Encyclopedia
Indonesia, officially the
Republic of Indonesia , is a nation of islands consisting of 18,110 islands in the
South East Asian Archipelago. The capital is
Jakarta, formerly known as Batavia. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic nation, and it is bordered by the nations of
Papua New Guinea,
East Timor, and
Malaysia. With a population of over 200 million, it is the world's fourth most populous country and most populous
Muslim-majority nation.
The Indonesian archipelago, specifically
Java, was inhabited by
Homo erectus is an extinct species of genus
Homo [i]. ...
-- the Java Man -- about 500,000 years ago, while the island of
Flores was home to what,
as of 2006, may be a newly discovered species of
hominid,
Homo floresiensis is the proposed name for a possible species [i] in the genus [i]
Homo [i] ...
.
The region was an important trade route to
China, thriving in trade of spices. Regional
Hindu kingdoms expanded religious and cultural influences of
Hinduism as well as
Buddhism, and in the Middle Ages, the islands came under the influence of
Islam. The region was colonized by
the Netherlands as the
Dutch East Indies. The people across many islands rebelled in the early 20th century against Dutch control. After a brief occupation by
Imperial Japan during
World War II, nationalists declared independence in 1945, and a united and independent Indonesia was recognized in 1949. It was also recognized by the United Nations in 1950.
Indonesia is a
unitary state, and for most of its post-independence history, was first governed by
Sukarno, leader of the national independence struggle, and then under controversial and authoritarian
Suharto. Democracy was restored following the revolution of 1998. Although the national language is Indonesian and the population is overwhelmingly
Muslim, there are several hundred diverse linguistic and ethnic groups across the country, as well as other religious communities. Although Indonesia's economy is progressive and regionally important, the problems of widespread corruption, poverty, illiteracy, political instability and regional separatism remain major issues hindering national development.
History
Early History and the Spice Trade
The area now comprising the archipelago of Indonesia, specifically Java, was inhabited by
Homo erectus is an extinct species of genus
Homo [i]. ...
approximately 500,000 years ago, while the island of Flores was home to a newly discovered species of
hominid,
Homo floresiensis is the proposed name for a possible species [i] in the genus [i]
Homo [i] ...
until approximately 10,000 years ago. The date of the earliest arrival of
Homo Sapiens into the area was between 40,000 and 100,000 years ago. The earliest historical mention of the area was of the Jawa Dwipa
Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra around 200 BC by
Indian scholars, and various archeological sites show the influence of the Hindu religion in the area from the first century AD to the fifth century AD.
Under the influences of
Hinduism and
Buddhism, several kingdoms formed on the islands of
Sumatra and
Java from the 7th to 14th century. The arrival of Arabs trading in
spices later brought
Islam, which became the dominant religion in many parts of the archipelago after the collapse of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. Like the British, the Dutch mainly relied on indirect rule, using traditional native elites as vassals, while imposing their will and extracting major income under supervision by their colonial officials. After VOC was dissolved in 1799 by the Batavian Republic and the political instability from the
Napoleonic Wars including partial British occupation .
Under British occupation,
Thomas Stamford Raffles was appointed as the lieutenant governor of
Java .
Bogor Botanical Garden was conceived based on his inspiration. He also wrote "History of Java" book. Based on Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824
Bencoolen was exchanged for
Malacca.
Based on Treaty of Paris , The East Indies were awarded to the
United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Since then, the East Indies were officially ruled as the colonies of the Dutch crown.
There were 3 major rebellions against Dutch occupation:
- Java War . The rebels were led by Prince Diponegoro from the kingdom of Mataram, central Java.
- Padri War in West Sumatra. The rebels were led by Tuanku Imam Bonjol.
- Aceh
...
War in Aceh.
Under the 19th-century Cultivation System , large plantations and forced cultivation were established on Java, finally creating the profit for the Netherlands that the VOC had been unable to produce. In a more liberal period of colonial rule after 1870, the Cultivation System was abolished, and after 1901 the Dutch introduced the Ethical Policy, which included limited political reform and increased investment in the colony.
Japanese Occupation, Independence & Sukarno
During
World War II, with the Netherlands under
German occupation,
Japan began a five-prong campaign in December 1941 towards Java and the vital fuel supplies of the
Dutch East Indies. Though Japan captured Java by March 1942, it initially could not find any national leader willing to collaborate with the Japanese government against the Dutch. Eventually the Japanese commander ordered
Sukarno's release from his prison island, and in July 1942, Sukarno arrived in Jakarta. Sukarno and his colleagues weren't collaborating with the Japanese occupiers. In 1945, with the war drawing to a close, Sukarno was made aware of an opportunity to declare independence. In response to lobbying, Japan agreed to allow Sukarno to establish a committee to plan for independence. However, Sukarno and
Mohammad Hatta declared independence unilaterally on August 17 soon after the Japanese lost the war. Following the defeat of Japan in the World War, the Netherlands' Army, at first backed by the
British, attempted to reoccupy their former East Indies colonies. Indonesia's war for independence lasted from 1945 until December 27, 1949 when, under heavy international pressure, especially from the
United States, which threatened to cut off
Marshall Plan funds, the Netherlands acknowledged the independence of Indonesia as a
Federation of autonomous states. This federation soon became a
republic with Sukarno as president and Hatta as vice president.
See Indonesian National Revolution. It was not until August 17 2005 that the Dutch government recognized 1945 as the country's year of independence and expressed regrets over the Indonesian deaths caused by the Netherlands' Army.
The New Order
The 1950s and 1960s saw Sukarno's government aligned first with the emerging
non-aligned movement and later with the
socialist bloc. The 1960s saw Indonesia in a military confrontation against neighbouring
Malaysia, and increasing frustration over domestic economic difficulties. Army general
Suharto became president in 1967 on the pretext of securing the country against an alleged
communist coup attempt against a weakening Sukarno, whose tilt leftward had alarmed both the military and Western powers. In the aftermath of Suharto's rise, hundreds of thousands of people were killed or imprisoned by the military and religious groups in a backlash against alleged communist supporters. Suharto's administration is commonly called the
New Order era. Suharto invited major foreign investment, which produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth. However, Suharto enriched himself and his family through widespread
corruption and was forced to step down amid massive popular demonstrations and a faltering economy by the Indonesian Revolution of 1998. From 1998 to 2005, the country had four presidents:
Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie ,
Abdurrahman Wahid ,
Megawati Sukarnoputri and
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono . On May 21, 1998, President Suharto announced his resignation and ask Indonesian Vice President DR BJ Habibie to become the new Indonesian President.
Reformasi
President BJ Habibie promised a multiparty, free, democratic election in 1999. He encouraged freedom of the press. His presidency was plagued by various bloody conflicts, both long-running ones in
Aceh and
West Papua and new ones in Maluku, Poso , and
Kalimantan. There was a major financial scandal related to his friends and the staff of his political party. On 1999, President BJ Habibie agreed to hold a referendum in
East Timor. The result of the referendum was an overwhelming vote for independence from Indonesia. After the announcement of the result, there was a bloody riot in East Timor by the angry pro-Indonesia militia. The militia burned down houses, shops, schools, churches, government buildings and hundreds of people were killed. The UN sent a peace keeping force to East Timor . The UN Human Rights Commission alleged that several Indonesian government staff and military officers were responsible for the riot. The Indonesian Human Rights Court freed all but one suspect. The only suspect punished for the human rights violation during the riot was Enrico Gutierrez, a former leader of the pro-Indonesia militia.
There was a general election for members of Indonesian parliament MPR and
Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat or People Representative Council in 1999 and 2004. In the same 2004 election, people also voted for members of a new parliament body called
Dewan Perwakilan Daerah or Provinces Representative Council. In 1999, the parliament rejected President Habibie's accountability speech because of the result of the East Timor referendum. President Habibie decided to resign and refused to run for a second term.
The parliament chose
KH Abdulrahman Wahid as the new Indonesian President from 1999 to 2004. KH Abdulrahman Wahid was the leader of the most powerful Indonesian Islamic organization, Nadathul Ulama . Unfortunately, he was plagued by serious health problems after a stroke . The parliament also chose
Megawati Sukarnoputri as the new Indonesian Vice President. In 2001 the same parliament voted "No confidence" after a corruption scandal and a political crisis, forcing President Wahid to resign.
Megawati Sukarnoputri succeeded the former President Wahid as the new Indonesian president from 2001 to 2004. She is the daughter of the first Indonesian President, Ir. Sukarno, and the leader of PDI-P, which was the winner of 1999 election. Indonesia's first direct presidential election was held in 2004, in which
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono defeated Megawati.
Government and politics
Indonesia is a
republic with a
presidential system, and a
unitary state with power concentrated with the national government. The President of Indonesia is directly-elected for five-year terms, and is the
head of state, commander-in-chief of Indonesian armed forces and responsible for domestic governance and policy-making and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who do not have to be elected members of the legislature.
The highest legislative body is the
Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat or 'People's Consultative Assembly', consisting of the
Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat or People's Representative Council, elected for a five-year term, and the
Dewan Perwakilan Daerah or Regional Representatives Council. Following elections in 2004, the MPR became a
bicameral parliament, with the creation of the DPD as its second chamber in an effort to increase regional representation.
During the regime of president Suharto, Indonesia built strong relations with the
United States and had difficult relations with the
People's Republic of China owing to Indonesia's anti-communist policies and domestic tensions with the Chinese community.
It received international condemnation for its annexation of
East Timor in 1978. Indonesia is a founding member of the
Association of South East Asian Nations, and thereby a member of both
ASEAN+3 and the
East Asia Summit. Since the 1980s, Indonesia has worked to develop close political and economic ties between South East Asian nations, and is also influential in the
Organization of Islamic Conference. Indonesia was heavily criticized between 1998 and 1999 for allegedly suppressing human rights in East Timor, and for supporting violence against the East Timorese following the latter's secession and independence in 1999.
Following the loss of
East Timor in 1999, the Indonesian Government has found considerable, but not complete success in managing separatist issues in Aceh and Papua. Under the administration of President Yudhoyono, a cease fire agreement was reached with the
Free Aceh Movement in 2006, and in Papua there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported lessening of violence and human rights abuses In 2006, sensitivities over the Papua issue resulted in the Indonesian Government recalling its ambassador to
Australia following that country's government granting protection visas to 42 Papuan asylum seekers.
After the
2002 Bali bombing, terrorist activities have become increasing significant in Indonesia. The bombing, in which 202 people, including 164 international tourists died, destroyed two nightclubs in
Kuta,
Bali. By looking at the number of international tourist deaths, the terrorist activity has been taken very seriously not only by the Indonesian government, but also international world, including
Australia,
The United States and
The United Kingdom. Since 2001, the government of Indonesia has co-operated with the U.S. in cracking down on Islamic fundamentalism and terrorist groups. Over the next four years there were several other terrorist attacks including the 2003 Marriott Hotel bombing,
2004 Jakarta embassy bombing and
2005 Bali bombing. As a result, a number of countries have issued travel warnings for international tourists and workers.
Administrative divisions
Indonesia currently has 33 provinces, of which three have special status and one is a special capital region. The provinces are subdivided into regencies and cities, which are further subdivided into sub-districts.
The provinces are:
Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam*,
Bali,
Bangka-Belitung,
Banten,
Bengkulu,
Gorontalo,
West Irian Jaya ,
Jakarta*,
Jambi,
West Java ,
Central Java ,
East Java ,
West Kalimantan ,
South Kalimantan ,
East Kalimantan ,
Central Kalimantan ,
Riau Islands ,
Lampung,
Maluku,
North Maluku ,
West Nusa Tenggara ,
East Nusa Tenggara ,
Papua*,
Riau,
West Sulawesi ,
South Sulawesi ,
Central Sulawesi ,
South East Sulawesi ,
North Sulawesi ,
West Sumatra ,
South Sumatra ,
North Sumatra ,
Yogyakarta*.
The provinces which have special status.
The special territories have more autonomy from the central government than other provinces, and so have unique legislative privileges: the Acehnese government has the right to create an independent legal system, and instituted a form of
sharia in 2003; Yogyakarta remains a sultanate whose sultan is the territory's de facto governor for life. Papua has had special status since 2001. The special capital region is
Jakarta. Though Jakarta is a single city, it is administered much as any other Indonesian province. For example, Jakarta has a governor , and is divided into several sub-regions with their own administrative systems.
East Timor was occupied by Indonesia from 1975 following a military invasion, until Indonesia relinquished its claims in 1999 after years of bitter fighting against East Timor
guerrillas and abuses by Indonesian military forces against the East Timorese civilians. Following a period of transitional administration by the UN, it became an independent state in 2002.
Geography
At 1,919,440 kmē , Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in area and its population density of 120.5 people per square kilometer ranks 98th in the world.
Indonesia's
18,108 islands, of which about 6,000 are inhabited, are scattered around the
equator, giving the country a tropical climate. The most populated islands are
Java ,
Sumatra,
Borneo ,
New Guinea and
Sulawesi, also known as Celebes. Indonesia borders Malaysia on the island of Borneo , Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea and
East Timor on the island of
Timor. In addition to the capital city of Jakarta, principal cities of high population include
Surabaya,
Bandung,
Medan,
Palembang, and Semarang.
Its location on the edges of
tectonic plates, specifically the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian, means Indonesia is frequently hit by
earthquakes and the resulting
tsunamis. Indonesia has at least 66
volacanoes, the most famous being the now-vanished
Krakatau which was located between Sumatra and Java. Flora and fauna differ markedly between
Kalimantan,
Bali, and western islands on the one hand and
Sulawesi ,
Lombok, and islands further east on the other. This ecological boundary has been called the
Wallace line after its discoverer. The line is often given as the boundary between Asia and Australasia, as such making Indonesia a
bicontinental country. 45% of Indonesia is covered by
forests.
Recent Natural Disasters
A massive
earthquake and tsunami on 26 December 2004 devastated parts of northern
Sumatra, particularly
Aceh. On March 2005, a powerful earthquake destroyed most buildings on Nias Island, west of Sumatra. Hundreds of people were killed. Partly as a result of the need for cooperation and peace during the recovery from the tsunami in Aceh, peace talks between the Indonesian government and Gerakan Aceh Merdeka were restarted and have borne fruit in a peace agreement. Under the agreement, GAM is in the process of being disarmed by international observers and Indonesian troops are being completely withdrawn from the region. GAM members are being permitted to run for office in the region, in a break with the Constitutional requirement that all parties that run for elections must have nationwide support. On the morning of Saturday, May 27, 2006, the city of Yogyakarta was struck by a severe earthquake. More than 6,000 people are currently estimated to have died.
See also: Map of AsiaEconomy
Major agricultural products include
palm oil,
rice,
tea,
coffee,
spices and
rubber. Some big industries in Indonesia are
petroleum and
natural gas,
textiles,
apparel and
mining. Bank Indonesia, the country's
central bank was established in 1974 and received its independent central bank status in 1999. In 2005, the industrial production growth rate was 4.8%, made
