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University

A university is an institution of higher education Higher education

Higher education is education [i] provided by universities [i], vocational universities [i] ... 

 and research, which grants academic degrees at all levels in a variety of subjects. A university provides both tertiary Higher education

Higher education is education [i] provided by universities [i], vocational universities [i] ... 

 and quaternary education Postgraduate education

Postgraduate education involves studying for degrees [i] or other qualifications for w ... 

. The word university is derived from the Latin Latin

Latin is an ancient Indo-European language [i] originally spoken in Latium [i], ... 

 universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of masters and scholars".

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Timeline

970   Construction completed on Al-Azhar mosque Mosque

A mosque is a place of worship [i] for followers of the Islam [i]ic faith. ... 

 in Cairo Cairo

Cairo translated the "land of Ra'" It comes from two Coptic words "Kahi" ... 

, world's oldest Islamic Islam

Islam is a monotheistic [i] religion [i] based upon the Qur'an [i], which adherents believe w ... 

 university ''

1289   Pope Nicholas IV Pope Nicholas IV

Pope Nicholas IV , born Girolamo Masci, was Pope [i] from February 22 [i], 1288 [i] to April 4, 1292 [i]... 

 formally constitutes the University of Montpellier in France France

France, officially the French Republic, is a country [i] whose metropolitan territory [i] ... 

 by papal bull Papal bull

A Papal bull is a special kind of patent [i] or charter issued by a pope [i] and named fo ... 

, combining various existing schools under the mantle of a single university.

1502   Wittenberg Wittenberg

Wittenberg, officially [Die] Lutherstadt Wittenberg, is a town in Germany [i], in the Bundesland [i] ... 

 University founded.

1538   The first University of the New World New World

The New World is one of the names used for the Americas [i]. ... 

 is founded the Universidad Santo Tomás de Aquino.

1592   Founding of Trinity College, Dublin Trinity College, Dublin

Trinity College, Dublin, corporately designated as the Provost, Fellows and Scholars of the College o... 

, Ireland Ireland

Ireland is the third largest [i] island [i] in Europe [i]. ... 

's oldest university

1669   Leopold I Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor

Leopold I Habsburg [i], Holy Roman emperor [i], was the second son of the emperor Ferdinand III [i] ... 

 Habsburg Habsburg

Habsburg was an important ruling house [i] of Europe [i] and is best known as the ruling Ho ... 

 grants the status and privileges of a university to the Jesuit Society of Jesus

The Society of Jesus is a Christian [i] religious order [i] of the Catholic Church [i] ... 

 Academy Academy

An academy is an institution for the study of higher learning. ... 

 in Zagreb Zagreb

Zagreb is the capital [i] city of Croatia [i]. ... 

, the precursor to the modern University of Zagreb University of Zagreb

name = University of Zagreb |native_name = Sveucilite u Zagrebu ... 

1683   The Ashmolean Museum Ashmolean Museum

The Ashmolean Museum on Beaumont Street [i], Oxford [i], England [i] is the world's first university [i] ... 

 opens as the world's first university museum Museum

A museum is typically a "permanent institution in the service of society and of its development, ope... 

.

2004   The British government narrowly wins a House of Commons British House of Commons

|align=left| *Parliament [i] ... 

 vote on the proposed introduction of tuition top-up fees Top-up fees

Top-up fees are a new way of charging tuition [i] to undergraduate [i] and PGCE [i] student [i]s who stu ... 

 in British universities University

[i], which grants [[academic degree]... 

.



Encyclopedia



A university is an institution of higher education Higher education

Higher education is education [i] provided by universities [i], vocational universities [i] ... 

 and research, which grants academic degrees at all levels in a variety of subjects. A university provides both tertiary Higher education

Higher education is education [i] provided by universities [i], vocational universities [i] ... 

 and quaternary education Postgraduate education

Postgraduate education involves studying for degrees [i] or other qualifications for w ... 

. The word university is derived from the Latin Latin

Latin is an ancient Indo-European language [i] originally spoken in Latium [i], ... 

 universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of masters and scholars".

History




Because of this definition, there is controversy about which university is the world's oldest. If we consider a university as a corporation of students, then Plato's Academy Academy

An academy is an institution for the study of higher learning.
... 

 is the first, historically-documented university. The original Latin word "universitas", first used in time of renewed interest in Classical Greek and Roman tradition, tried to reflect this feature of the Academy of Plato. If we consider university simply as a higher education institution, then it could be Shangyang, founded before the 21st c. BC in China China

China is a cultural region [i] and ancient civilization [i] in East Asia [i]. ... 

, if it is not myth. In the western world, the choice is among Takshashila Taxila

.
The Gandhara [i]n city of Taxila was an important Vedic [i] and Buddhist [i] centre of learning from t... 

, Nalanda, Ratnagiri University and Al-Azhar University Al-Azhar University

Al-Azhar University, is a premier Egypt [i]ian institution of higher learning, world-renowned for its po ... 

. The University of Constantinople , re-founded in AD 849, by the regent Bardas of emperor Michail III, is generally considered the first institution of higher learning with the characteristics we associate today with University .
Nalanda University, founded in Bihar Bihar

Bihar is a state [i] of the India [i]n union situated in the eastern par ... 

 , circa the 5th century BC, also conferred academic degree titles to its graduates, while also offering post-graduate Postgraduate education

Postgraduate education involves studying for degrees [i] or other qualifications for w ... 

 courses. A third university whose ruins were only recently excavated was Ratnagiri University in Orissa Orissa

Orissa , 60,162 sq mi is a state [i] situated in the east coast of India [i] ... 

. Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo Cairo

Cairo translated the "land of Ra'" It comes from two Coptic words "Kahi"
... 

  in the 10th century 10th century

As a means of recording the passage of time [i], the 10th century was that century [i] which lasted from ... 

, offered a variety of post-graduate degrees, and is usually regarded as the first full-fledged university.

The ancient cities of Takshashila, Nalanda, Vikramasila, and Kanchipura in ancient India Kingdoms of Ancient India

This article tries to compile and classify all the Kingdoms of Ancient India mentioned in the Sanskrit [i]... 

 were greatly reputed centres of learning in the east, with students from all over Asia. In particular, Nalanda was a famous center of Buddhist Buddhism

Buddhism is a dharmic [i], non-theistic [i] religion [i], a way of life, a p ... 

 scholarship, and as such it attracted thousands of Buddhist scholars from China, East Asia East Asia

East Asia is a subregion [i] of Asia [i] that can be defined in either geographical [i] or cul ... 

, Central Asia Central Asia

Central Asia is a vast landlocked [i] region of Asia [i]. ... 

 and South-East Asia Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion [i] of Asia [i], consisting of the countries th ... 

, while also attracting many students from Persia Persian Empire

The Persian Empire was a series of historical empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau [i] ... 

 and the Middle East Middle East

The Middle East is a subcontinent [i] for the historical [i] and cultural [i] ... 

.

The awarding of aic titles was not a custom of other educational institutions at the time but ancient institutions of higher learning also existed in China , Greece Greece

Greece
Greece lies at the juncture of Europe [i], Asia [i], and Africa [i]. ... 

 , and Persia Persian Empire

The Persian Empire was a series of historical empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau [i] ... 



The Academy, founded in 387 BC by the Greek philosopher Greek philosophy

Classical Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry.... 

 Plato Plato

Plato , whose real name is believed to have been Aristocles, was an immensely influential ancient... 

 in the grove of Academos near Athens Athens

Athens is the capital [i] and the largest city of Greece [i]. ... 

, taught its students philosophy Philosophy

[i]
... 

, mathematics Mathematics

Mathematics is the discipline that deals with concepts such as quantity [i], structure [i], space [i] a ... 

, and gymnastics Gymnastics

Gymnastics is a sport [i] involving the performance of sequences of movements requiring physical strengt ... 

, and is sometimes considered to resemble a university. Other Greek cities with notable educational institutions include Kos Kos

Kos or Cos is a Greek [i] island [i] in the Dodecanese [i] group of isla ... 

 , which had a medical school, and Rhodes Rhodes

[i] islands, and easternmost of the major islands of [[Greece]... 

, which had philosophical schools. Another famous classical institution was the Museum and Library of Alexandria.

Institutions bearing a resemblance to the modern university also existed in Persia Iran


Throughout history, Iran has been of great geostrategic [i] importance because of its centr ... 

 and the Islamic world Muslim world

The Muslim world is a term given to the world-wide community of those who adhere to the religion of Islam [i] ... 

 prior to Al-Azhar University Al-Azhar University

Al-Azhar University, is a premier Egypt [i]ian institution of higher learning, world-renowned for its po ... 

, most notably the Academy of Gundishapur Academy of Gundishapur

The Academy of Gundishapur was a renowned center of learning in the city of Gundeshapur [i] during late antiquity [i] ... 

.

In ancient China, there were a number of institutions of higher learning that vaguely resembled universities in the Western sense of the word. It is reputed that an education system had been established before 21st century BC in China and a higher learning institution named Shangyang  had been established by Shun during the Youyu period. The higher learning institution may have influenced the central imperial school, which was called Piyong in Zhou Dynasty , Taixue in Han Dynasty Han Dynasty

The Han Dynasty followed the Qin Dynasty [i] and preceded the Three Kingdoms [i] in China [i]. ... 

 , and Guozijian in Sui dynasty Sui Dynasty

The Sui Dynasty followed the Southern and Northern Dynasties [i] and preceded the Tang Dynasty [i] in China [i] ... 

. Nanjing University Nanjing University

Nanjing University is located in Nanjing [i], an ancient capital of China [i]. ... 

 traces its history back to the imperial central school at Nanjing Nanjing

Nanjing is the capital [i] of China [i]'s Jiangsu [i] Province [i] and a ... 

 founded in 258 and the Imperial Nanjing University became the first comprehensive institution as a combination of education and research consisted of five faculties in 470. In a single dynasty there was only one imperial central school which was always located in the capital city and was the highest institution of learning of the nation. There were also another kind of institutions of learning called Shuyuan since 8th century in Tang Dynasty Tang Dynasty

The Tang Dynasty followed the Sui Dynasty [i] and preceded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period [i] ... 

. They were generally privately owned, and some were partly aided by governments. There were thousands of Shuyuan in China, and the degree of them varied from one to another. The advanced Shuyuan such as Yuelu Shuyuan Yuelu Academy

The Yuelu Academy is located on the east side of Yuelu Mountain [i] in Changsha [i], the capital [i] of ... 

 and Bailudong Shuyuan can be taken as higher institutions of learning. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire, and an imperial examination was established in the Sui Dynasty Sui Dynasty

The Sui Dynasty followed the Southern and Northern Dynasties [i] and preceded the Tang Dynasty [i] in China [i] ... 

  for evaluating and selecting officials from the general populace.

In the Carolingian period, Charlemagne Charlemagne

Charlemagne was the King of the Franks [i] who conquered Italy [i] and took the Iron Crown of Lombardy [i]... 

 created a type of academy, called the palace school or scola palatina, in Aachen Aachen

Aachen is a spa city in North Rhine-Westphalia [i], Germany [i], on the border with Belgium [i] and the ... 

, a city in present-day Germany Germany

Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a country [i] in central Europe [i]. ... 

. Another school, nowadays embodied by the Brexgata University Academy, was founded in the year 798 by Carolingian leaders. It was situated near Noyon, a city in present-day France France

France, officially the French Republic, is a country [i] whose metropolitan territory [i] ... 

. From a broader perspective it were the scholars, the aristocrats, the clergymen, and Charlemagne himself, who shared a vision of educating the population in general, and of training the children of aristocrats in how to manage their lands and protect their states against invasion or squandering. These initiatives were a foreshadowing of the rise, from the 11th century 11th century

As a means of recording the passage of time [i], the 11th century was that century [i] which lasted from ... 

 onward, of universities in Western Europe Western Europe

Western Europe is mainly a socio-political concept coined [i], forged and used during the Cold War [i]. ... 

.

The first European medieval university Medieval university

The first European [i] medieval institutions generally considered to be universities [i] wer... 

 was the University of Magnaura in Constantinople Constantinople

Constantinople was the capital of the Byzantine Empire [i] and following its fall in 1453 [i], of the O ... 

 , founded in 849 by the regent Bardas of emperor Michael III Michael III

Michael III the Drunkard,, Byzantine Emperor [i] from 842 to 867.... 

, followed by the University of Salerno University of Salerno

The University of Salerno is a university located in Salerno [i], Italy [i]. It is organized in 9 Facult ... 

 , University of Bologna University of Bologna

The University of Bologna [i] is the oldest continually operating degree-granting university in the worl ... 

  in Bologna Bologna

Bologna is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna [i] in northern Italy [i], in the Pianura Padana [i], be ... 

, Italy Italy

Italy, officially the Italian Republic , is a Southern European [i] country. ... 

, and the University of Paris University of Paris

The historic University of Paris first appeared in the second half of the 12th century, but was in 1970 ... 

  in Paris Paris

native_name = Ville de Paris
|common_name = Paris
... 

, France, later associated with the Sorbonne. Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church Roman Catholic Church

The Roman Catholic Church or Catholic Church is the Christian [i] Church [i] ... 

, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull Papal bull

A Papal bull is a special kind of patent [i] or charter issued by a pope [i] and named fo ... 

 as Studia Generali. In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries.

In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric Rhetoric

Rhetoric is the art or technique of persuasion, usually through the use of language.... 

, and logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry Geometry

Geometry arose as the field of knowledge dealing with spatial relationships.... 

, music Music

Music is an art, entertainment [i], or other human activity that involves organized and audible sounds a ... 

, and astronomy Astronomy

Astronomy is the science [i] of celestial objects and phenomena [i] that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere [i] ... 

. .

Universities are generally established by statute Statute

A statute is a formal, written law [i] of a country [i] or state [i], written and enacted by its legislative [i] ... 

 or charter. In the United Kingdom United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a country and sovereign state [i] tha ... 

, for instance, a university is instituted by Act of Parliament or Royal Charter; in either case generally with the approval of Privy Council Privy Council of the United Kingdom

Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council is a body of advisors to the British Sovereign [i] ... 

, and only such recognized bodies can award degrees of any kind.

In Mali, West Africa, the celebrated Islamic University of Sankore had no central administration; rather, it was composed of several entirely independent schools or colleges, each run by a single master . The courses took place in the open courtyards of mosque complexes or private residences. The primary subjects were the Qur’an, Islamic studies, law and literature. Other subjects included medicine and surgery, astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, philosophy, language and linguistics, geography, history and art. The students also spent time in learning a trade and business code and ethics. The university trade shops offered classes in business, carpentry, farming, fishing, construction, shoe making, tailoring and navigation. It was claimed that the intellectual freedom enjoyed in Western Universities was inspired from universities like Sankore and Qurtuba universities.

Memorizing the Qur’an and mastering Arabic language were compulsory to students. Arabic was a lingua franca of the university as well as the language of trade and commerce in Timbuktu. Except for a few manuscripts, which are in Songhay and other a’jami language, all the remaining 70,000 manuscripts are in Arabic.

Like all other Islamic universities, its students came from all over the world. Around the 12th century it had an attendance of 25,000 students, in a city of 100,000 people. The university was known for its high standards and admission requirements

There is a growing movement, dubbed the University of the Third Age, "the U3A", which consists of small, independent and autonomous groups of retired scholars and others engaged in study for its own sake, of charitable status and without the award of any form of degree or qualification: a university in the ancient sense of a corporation of scholars. The scope of the U3A studies extends far beyond the walls of academe and embraces most of the physical as well as the mental disciplines appropriate to those in the "third age" of life.

Future

The future of the university as a traditionally conceived brick and mortar edifice is in doubt due to a number of factors. A European, Christian, and profoundly elite institution, the university has had considerable difficulty moving into a more egalitarian educational model which still seeks intellectual quality and seeks to profess objective truths. In his groundbreaking study of the American university since World War II, The Knowledge Factory, Stanley Aronowitz argues that the American university has been besieged by growing unemployment issues, the pressures of big business on the land grant university, as well as the political passivity and ivory tower naivete of American academics. In a somewhat more theoretical vein, the late Bill Readings contends in his 1995 study The University in Ruins that the university around the world has been hopelessly commodified by globalization and the bureaucratic non-value of "excellence." His view is that the university will continue to linger on as an increasingly consumerist, ruined institution until or unless we are able to conceive of advanced education in transnational ways that can move beyond both the national subject and the corporate enterprise.

Organization



Although each institution is differently organized, nearly all universities have a board of trustees, a president , at least one vice president or vice-rector, and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties. Public university Public university

A public university is a university [i] that is predominantly funded by public means through a national ... 

 systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded having generally a broader independence from state policies.

Despite the variable policies, or cultural and economic standards available in different geographical locations create a tremendous disparity between universities around the world and even inside a country, the universities are usually among the foremost research and advanced training providers in every society. Most universities not only offer courses in subjects ranging from the natural sciences, engineering, architecture or medicine, to sports administration, social sciences, law or humanities, they also offer many amenities to their student population including a variety of places to eat, banks, bookshops, print shops, job centres, and bars. In addition, most major universities have their own libraries Library

In the traditional sense of the word, a library is a collection of book [i]s and periodicals. ... 

, sports centers, restaurants, students' union Students' union

A students' union, student government, or student council is a student [i] organization [i] ... 

s, botanical garden Botanical garden

Botanical gardens grow a wide variety of plant [i]s primarily categorized and documented for scientific ... 

s, astronomical observatories Observatory

An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial and/or celestial events.... 

, university hospitals and clinics, computer lab Computer lab

A computer lab is a room which contains many computer [i]s, printer [i]s and other elec ... 

s, research laboratories Laboratory

A laboratory is a place where scientific research [i], measurement [i] and experiment [i]s are c ... 

, business incubators and many other.

Universities around the world


The funding and organisation of universities is very different in different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students.

Universities and student life in different countries


See also: List of colleges and universities by country.




* Afghan universities
* Argentine universities
* Australian universities List of universities in Australia

This is a list of universities [i] and other higher education [i] institutions in Australia [i].
... 


* Bangladeshi Universities
* Belgian universities
* Brazilian universities
* British universities
* Bulgarian universities
*
* Canadian universities
* Chinese universities List of universities in mainland China

The following is a list of universities [i] in Mainland China [i].... 


* Dutch universities
* Egyptian universities
* French universities
* German universities
* Greek universities
* Hungarian universities
* Irish universities
* Israeli universities
* Italian universities
* Japanese universities

* Jordanian universities
*
* Macedonian universities
* Malaysian Universities
* Indian universities

* Nigerian universities
* Norwegian universities
*
* Philippine universities
* Polish universities
* Portuguese universities
* Taiwanese universities

* Singaporean universities

* Spanish universities
* Swiss universities
* Uruguayan universities
* Turkish universities
* U.K. universities
* U.S. universities

Selective admissions

Admission systems and university structures vary widely around the world . Differences are marked in countries where universities fulfill the role of community colleges in the United States and Europe.

Colloquial usage

Colloquially, the term university may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "when I was at university…"; in the United States, college is often used: "when I was in college…". See the college College

College is a term most often used today to denote an educational [i] institution [i]. ... 

 article for further discussion. In Australia and New Zealand "university" is often contracted to "uni", which has also recently become common among the young in the United Kingdom. In New Zealand and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity", which was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century.

The usual practice in the United States today is to call an institution made up of several faculties and granting a range of higher degrees a "university", while a smaller institution only granting bachelor's or associate's degrees is called a "college". Nevertheless, a few of America's older universities, such as Boston College Boston College

name = | image = | motto = ??e? a??ste?e?? Ever to Excel [i]
... 

, Dartmouth College Dartmouth College

Dartmouth College is a private [i] academic institution in Hanover [i], New Hampshire [i] ... 

, and the College of William and Mary College of William and Mary

The College of William and Mary is a small public university [i] located in Williamsburg, Virginia [i], ... 

, have retained the term "college" in their names for historical reasons, even though they offer a wide range of higher degrees.
On the other hand, many smaller colleges now call themselves "universities," regardless of their limited programs and degree offerings. For institutions in the United States, the Carnegie classification system distinguishes institutions on the basis of the prevalence of degrees they grant. The classifications are: I , IIA , IIB , III , IV . A "true" university is an institution with a I or IIA classification.


See also

  • Vocational university
  • Institutes of technology Institute of technology

    Institute of technology, and polytechnic, are designations employed in a wide range of learning in... 

  • Corporate universities
  • International university
  • List of colleges and universities
  • List of oldest universities in continuous operation
  • List of academic disciplines List of academic disciplines

    This is a list of academic disciplines.... 

  • Medieval universities, including list of Medieval university

    The first European [i] medieval institutions generally considered to be universities [i] wer... 

  • Muslim educational institutions
  • Private university
  • Public university Public university

    A public university is a university [i] that is predominantly funded by public means through a national ... 

  • School and university in literature
  • University ranking
  • College application College application

    ... 

    s
  • Underground education in Poland during World War II
  • Urban university
  • moveonnet

Related terms

academia Academia

Academia is a collective term for the scientific and cultural community engaged in higher education [i] ... 

 - academic rank - academy Academy

An academy is an institution for the study of higher learning.

... 

 - admission - alumnus - aula - polytechnic Institute of technology

Institute of technology, and polytechnic, are designations employed in a wide range of learning in... 

 - - Bologna process - business schools - Grandes écoles Grandes écoles

The grandes coles of France [i] are higher education establishments outside the mainstream framework of ... 

 - campus Campus

Campus is Latin [i] for "field" or "open space". ... 

 - college College

College is a term most often used today to denote an educational [i] institution [i]. ... 

 - college and university rankings - dean - degree - diploma - discipline - - faculty - fraternities and sororities - graduate student - graduation Graduation

Graduation is the action of receiving or conferring an academic degree [i] or the associated ceremony. ... 

 - Ivory Tower Ivory Tower

The term Ivory Tower designates a world or atmosphere where intellectuals engage in pursuits that are di... 

 - lecturer - medieval university Medieval university

The first European [i] medieval institutions generally considered to be universities [i] wer... 

 - medieval university Medieval university

The first European [i] medieval institutions generally considered to be universities [i] wer... 

 - mega university - perpetual student - professor Professor

The meaning of the word professor varies.... 

 - provost - rector - research - scholar Academia

Academia is a collective term for the scientific and cultural community engaged in higher education [i] ... 

 - senioritis - student Student

The word student is etymologically [i] derived through Middle English [i] from the Latin [i] second-type [i] ... 

 - tenure - Town and Gown Town and gown

Town and gown is a term used to describe the two communities of a university town [i]; "tow ... 

 - tuition - undergraduate - universal access - university administration

References


  • Stanley Aronowitz, The Knowledge Factory. Boston: Beacon, 2000.
  • Clyde W. Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894-1928, University of Wisconsin Press 1990
  • Sigmund Diamond, Compromised Campus: The Collaboration of Universities with the Intelligence Community, 1945-1955, Oxford University Press 1992
  • Olaf Pedersen, The First Universities : Studium Generale and the Origins of University Education in Europe, Cambridge University Press, 1998
  • Bill Readings, The University in Ruins. Harvard UP, 1995.
  • Thomas F. Richards, The Cold War Within American Higher Education: Rutgers University As a Case Study,Pentland Press 1998
  • Walter Ruegg , A History of the University in Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge ISBN 0-521-36107-9 .