Encyclopedia
India , officially the
Republic of India, is a country in
South Asia. It is the
seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second most populous country, and the largest
liberal democracy in the world. India has a coastline of over seven thousand kilometres and borders
Pakistan to the west;
China,
Nepal, and
Bhutan to the north-east; and
Bangladesh and
Myanmar to the east. India is adjacent to the
Indian Ocean island nation of
Sri Lanka.
Home to the
Indus Valley Civilisation, and a centre of important trade routes and vast empires, India has long played a major role in human history.
Hinduism,
Sikhism,
Buddhism and
Jainism all have their origins in India, while
Islam,
Judaism and
Christianity enjoy a strong cultural heritage having arrived through trade even before foreign invasions, and having reached the subcontinent before European occupation of the region. Colonised as part of the
British Empire in the nineteenth century, India gained independence in 1947 as a unified nation after an intense
struggle for independence. The country's culture, population, wildlife, geographical terrain and climate system are among the most diverse in the world.
Etymology
The name
India // is derived from
Indus, which is derived from the
Old Persian word
Hindu, from
Sanskrit Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the
Indus River. The
Constitution of India and common usage recognise
Bharat , as an official name; India is also recognized with equal status. A third name,
Hindustan has been used since the twelfth century, although its contemporary use is unevenly applied.
History
Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at
Bhimbetka in the state of
Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the
Indus Valley Civilization, dating back to 3300 BCE in western India. It was followed by the Vedic Civilization which laid the foundations of
Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the
Mahajanapadas were established across the country laying the foundations of ancient India.
The empire built by the
Maurya dynasty under Emperor
Ashoka the Great united most of modern
Southern Asia except the Dravidian kingdoms in the south. From 180 BCE, a series of invasions from
Central Asia into the north-western
Indian Subcontinent followed, including the
Indo-Greeks,
Indo-Scythians,
Indo-Parthians and the
Kushans. From the third century CE, the
Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's "Golden Age." While the north had larger, fewer kingdoms, in the south there were several dynasties such as the
Chalukyas,
Rashtrakutas,
Hoysalas,
Cheras,
Cholas,
Pallavas and
Pandyas in different times and regions. The political influence of these mighty southern kingdoms, though felt to a lesser extent by north India, extended into
Southeast Asia and
Sri Lanka and deeply influenced their culture. The southern kingdoms remained relatively more stable and carried out maritime trade in spices and precious gems with the Arabia, China and Europe from ancient times.
Science, engineering,
art,
literature, mathematics,
astronomy,
religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings.
Following the invasions from Central Asia, between the tenth to the twelfth centuries, much of north India came under the rule of the
Delhi Sultanate, and later the
Mughal dynasty, who gradually expanded their reign through most of the Indian subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms flourished,in the west and the south, such as the
Maratha Empire and
Vijayanagara Empire. From the sixteenth century onwards, several
European countries, including
Portugal,
Netherlands,
France and the
United Kingdom, started arriving as traders, later taking advantage of the fractious nature of relations between the kingdoms, to establish
colonies in the country. By 1856, most of India came under control of the
British East India Company. A year later, a failed nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, known locally as the
First War of Indian Independence broke out, leading to India being under the direct control of the
British Crown as a colony of the British Empire.
In the early twentieth century, a nationwide
struggle for independence was launched by the
Indian National Congress, and various revolutionary groups. The movement was largely led by
Mahatma Gandhi, with Maulana Azad, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Lala Lajpat Rai,
Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel,
Jawaharlal Nehru, Bipin Chandra Pal and
Subhash Chandra Bose playing important roles. Millions protested in various mass campaigns of
civil disobedience with a commitment to
ahimsa or non-violence. Finally, after the
Quit India massive civil disobedience movement during
WWII, and a number of
mutinies in the armed forces after the war, India gained independence from British rule on 15 August 1947. Three years later, on 26 January, 1950, India ratified a new
Constitution, and became a republic.
Since it gained independence, India has seen sectarian violence and insurgencies in various parts of the country, but has maintained its unity and democracy. It has unresolved territorial disputes with China, which escalated into the brief
Sino-Indian War in 1962; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in
1947,
1965,
1971 and in 1999 war in
Kargil. India is a founding member of the
Non-Aligned Movement and the
United Nations . In 1974, India conducted an underground
nuclear test. This was followed by five more tests in 1998. Significant economic reforms beginning in 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world.
Government
India is referred to as the largest democracy in the world, by virtue of the fact that it has the largest electing population among democratic countries. The country has a federal form of government and a
bicameral parliament operating under a
Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has three branches of governance: the
Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. The
President is the
head of state, though he has a largely ceremonial role to play. He is also the Supreme Commander of
India's armed forces. The President is elected indirectly by an
electoral college for five-year terms. Presidential assent is needed for a Bill or Ordinance passed by the Parliament to come into force. The Prime Minister is the de facto head of government, and has most executive powers. He or she is appointed by the President, with the requirement that he or she enjoy the support of the party or coalition having more than 50% seats in the lower house. The Union Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister aids and advises the President on governance matters.
The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the
Rajya Sabha , and the lower house called the Lok Sabha . The 245-member Rajya Sabha is chosen indirectly through the state Legislative Assemblies, and has a staggered six-year term. Each state sends members to the Rajya Sabha in a proportion of its population. The 545-member Lok Sabha is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term , and is the determinative constituent of political power and government formation. Universal adulthood suffrage is guaranteed by the Constitution for citizens above 18 years of age. The executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President, and the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature.
India's independent judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India. The Supreme Court has both original jurisdiction over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the eighteen
High Courts of India, and additionally, the power to declare Union and state laws null and void if in conflict with the Constitution.
Politics
For most of its independent history, India has been ruled by the
Indian National Congress. The party enjoyed a parliamentary majority barring two brief periods during the 1970s and late 1980s. This rule was interrupted between 1977 to 1980, when the Janata Party coalition won the election owing to public discontent with the "Emergency" declared by the then Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi. The Janata Dal won elections in 1989, but its government managed to hold on to power for only two years. Between 1996 and 1998, there was a period of political flux with the government being formed first by the right-of-centre, nationalist
Bharatiya Janata Party followed by a left-leaning United Front coalition. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance with smaller regional parties, and became the first non-Congress and coalition government to complete a full five-year term. The
2004 Indian elections saw the left-leaning Congress party winning the largest number of seats to form a government by leading the United Progressive Alliance, and supported by communist parties and those opposed to the BJP.
Since independence, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a lead in the 1950s in advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia. During the
Cold War, India tried to maintain its neutrality and was one of the founding members of the
Non-Aligned Movement. After the
Sino-Indian War and the
Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India's relationship with the
Soviet Union warmed at the expense of ties with the
United States and continued to remain so until the end of the Cold War. India has consistently refused to sign the
CTBT and the NPT to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear program despite criticism and military sanctions. Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened India's relations with United States, China and Pakistan. In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations of
South America,
Asia and
Africa. In recent years, India has played an influential role in the
SAARC. India has been a long time supporter of the
United Nations, with over 55,000
Indian military and police personnel having served in 35 UN peace keeping operations over four continents . Since the 1990s, India has been considered an emerging power on the global stage, meaning it has increasing influence on international affairs.
Administrative divisions
Administratively, India is divided into twenty-nine states , and six union territories . All states and the union territories of Delhi and Puducherry have elected governments. The remaining union territories have centrally-appointed administrators. The states and territories are further divided into 602 districts.
Geography
The territory of India constitutes a major portion of the
Indian subcontinent, situated on the
Indian Plate, the northerly portion of the
Indo-Australian Plate, in
southern Asia. India's northern and northeastern states are partially situated in the
Himalayan Mountain Range. The rest of northern, central and eastern India consists of the fertile
Indo-Gangetic plain. In the west, bordering southeast
Pakistan, lies the
Thar Desert. The
southern Indian Peninsula is almost entirely composed of the
Deccan plateau, which is flanked by two hilly coastal ranges, the
Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats.
India is home to several major rivers, including the
Ganga,
Brahmaputra,
Yamuna,
Godavari, Kaveri, Narmada, and
Krishna. India has three archipelagos –
Lakshadweep off the southwest coast, the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands-volcanic island chain to the southeast, and the
Sunderbans in the Gangetic delta in West Bengal.
Climate in India varies from tropical in the south to more temperate in the Himalayan north, with elevated regions in the north receiving sustained snowfall in winters. India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. The Himalayas, along with the
Hindu Kush mountains in Pakistan, provide a barrier to the cold winds from Central Asia. This keeps most of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations in similar latitudes. The
Thar Desert is responsible for attracting the moisture laden
southwest monsoon winds that provide most of India's rainfall between June and September.
Economy
The economy of India is the fourth largest in the world as measured by purchasing power parity , with a
GDP of US $3.63 trillion. When measured in
USD exchange-rate terms, it is the twelfth largest in the world, with a GDP of $785.47 billion or Rs 35,34,615 crore in 2005, as calculated by the World Bank. India is the second fastest growing major economy in the world, with a GDP growth rate of 9.3%, and annual Industrial production change of 12.4%, as of the first quarter of 2006. Wealth distribution in India, a
developing country, is fairly uneven, with the top 10% of income groups earning 33% of all income. India's per capita income of US$ 3,400 is ranked 122nd in the world. It is calculated by the
IMF that by 2007, the Indian economy will be ranked 3rd measured by PPP, See : List of countries by GDP estimates for 2007
For most of its independent history, India adhered to a
quasi-
socialist approach, with strict government control over private sector participation, foreign trade, and foreign direct investment. Starting from 1991, India has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms by reducing government controls on foreign trade and investment. Privatisation of public-owned industries and some sectors to private and foreign players has continued amid political debate.
India has a labour force of 496.4 million of which 60% is employed in agriculture or agriculture-related industries which contributes to only about 22% of the GDP, 17% in mainstream industry and 23% in service industries. India's agricultural produce includes rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes. Major industries include textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum and machinery.a's large
English speaking middle-class has contributed to the country's growth in Business Process Outsourcing . It is becoming a major base for US tech companies for future targeted research & development, including the likes of Google, IBM, and Microsoft. All this has helped the services sector to increase its share of the economy to approximately 50%.
India is also a major exporter of
financial, research and technology services. India's most important trading partners are the
United States,
China,
UK 
