Encyclopedia
The
Achaemenid Empire was a dynasty in the ancient
Persian Empire with high cultural and economical achievements during its highest power. At the height of their power, around 500 BC, the Achaemenid rulers of Persia ruled over territories roughly encompassing today's
Iran,
Iraq,
Armenia,
Afghanistan,
Turkey,
Bulgaria, eastern parts of
Greece,
Egypt,
Syria, much of what is now
Pakistan,
Jordan,
Israel,
Palestine,
Lebanon,
Caucasia,
Central Asia,
Libya, and northern parts of
Arabia. The empire ruled by
Persia eventually became the largest empire of the ancient world.
Darius I was the first to speak of Achaemenes, who he claimed was an ancestor of
Cyrus the Great, and therefore the progenitor of the entire line of Achaemenid rulers. However, some scholars hold that Achaemenes was a fictional character used to legitimize Darius' rule, and that Darius I usurped the Persian throne . In any case, the name
Achaemenid has been commonly accepted for the line of Persian kings beginning at least with Darius I. When the name refers to the entire line of early Persian rulers, including Cyrus and his son Cambyses, the Achaemenid era stretches from about 650 to 330 BC.
At different times, the Achaemenids also ruled
Egypt, although the Egyptians twice regained their independence from Persia. After the practice of
Manetho,
Egyptian historians refer to the period in Egypt when the Achaemenid dynasty ruled as the Twenty-Seventh and Thirty-First Dynasties .
The last Achaemenid king was
Darius III , who was defeated by
Alexander the Great, king of
Macedon. After the Macedonian conquest, the Persian Empire was annexed by Alexander.
History
The founder of this dynasty was supposedly Achaemenes: ?????? . He was succeeded by his son Teispes , who first took the title King of
Anšan after seizing Anšan city from the
Elamites. Inscriptions indicate that when Teispes died, two of his sons shared the throne as Cyrus , king of Anšan, and Ariaramnes , king of
Parsua . They were succeeded by their respective sons Cambyses I of Anshan , and Arsames of
Iran.
In 559 BC, Cambyses I the Elder was succeeded as king of An?an by his son
Cyrus the Great, who also succeeded the still-living Arsames as King of Persia, thus reuniting the two realms. Cyrus is considered to be the first king of the Achaemenid dynasty to be properly called so, as his predecessors were subservient to
Media. Cyrus conquered Media,
Lydia and
Babylon.
His successors were less successful. Cyrus' unstable son Cambyses II conquered Egypt, but died in July 522 BC as the result of either accident or suicide, during a revolt led by a priest, Gaumata. Gaumata usurped the throne by pretending to be Smerdis until he was overthrown in 522 BC by a member of a lateral branch of the Achaemenid family,
Darius I .
According to
Herodotus, the native leadership then debated the best form of government for the Empire. He reports that it was decided that oligarchy would divide them against one another, and democracy would bring about mob rule resulting in a charismatic leader resuming the monarchy.
Therefore, they decided a new monarch was in order, particularly since
they were in a position to choose him. Darius I was chosen monarch from amongst the leaders. He was cousin to Cambyses II and Smerdis, claiming Ariaramnes as his ancestor.
Darius attacked the Greek mainland, which had supported rebellious Greek colonies under his aegis; but as a result of his defeat at the
Battle of Marathon in 490, he was forced to pull the limits of his empire back to
Asia Minor.
The Achaemenids thereafter consolidated areas firmly under their control. It was Cyrus and Darius who, by sound and farsighted administrative planning, brilliant military maneuvering, and a humanistic worldview, established the greatness of the Achaemenids and in less than thirty years raised them from an obscure tribe to a world power.
Invasion of the Greek mainland
Under
Xerxes I, the Greeks were beaten at Thermopylae ,
Athens conquered and burnt down, the Athenians with Sparta driven back to their last line of defence at the
Isthmus of Corinth and in the Saronic Gulf. At Artemisuem the battle was indecisive as large storms destroyed ships from both sides. The Battle was also stopped prematurely as the Greeks caught news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. Finally, the
Battle of Salamis was won by the Athenians. Having lost his communication by sea with
Asia, Xerxes was forced to retire to Sardis; the army which he left in Greece under Mardonius was in 479 beaten at
Plataea. The defeat of the Persians at Mycale roused the Greek cities of Asia.
The zenith of Achaemenid power was achieved during Darius' reign and that of his son
Xerxes I . These two rulers built great beautiful palaces in the ancient cities of
Persepolis ,
Susa and
Ecbatana . The Persian Empire reached its greatest extent in this period.
Decline
After the death of
Xerxes I , the decline of the dynasty began. Persia saw a sequence of weak rulers ruling the empire. Decadence became rampant, and the
army,
finance and government administration were neglected. The last Achaemenid king was
Darius III , who was defeated by
Alexander III of
Macedon. After the Macedonian conquest, Alexander annexed the Persian Empire.
System of governing
The Achaemenids were enlightened despots who allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in the form of the satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A satrap administered the region, a general supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a state secretary kept official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the central government. The twenty satrapies were linked by a 2,500-kilometer highway, the most impressive stretch being the
Royal Road from
Susa to
Sardis, built by command of Darius I. Relays of mounted couriers could reach the remotest of areas in fifteen days. Despite the relative local independence afforded by the satrapy system, royal inspectors, the "eyes and ears of the king," toured the empire and reported on local conditions. The king also maintained a personal bodyguard of 10,000 men, called the
Immortals.
Darius revolutionized the economy by placing it on a silver and gold coinage system. Trade was extensive, and under the Achaemenids there was an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of commodities in the far reaches of the empire. As a result of this commercial activity,
Persian words for typical items of trade became prevalent throughout the Middle East and eventually entered the
English language; examples are
bazaar, shawl, sash, turquoise, tiara, orange, lemon, melon, peach, spinach, and
asparagus. Trade was one of the empire's main sources of revenue, along with agriculture and tribute. Other accomplishments of Darius' reign included codification of the data, a universal legal system upon which much of later Iranian law would be based, and construction of a new capital at
Persepolis, where vassal states would offer their yearly tribute at the festival celebrating the spring equinox.
Culture
The language in greatest use in the empire was
Aramaic. Old Persian was the official language of the empire, but was used only for inscriptions and royal proclamations.
Much of the information we have today on Persian culture comes from contemporaneous authors, among whom is
Herodotus. However, his claims are no longer as unquestioningly and uncritically accepted as infallible as they once might have been. Herodotus claims "they have no images of the gods, no temples nor altars, and consider the use of them a sign of folly. This comes, I think, from their not believing the gods to have the same nature with men, as the Greeks imagine." He claims the Persians offer sacrifice to: "the sun and moon, to the earth, to fire, to water, and to the winds. These are the only gods whose worship has come down to them from ancient times. At a later period they began the worship of Urania, which they borrowed from the Arabians and Assyrians. Mylitta is the name by which the Assyrians know this goddess, whom the Arabians call Alitta, and the Persians Mitra."
On the means of sacrifice, he claims that: "they raise no altar, light no fire, pour no libations; there is no sound of the flute, no putting on of chaplets, no consecrated barley-cake; but the man who wishes to sacrifice brings his victim to a spot of ground which is pure from pollution, and there calls upon the name of the god to whom he intends to offer." He also mentions that the Persians would pray for the general welfare of the king and nation, rather than for their own personal benefit. Also, no prayer or offering can be made without a magus present.
Other scholars have concluded that an early form of
Zoroastrianism was likely a popular religion of era, co-existing at least for a time with the older indo-European derived polytheistic substrate.
Herodotus also mentions that the Persians were given to great birthday feasts, which would be followed by many desserts, a treat which they reproached the Greeks for omitting from their meals. Likewise, he claims that the Persians drank wine in large quantities and used it even for counsel, deliberating on important affairs when drunk, and deciding the next day, when sober, whether to act on the decision or set it aside.
On their methods of greeting, he asserts that equals kissed on the lips, persons of some difference in rank kissed on the cheek, and the lowest ranks would prostrate on the ground to the upper ranks. It is known that men of high rank practiced
polygamy, and were reputed to have a number of wives and a greater number of concubines. On their same-sex relations, high ranked men kept favorites, such as Bagoas who was one of
Darius III's favorites and who later became
Alexander's
eromenos. Persian
pederasty and its origins was debated even in ancient times. Herodotus claimed they had learned it from the Greeks: "...and [the Persians'] luxurious practices are of all kinds, and all borrowed: the Greeks taught them pederasty." However,
Plutarch asserts that the Persians used eunuch boys "the Greek way" long before contact between the cultures.
Also from Herodotus we learn that the Persians had a very high regard for truth, teaching the respect of truth to their children and despising nothing so much as a lie. On the education of the children, we learn that from the age of five until twenty they were taught to ride, shoot the bow, and speak the truth. Until the age of five children spent all their time among the women and never met the father, so that, should they die in infancy, he would not sorrow over their loss.
Contributions
An important Achaemenid artifact is the
Cyrus Cylinder, a declaration issued by Cyrus the Great, son of the founder of the dynasty. Cyrus fought the Babylonians, eventually taking over and giving the
Jews the freedom to practice their religion.
Certain elements of Achaemenid religion show strong connections with
Zoroastrianism, specifically in the use of fire altars and veneration of Ahura Mazda. In other ways, the Achaemenids departed from Zoroastrian traditions, as in their burial practices. Persians at the time were noted for their dedication to clear lines of right and wrong, and for their apparent honesty.
Cyrus' political behavior was also attributed to his being shrewd - appearing as the "savior" of a nation virtually guaranteed their allegiance and well-disposed behaviour. It was the general policy of the Achaemenids to continue the Assyrian and Babylonian policy of transferring large populations between areas, in effect mixing disparate groups together and diluting any nationalism they may otherwise have had - intended as a calming measure, and resulting in the Achaemenid era being known as a relatively peaceful period in Middle Eastern history.
Art
Achaemenid art, like Achaemenid religion, was a blend of many elements. Just as the Achaemenids were tolerant in matters of local government and custom, as long as Persians controlled the general policy and administration of the empire, so also were they tolerant in art so long as the finished and total effect was Persian. At
Pasargadae , the capital of
Cyrus the Great and Cambyses in
Fars, the Persian homeland, and at
Persepolis, the neighbouring city founded by Darius the Great and used by all of his successors, one can trace to a foreign origin almost all of the several details in the construction and embellishment of the architecture and the sculptured reliefs; but the conception, planning, and overall finished product are distinctly
Persian and could not have been created by any of the foreign groups who supplied the king of kings with artistic talent.
Cyrus may have been the leader of Persian tribes not yet so sophisticated nor so civilized as the
Babylonians or
Egyptians, but when he chose to build Pasargadae, he had a long artistic tradition behind him that was probably already distinctly Iranian and that was in many ways the equal of any. Two examples suffice: the tradition of the columned hall in architecture and fine gold work. The former can now be seen as belonging to an architectural tradition on the Iranian Plateau that extended back through the Median period to at least the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The rich Achaemenid gold work, which inscriptions suggest may have been a specialty of the Medes, was in the tradition of the delicate metalwork found in
Iron Age II times at Hasanlu and still earlier at
Marlik.
This Achaemenid artistic style is evident in the iconography of Persepolis, which celebrates the king and the office of the monarch. In its carefully proportioned and well-organized ground plan, rich architectural ornament, and magnificent decorative reliefs, Persepolis, primarily the creation of Darius and Xerxes, is one of the great artistic legacies of the ancient world.
In its art and architecture, Persepolis reflected Darius' perception of himself as the leader of a conglomerate people to whom he had given a new and single identity. The Achaemenids took the art forms and the cultural and religious traditions of many of the ancient Middle Eastern peoples and combined them into a single form.
In describing the construction of his palace at Susa, Darius says:
- The cedar timber from there was brought, the yaka timber was brought from Gandara and from Carmania. The gold was brought from Sardis and from Bactria . . . the precious stone lapis-lazuli and carnelian . . . was brought from Sogdiana. The turquoise from Chorasmia, the silver and ebony from Egypt, the ornamentation from Ionia, the ivory from Ethiopia and from Sind and from Arachosia. The stone-cutters who wrought the stone, those were Ionians and Sardians. The goldsmiths were Medes and Egyptians. The men who wrought the wood, those were Sardians and Egyptians. The men who wrought the baked brick, those were Babylonians. The men who adorned the wall, those were Medes and Egyptians.
This was an imperial art on a scale the world had not seen before. Materials and artists were drawn from all the lands ruled by the Great King, and thus tastes, styles, and motifs became mixed together in an eclectic art and architecture that in itself mirrored the empire and the Persians' understanding of how that empire ought to function. Yet the whole was entirely Persian.
So also with the small arts where the Persians excelled: fine metal tableware, jewelry, seal cutting, weaponry and its decoration, and pottery. It has been suggested that the Persians called upon the subject peoples for artists because they were themselves crude barbarians with little taste, and needed quickly to create an imperial art to match their sudden rise to political power. Yet excavations at sites from the protohistoric period show this not to have been the case.
Achaemenid rulers
- Achaemenes of Persia †
- Teispes of Anshan, son of Achaemenes †
- Cyrus I of Anshan, son of Teispes †
- Ariaramnes of Persia, son of Teispes and co-ruler with Cyrus I †
- Cambyses I of Anshan, son of Cyrus I †
- Arsames of Persia, son of Ariaramnes and co-ruler with Cambyses I †
- Cyrus II, the Great, son of Cambyses I, ruled from c.550–530 BC
- Cambyses II, son of Cyrus the Great, ruled 529–522 BC
- Smerdis , alleged son of Cyrus the Great, ruled 522 BC
- Darius I, the Great, brother-in-law of Smerdis and grandson of Arsames, ruled 521–486 BC
- Xerxes I, son of Darius I, ruled 485–465 BC
- Artaxerxes I Longimanus, son of Xerxes I, ruled 465–424 BC
- Xerxes II, son of Artaxerxes I, ruled 424 BC
- Sogdianus, half-brother and rival of Xerxes II, ruled 424–423 BC
- Darius II Nothus, half-brother and rival of Xerxes II, ruled 423–405 BC
- Artaxerxes II Mnemon, son of Darius II, ruled 404–359 BC
- Artaxerxes III Ochus, son of Artaxerxes II, ruled 358–338 BC
- Artaxerxes IV Arses, son of Artaxerxes III, ruled 338–336 BC
- Darius III Codomannus, great-grandson of Darius II, ruled 336–330 BC
- Macedonian conquest of the Achamenid Empire in 330 BC
† The epigraphic evidence for these rulers cannot be confirmed and are often considered to have been invented by
Darius I.
See also
References
- Stronach, David "Darius at Pasargadae: A Neglected Source for the History of Early Persia," Topoi
- Stronach, David "Anshan and Parsa: Early Achaemenid History, Art and Architecture on the Iranian Plateau". In: John Curtis, ed., Mesopotamia and Iran in the Persian Period: Conquest and Imperialism 539-331, 35-53. London: British Museum Press 1997.
Further reading
- Ancient Persia Josef Wiesehofer
- Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia J. E Curtis and N. Tallis
- From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire Pierre Briant
- The Greco-Persian Wars Peter Green
- The Greek and Persian Wars 499-386 BC Philip De Souza
- The Heritage of Persia Richard N. Frye
- History of the Persian Empire A.T. Olmstead
- The Persian Empire Lindsay Allen
- The Persian Empire J.M. Cook
- Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West Tom Holland
- Pictorial History of Iran: Ancient Persia Before Islam 15000 B.C.-625 A.D. Amini Sam
- Timelife Persians: Masters of the Empire
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