jordan River separates Jordan and Israel. The highest point in the country is Jabal Rum
Major cities include the capital
Amman in the northwest,
Irbid and Az Zarqa, both in the north.
The climate in Jordan is dry and hot, since the country is mainly desert. However, the western part of the country receives greater precipitation during the rainy season from November to April.
Economy
Jordan is a small country with limited natural resources. The country is currently exploring ways to expand its limited water supply and use its existing water resources more efficiently, including through regional cooperation. Jordan also depends on external sources for the majority of its energy requirements. During the 1990s, its crude petroleum needs were met through imports from
Iraq and neighboring countries. Since early 2003, oil has been provided by some
Gulf Cooperation Council member countries. In addition, a natural gas pipeline from
Egypt to the southern port city of
Aqaba was completed in 2003. The government plans to extend this pipeline north to the Amman area and beyond. Since 2000, exports of light manufactured products, principally textiles and garments manufactured in the Qualifying Industrial Zones that enter the United States tariff and quota free, have been driving economic growth. Jordan exported €5.6 million in goods to the U.S. in 1997, when two-way trade was €321 million ; it exported €538 million in 2002 with two-way trade at €855 million . Similar growth in exports to the United States under the bilateral US-Jordan Free Trade Agreement that went into effect in December 2001, to the European Union under the bilateral Association Agreement, and to countries in the region, holds considerable promise for diversifying Jordan's economy away from its traditional reliance on exports of phosphates and potash, overseas remittances, and foreign aid. The government has emphasized the information technology and tourism sectors as other promising growth sectors. The low tax and low regulation Aqaba Special Economic Zone is considered a model of a government-provided framework for private sector-led economic growth.
The Free Trade Agreement with the United States that went into effect in December 2001 will phase out duties on nearly all goods and services by 2010. The agreement also provides for more open markets in communications, construction, finance, health, transportation, and services, as well as strict application of international standards for the protection of intellectual property. In 1996, Jordan and the United States signed a civil aviation agreement that provides for "open skies" between the two countries, and a U.S.-Jordan treaty for the protection and encouragement of bilateral investment entered into force in 2003. Jordan has been a member of the
World Trade Organization since 2000. More information on the FTA is available on .
Textile and
apparel exports from Jordan to the United States shot up 2,000 percent from 2000 to 2005, following introduction of the FTA. According to the National Labor Committee, a U.S.-based NGO, Jordan has experienced sharp increases in
sweatshop conditions in its export-oriented manufacturing sector.
Jordan is classified by the
World Bank as a "lower middle income country." The per capita
GDP was approximately $1,817 for 2003 and 14.5% of the economically active population, on average, was unemployed in 2003. The GDP per Capita in 2005 is at $USD 4,200. Education and literacy rates and measures of social well-being are relatively high compared to other countries with similar incomes. Jordan's population growth rate is high, but has declined in recent years, to approximately 2.8% currently. One of the most important factors in the government’s efforts to improve the well-being of its citizens is the macroeconomic stability that has been achieved since the 1990s. Rates of price inflation are low, at 2.3% in 2003, and the currency has been stable with an exchange rate fixed to the U.S. dollar since 1995.
While pursuing economic reform and increased trade, Jordan's economy will continue to be vulnerable to external shocks and regional unrest. Without calm in the region, economic growth seems destined to stay below potential. On the positive side, however, there is huge potential in the solar energy falling on Jordan's deserts, not only for the generation of pollution-free electricity but also for such spin-offs as desalination of sea water .
Tourism
In Jordan, Tourism is a very important sector of the Jordanian economy. It is the geography of the land as well as the country's political stability - compared to the surrounding
Middle Eastern countries - that has made it the tourist attraction that it is now. Jordan's major tourist activities include visiting the numerous
Ancient places and unspoilt natural locations to observing the cultural and religious sites and traditions. The best known attractions include:
- Ancient Sightseeing
- Petra in Ma'an, the home of Nabateans, is a complete city carved in a mountain. The rocks are colorful, mostly pink, and the entrance to the ancient city is a long, narrow, crack in the mountain - called the Siq. In the city are various structures, all are carved in rock, including the treasury, which is now nominated by the New Seven Wonders organisation to be one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.
- Umm Qais, a town located on the site of the ruined Hellenistic-Roman city of Gadara.
- Ajlun, famous for the Islamic al-Rabadh Castle.
- Jerash, famous for its its ancient Roman architecture, like columns and arches.
- Amman contains the Roman theater, in addition to several museums.
- Al Karak contains an important castle from the times of Salah al-Din, known as Al-Karak Castle.
- Religion-related
- Madaba is probably the center for religion-related tourism in Jordan and contains several important religious objects such as:
- Seaside
- The Dead Sea, for the unusual floating and natural salts that occur excessively. It is the lowest point on earth, 402 meters below sea level, and becomes 1 meter lower each year . It is located near River Jordan.
- Aqaba is a town on the shore of the Gulf of Aqaba with numerous shopping centers, hotels and access to water sports.
- Other Tourist Sites
- Wadi Rum is a desert full of mountains and hills located south of Jordan. It is popular for its wonderful sights in addition to a variety of sports that are practiced there, such as rock-climbing.
- Amman is a very modern city with lots of malls, shopping centers, hotels and an ancient Roman amphitheatre etc.
Influence of the Middle East conflict
The ongoing
Arab-Israeli conflict, the
Gulf War, and other conflicts in the
Middle East have made huge impacts on the economy of Jordan. The fact that Jordan has peace with the surrounding countries, combined with its stability, has made it a preference for many
Palestinians, Lebanese, and people from the
Persian Gulf immigrants and
refugees. Though this may have resulted in a more active economy, it has also damaged it by substantially decreasing the amount of resources each person is entitled to.
Foreign relations
Jordan has consistently followed a pro-Western foreign policy and traditionally has had close relations with the United States and the United Kingdom. These relations were damaged by Jordan's neutrality and maintaining relations with Iraq during the first
Gulf War.
Following the Gulf war, Jordan largely restored its relations with Western countries through its participation in the Middle East peace process and enforcement of UN sanctions against Iraq. Relations between Jordan and the Gulf countries improved substantially after King Hussein's death. Following the fall of the Iraqi regime, Jordan has played a pivotal role in supporting the restoration of stability and security to Iraq. The Government of Jordan signed a memorandum of understanding with the Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq to facilitate the training of up to 30,000 Iraqi police cadets at a Jordanian facility.
Jordan signed a nonbelligerency agreement with Israel in Washington, DC, on 25 July 1994.
King Hussein and
Yitzhak Rabin negotiated this treaty. Jordan and Israel signed a historic peace treaty on 26 October 1994, witnessed by President
Bill Clinton, accompanied by US Secretary,
Warren Christopher. The U.S. has participated with Jordan and Israel in trilateral development discussions in which key issues have been water-sharing and security; cooperation on Jordan Rift Valley development; infrastructure projects; and trade, finance, and banking issues. Jordan also participates in the multilateral peace talks. Jordan belongs to the UN and several of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Trade Organization , the International Meteorological Organization , Food and Agriculture Organization , International Atomic Energy Agency , and World Health Organization . Jordan also is a member of the World Bank, International Monetary Fund , Organization of the Islamic Conference , Nonaligned Movement , and Arab League.
Since the outbreak of the
Al-Aqsa Intifada in September 2000, Jordan has worked hard, in a variety of forums, to maintain lines of communication between the Israelis and the Palestinians to counsel moderation and to return the parties to negotiations of outstanding permanent status issues.
Following the Al-Aqsa Intifada, though, Jordan along with Egypt withdrew its ambassadors from Israel. Following the Sharm-al-Sheik Summit in Egypt on 8 February 2005, both countries announced plans to return ambassadors to the country.
Demographics
With a population of 5,759,732, Jordanians are primarily of indigenous
Levantine Semitic stock, admixed with various other peoples who have through its history come to conquer or settle the area — principally Arabians during the
Islamic expansionism that brought Arab culture, language and the
Muslim faith. But also about 60% of Jordan's population are originally Palestinian Arabs .
Christians form approximately 5% of the population and they have 9% of the seats in the parliament.
The population of Christians in Jordan has been subject to great changes since the
Iraq Conflict, as many Christians from Iraq have settled permanently, or temporally in Jordan. Number of Christians has also fluctuated since Lebanese conflict , although number of Lebanese permanently settling in Jordan has not been established, and is estimated to be very little.
Most of the Christian population belongs to the Greek Orthodox church- . The rest is made up of Roman Catholics- , Eastern Catholics- . Various Protestant communities with Baptists make up the rest.
There is a wide diversity of nationality's of Christians in Jordan. This can be particularly demonstrated with the fact the Catholic mass in Jordan, for example, is celebrated not only in Arabic, but also in English, French, Italian, Spanish, Tagalog and Sinhala, as well as in Iraqi dialects.
Along with the majority of Muslims, followed by Christian there are also a few smaller communities of
Chechens, Circassians, who are Muslims,
Assyrians,
Armenians, and
Kurds, some of which have also adapted to Arab culture.
The official language is
Arabic, but
English is used widely in commerce and government and among educated people. Arabic and English are obligatorily taught at schools . French is the only other language that is taught at some public schools, however, is not a subject included in the Certificate of Secondary Education Exam: very important exam taken at middle, and end of 12th year of school. Usually known as
'Al Tawjeehi'
About 90% of Jordan's population is urban; less than 6% of the rural population is
nomadic 
