Encyclopedia
A
university is an institution of
higher education and research, which grants academic degrees at all levels in a variety of subjects. A university provides both
tertiary and
quaternary education. The word
university is derived from the
Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of masters and scholars".
History
Because of this definition, there is controversy about which university is the world's oldest. If we consider a university as a corporation of students, then
Plato's Academy is the first, historically-documented university. The original Latin word "universitas", first used in time of renewed interest in Classical Greek and Roman tradition, tried to reflect this feature of the Academy of Plato. If we consider university simply as a higher education institution, then it could be Shangyang, founded before the 21st c. BC in
China, if it is not myth. In the western world, the choice is among
Takshashila, Nalanda, Ratnagiri University and
Al-Azhar University. The University of Constantinople , re-founded in AD 849, by the regent Bardas of emperor Michail III, is generally considered the first institution of higher learning with the characteristics we associate today with University .
Nalanda University, founded in
Bihar , circa the 5th century BC, also conferred academic degree titles to its graduates, while also offering
post-graduate courses. A third university whose ruins were only recently excavated was Ratnagiri University in
Orissa. Al-Azhar University, founded in
Cairo in the
10th century, offered a variety of post-graduate degrees, and is usually regarded as the first full-fledged university.
The ancient cities of Takshashila, Nalanda, Vikramasila, and Kanchipura in
ancient India were greatly reputed centres of learning in the east, with students from all over Asia. In particular, Nalanda was a famous center of
Buddhist scholarship, and as such it attracted thousands of Buddhist scholars from China,
East Asia,
Central Asia and
South-East Asia, while also attracting many students from
Persia and the
Middle East.
The awarding of aic titles was not a custom of other educational institutions at the time but ancient institutions of higher learning also existed in China ,
Greece , and
PersiaThe Academy, founded in 387 BC by the
Greek philosopher Plato in the grove of Academos near
Athens, taught its students
philosophy,
mathematics, and
gymnastics, and is sometimes considered to resemble a university. Other Greek cities with notable educational institutions include
Kos , which had a medical school, and
Rhodes, which had philosophical schools. Another famous classical institution was the Museum and Library of Alexandria.
Institutions bearing a resemblance to the modern university also existed in
Persia and the
Islamic world prior to
Al-Azhar University, most notably the
Academy of Gundishapur.
In ancient China, there were a number of institutions of higher learning that vaguely resembled universities in the Western sense of the word. It is reputed that an education system had been established before 21st century BC in China and a higher learning institution named Shangyang had been established by Shun during the Youyu period. The higher learning institution may have influenced the central imperial school, which was called Piyong in Zhou Dynasty , Taixue in
Han Dynasty , and Guozijian in
Sui dynasty.
Nanjing University traces its history back to the imperial central school at
Nanjing founded in 258 and the Imperial Nanjing University became the first comprehensive institution as a combination of education and research consisted of five faculties in 470. In a single dynasty there was only one imperial central school which was always located in the capital city and was the highest institution of learning of the nation. There were also another kind of institutions of learning called Shuyuan since 8th century in
Tang Dynasty. They were generally privately owned, and some were partly aided by governments. There were thousands of Shuyuan in China, and the degree of them varied from one to another. The advanced Shuyuan such as
Yuelu Shuyuan and Bailudong Shuyuan can be taken as higher institutions of learning. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire, and an imperial examination was established in the
Sui Dynasty for evaluating and selecting officials from the general populace.
In the Carolingian period,
Charlemagne created a type of academy, called the palace school or
scola palatina, in
Aachen, a city in present-day
Germany. Another school, nowadays embodied by the Brexgata University Academy, was founded in the year 798 by Carolingian leaders. It was situated near Noyon, a city in present-day
France. From a broader perspective it were the scholars, the aristocrats, the clergymen, and Charlemagne himself, who shared a vision of educating the population in general, and of training the children of aristocrats in how to manage their lands and protect their states against invasion or squandering. These initiatives were a foreshadowing of the rise, from the
11th century onward, of universities in
Western Europe.
The first European
medieval university was the University of Magnaura in
Constantinople , founded in 849 by the regent Bardas of emperor
Michael III, followed by the
University of Salerno ,
University of Bologna in
Bologna,
Italy, and the
University of Paris in
Paris, France, later associated with the Sorbonne. Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the
Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by
papal bull as Studia Generali. In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries.
In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar,
rhetoric, and logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic,
geometry,
music, and
astronomy. .
Universities are generally established by
statute or charter. In the
United Kingdom, for instance, a university is instituted by Act of Parliament or Royal Charter; in either case generally with the approval of
Privy Council, and only such recognized bodies can award degrees of any kind.
In Mali, West Africa, the celebrated Islamic University of Sankore had no central administration; rather, it was composed of several entirely independent schools or colleges, each run by a single master . The courses took place in the open courtyards of mosque complexes or private residences. The primary subjects were the Qur’an, Islamic studies, law and literature. Other subjects included medicine and surgery, astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, philosophy, language and linguistics, geography, history and art. The students also spent time in learning a trade and business code and ethics. The university trade shops offered classes in business, carpentry, farming, fishing, construction, shoe making, tailoring and navigation. It was claimed that the intellectual freedom enjoyed in Western Universities was inspired from universities like Sankore and Qurtuba universities.
Memorizing the Qur’an and mastering Arabic language were compulsory to students. Arabic was a lingua franca of the university as well as the language of trade and commerce in Timbuktu. Except for a few manuscripts, which are in Songhay and other a’jami language, all the remaining 70,000 manuscripts are in Arabic.
Like all other Islamic universities, its students came from all over the world. Around the 12th century it had an attendance of 25,000 students, in a city of 100,000 people. The university was known for its high standards and admission requirements
There is a growing movement, dubbed the University of the Third Age, "the U3A", which consists of small, independent and autonomous groups of retired scholars and others engaged in study for its own sake, of charitable status and without the award of any form of degree or qualification: a university in the ancient sense of a corporation of scholars. The scope of the U3A studies extends far beyond the walls of academe and embraces most of the physical as well as the mental disciplines appropriate to those in the "third age" of life.
Future
The future of the university as a traditionally conceived brick and mortar edifice is in doubt due to a number of factors. A European, Christian, and profoundly elite institution, the university has had considerable difficulty moving into a more egalitarian educational model which still seeks intellectual quality and seeks to profess objective truths. In his groundbreaking study of the American university since World War II,
The Knowledge Factory, Stanley Aronowitz argues that the American university has been besieged by growing unemployment issues, the pressures of big business on the land grant university, as well as the political passivity and ivory tower naivete of American academics. In a somewhat more theoretical vein, the late Bill Readings contends in his 1995 study
The University in Ruins that the university around the world has been hopelessly commodified by globalization and the bureaucratic non-value of "excellence." His view is that the university will continue to linger on as an increasingly consumerist, ruined institution until or unless we are able to conceive of advanced education in transnational ways that can move beyond both the national subject and the corporate enterprise.
Organization
Although each institution is differently organized, nearly all universities have a board of trustees, a president , at least one vice president or vice-rector, and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties.
Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded having generally a broader independence from state policies.
Despite the variable policies, or cultural and economic standards available in different geographical locations create a tremendous disparity between universities around the world and even inside a country, the universities are usually among the foremost research and advanced training providers in every society. Most universities not only offer courses in subjects ranging from the natural sciences, engineering, architecture or medicine, to sports administration, social sciences, law or humanities, they also offer many amenities to their student population including a variety of places to eat, banks, bookshops, print shops, job centres, and bars. In addition, most major universities have their own
libraries, sports centers, restaurants,
students' unions,
botanical gardens,
astronomical observatories, university hospitals and clinics,
computer labs,
research laboratories, business incubators and many other.
Universities around the world
The funding and organisation of universities is very different in different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students.
Universities and student life in different countries
See also: List of colleges and universities by country.
* Afghan universities
* Argentine universities
* Australian universities
* Bangladeshi Universities
* Belgian universities
* Brazilian universities
* British universities
* Bulgarian universities
*
* Canadian universities
* Chinese universities
* Dutch universities
* Egyptian universities
* French universities
* German universities
* Greek universities
* Hungarian universities
* Irish universities
* Israeli universities
* Italian universities
* Japanese universities
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* Jordanian universities
*
* Macedonian universities
* Malaysian Universities
* Indian universities
* Nigerian universities
* Norwegian universities
*
* Philippine universities
* Polish universities
* Portuguese universities
* Taiwanese universities
* Singaporean universities
* Spanish universities
* Swiss universities
* Uruguayan universities
* Turkish universities
* U.K. universities
* U.S. universities
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Selective admissions
Admission systems and university structures vary widely around the world . Differences are marked in countries where universities fulfill the role of community colleges in the United States and Europe.
Colloquial usage
Colloquially, the term
university may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "when I was at university…"; in the United States,
college is often used: "when I was in college…". See the
college article for further discussion. In Australia and New Zealand "university" is often contracted to "uni", which has also recently become common among the young in the United Kingdom. In New Zealand and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity", which was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century.
The usual practice in the United States today is to call an institution made up of several faculties and granting a range of higher degrees a "university", while a smaller institution only granting bachelor's or associate's degrees is called a "college". Nevertheless, a few of America's older universities, such as
Boston College,
Dartmouth College, and the
College of William and Mary, have retained the term "college" in their names for historical reasons, even though they offer a wide range of higher degrees.
On the other hand, many smaller colleges now call themselves "universities," regardless of their limited programs and degree offerings. For institutions in the United States, the Carnegie classification system distinguishes institutions on the basis of the prevalence of degrees they grant. The classifications are: I , IIA , IIB , III , IV . A "true" university is an institution with a I or IIA classification.
See also
Related terms
- academia - academic rank - academy
...
- admission - alumnus - aula -
polytechnic - - Bologna process - business schools -
Grandes écoles -
campus -
college - college and university rankings - dean - degree - diploma - discipline - - faculty - fraternities and sororities - graduate student -
graduation -
Ivory Tower - lecturer -
medieval university -
medieval university - mega university - perpetual student -
professor - provost - rector - research -
scholar - senioritis -
student - tenure -
Town and Gown - tuition - undergraduate - universal access - university administration
References
- Stanley Aronowitz, The Knowledge Factory. Boston: Beacon, 2000.
- Clyde W. Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894-1928, University of Wisconsin Press 1990
- Sigmund Diamond, Compromised Campus: The Collaboration of Universities with the Intelligence Community, 1945-1955, Oxford University Press 1992
- Olaf Pedersen, The First Universities : Studium Generale and the Origins of University Education in Europe, Cambridge University Press, 1998
- Bill Readings, The University in Ruins. Harvard UP, 1995.
- Thomas F. Richards, The Cold War Within American Higher Education: Rutgers University As a Case Study,Pentland Press 1998
- Walter Ruegg , A History of the University in Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge ISBN 0-521-36107-9 .
