The
military historyMilitary history is a humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, their cultures, economies and changing intra and international relationships....
of CanadaCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
comprises hundreds of years of armed actions in the territory encompassing modern Canada, and the role of the
Canadian militaryThe Canadian Forces , officially the Canadian Armed Forces , are the unified armed forces of Canada, as constituted by the National Defence Act, which states: "The Canadian Forces are the armed forces of Her Majesty raised by Canada and consist of one Service called the Canadian Armed Forces."...
in
conflictConflict is actual or perceived opposition of needs, values and interests. A conflict can be internal to individuals. Conflict as a concept can help explain many aspects of social life such as social disagreement, conflicts of interests, and fights between individuals, groups, or organizations...
s and
peacekeepingPeacekeeping, as defined by the United Nations, is "a way to help countries torn by conflict create conditions for sustainable peace." It is distinguished from both peacebuilding and peacemaking....
worldwide. For thousands of years, the area that would become Canada was the site of sporadic intertribal wars among
First NationsFirst Nations is a term of ethnicity that refers to the Aboriginal peoples in Canada, who are neither Inuit nor Métis. There are currently over 600 recognised First Nations governments or bands spread all across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia...
peoples. Beginning in the 16th century, the arrival of Europeans led to conflicts with Aboriginal peoples and among the invading Europeans in the
New WorldThe New World is one of the names used for the non-Afro-Eurasian parts of the Earth, specifically the Americas and possibly Australia. When the term originated in the late 15th century, the Americas were new to the Europeans, who previously thought of the world as consisting only of Europe, Asia,...
. Starting in the 17th century, the region was the site of conflicts between the
FrenchFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
and the
BritishThe Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a sovereign state in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1801...
for more than a century, as each allied with various First Nation groups. In 1763, the British emerged victorious and the French civilians, whom the British hoped to assimilate, were declared "British Subjects". New challenges soon arose when the
northern coloniesBritish North America consisted of the colonies and territories of the British Empire in continental North America after the end of the American Revolutionary War and the recognition of American independence in 1783....
chose not to join the
American RevolutionThe American Revolution is the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen of Britain's colonies in North America at first rejected the governance of the Parliament of Great Britain, and later the British monarchy itself, to become the sovereign United States of...
and remained loyal to the British crown. The victorious
AmericansThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
looked to extend their republic and launched invasions in 1775 and in 1812. On both occasions, the Americans were rebuffed by British and local forces; however, this threat would remain well into the 19th century and partially facilitated
Canadian ConfederationCanadian Confederation was the process by which the federal Dominion of Canada was formed, officially beginning on July 1, 1867, with the new provinces of Ontario and Quebec along with two other British colonies, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, which also became provinces.-Usage:Canada is a...
in 1867.
After Confederation, and amid much controversy, a full-fledged
Canadian militaryThe Canadian Forces , officially the Canadian Armed Forces , are the unified armed forces of Canada, as constituted by the National Defence Act, which states: "The Canadian Forces are the armed forces of Her Majesty raised by Canada and consist of one Service called the Canadian Armed Forces."...
was created. Canada, however, remained a British colony, and Canadian forces joined their British counterparts in the
Second Boer WarThe Second Boer War , commonly referred to as The Boer War and also known as the South African War , the Anglo-Boer War and in Afrikaans as the Anglo-Boereoorlog or Tweede Vryheidsoorlog , or the Engelse oorlog was fought...
, and the First World War. While independence followed the Statute of Westminster, Canada's links to Britain remained strong, and the British once again enjoyed Canadian support in the Second World War. Since the Second World War, however, Canada has been committed to
multilateralismMultilateralism is a term in international relations that refers to multiple countries working in concert on a given issue.Most international organizations, such as the United Nations and the World Trade Organization are multilateral in nature...
and has gone to war only within large multinational
coalitionA coalition is an alliance among individuals or groups, during which they cooperate in joint action, each in his own self-interest, joining forces together for a common cause. This alliance may be temporary or a matter of convenience. A coalition thus differs from a more formal covenant...
s such as in the
Korean WarThe Korean War is a war that started between North Korea and South Korea on 25 June 1950 and paused with an armistice signed 27 July, 1953...
, the
Gulf WarThe Persian Gulf War , known also as the Gulf War, the First Gulf War,or often as the Second Gulf War and by Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein as The Mother of all Battles, or commonly as Desert Storm, for the military response...
, the
Kosovo WarThe term Kosovo War or Kosovo Conflict is used to describe two sequential and at times parallel armed conflicts in Kosovo:#Early 1998–1999: War between Yugoslav police forces, Yugoslav paramilitaries, and the Kosovo Albanian insurgents....
, and the
2001 invasion of AfghanistanThe War in Afghanistan is an ongoing coalition conflict which began on October 7, 2001, as the British military participated in the US military's Operation Enduring Freedom that was launched in response to the September 11 attacks...
. Canada has also played an important role in UN
peacekeepingPeacekeeping, as defined by the United Nations, is "a way to help countries torn by conflict create conditions for sustainable peace." It is distinguished from both peacebuilding and peacemaking....
operations worldwide and has cumulatively committed more troops than any other country. As of 2006,
CanadaCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
had the second-highest peacekeeping fatality in the world, behind
IndiaIndia, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal...
.
First Nations
The first conflicts between Europeans and Native peoples may have occurred around 1006, when parties of Norsemen attempted to establish permanent settlements along the coast of Newfoundland. According to Norse sagas, the native
BeothukThe Beothuk were the native inhabitants of the island of Newfoundland at the time of European contact in the 15th and 16th centuries...
(called skraelings or
skraelingars by the Norse) responded so ferociously that the newcomers eventually withdrew and gave up their original intentions to settle. Among later European settlers, the First Nations developed a reputation for violence and savagery. The Natives gave no heed to the idea of
surrenderSurrender is when soldiers, nations or other combatants stop fighting and eventually become prisoners of war, either as individuals or when ordered to by their officers. A white flag is a common symbol of surrender, as is the gesture of raising one's hands empty and open above one's head.When the...
, and tended to torture and kill those who did so.
Prior to the arrival of Europeans, some First Nations warfare tended to be formal and ritualistic, and entail relatively few casualties. But there is also evidence of much more violent warfare, even the complete genocide of some groups by others, such as the total displacement of the Dorset culture of Newfoundland by the Beothuk mentioned above, as well as by the
InuitInuit is a general term for a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Canada, Greenland, and Alaska...
in other regions. There is no evidence of genetic or cultural continuity, so the Dorset are presumed to have simply been wiped out. Just prior to French settlement in the St. Lawrence River valley, the local Iroquoian peoples were completely eradicated, probably in warfare with their neighbors. Study of whether any of these people, who had several large towns along the St. Lawrence River, survived the 16th century is inconclusive.
After Europeans arrived, fighting tended to be bloodier and more decisive, especially as tribes became caught up in the economic and military rivalries of the European settlers. By the end of the seventeenth century, the East Coast First Nations rapidly adopted the use of firearms, supplanting the traditional
bowA bow is a weapon that projects arrows powered by the elasticity of the bow. Essentially, it is a form of spring. As the bow is drawn, energy is stored in the limbs of the bow and transformed into rapid motion when the string is released, with the string transferring this force to the arrow...
. While a skilled
warriorAccording to the Random House Dictionary, the term warrior has two meanings. The first literal use refers to "a person engaged or experienced in warfare." The second figurative use refers to "a person who shows or has shown great vigor, courage, or aggressiveness, as in politics or athletics."...
could dodge an incoming arrow, and wooden
armourArmour or armor is protective covering used to prevent damage from being inflicted to an individual or a vehicle through use of direct contact weapons or projectiles, usually during combat...
offered some measure of protection against arrows, nothing could protect them from a
bulletA bullet is a projectile propelled by a firearm, sling, or air gun. A bullet does not contain explosives, but damages the intended target by its impact or penetration...
. Even wounds to limbs from these large-calibre, low velocity bullets eventually proved fatal. The adoption of firearms significantly increased the number of fatalities. The bloodshed, involved in native conflicts, was also dramatically increased by the uneven distribution of firearms and horses among Native groups.
Native tribes became important allies of the French and English in the struggle for North American hegemony during the 17th and 18th centuries; these alliances escalated the violence.
ScalpingScalping is the act of removing another person's scalp or a portion of their scalp. It can be done to someone after death, or on someone alive, in which case it may or may not be deadly....
, which is now believed to have existed before the arrival of the Europeans, became more common as the Europeans demanded the presentation of scalps as evidence of their military success.
Early French settlements
The French under
Samuel de ChamplainSamuel de Champlain, , , "The Father of New France", was a French navigator, cartographer, draughtsman, soldier, explorer, geographer, ethnologist, diplomat and chronicler...
founded settlements at Annapolis Royal in 1605 and
Quebec CityQuébec , is the capital of the Canadian province of Quebec and is located within the Capitale-Nationale region. It is the second most populous city in the province – after Montreal, about to the southwest...
in 1608, quickly joining pre-existing Native alliances that brought them into conflict with other indigenous inhabitants. For example, soon after the founding of Quebec City, Champlain joined a Huron-Algonkian alliance against the Iroquois Confederacy. In the earliest battle, superior French firepower rapidly dispersed a massed groups of Natives. The Iroquois changed tactics by integrating their
huntingHunting is the practice of pursuing living animals for food, recreation, or trade. In present-day use, the term refers to lawful hunting, as distinguished from poaching, which is the killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species contrary to applicable law...
skills and their intimate knowledge of the terrain with their use of firearms obtained from the Dutch; therefore, they developed a highly effective form of
guerrilla warfareGuerrilla warfare is the irregular warfare warfare and combat in which a small group of combatants use mobile military tactics in the form of ambushes and raids to combat a larger and less mobile formal army....
, and were soon a formidable threat to all but the handful of fortified cities. As well, as the French gave few guns to their Native allies, the Iroquois waged devastating warfare against the tribes of the Great Lakes region. For the first century of its existence the chief threat to the inhabitants of
New FranceNew France was the area colonized by France in North America during a period extending from the exploration of the Saint Lawrence River, by Jacques Cartier in 1534, to the cession of New France to Spain and Britain in 1763...
came from the
IroquoisThe Iroquois , also known as the Haudenosaunee or the "People of the Longhouse", are an indigenous people of North America. In the 16th century or earlier, the Iroquois came together in an association known as the Iroquois League, or the "League of Peace and Power"...
Confederacy, and particularly from its eastern-most people, the
MohawksMohawk" are an indigenous people of North America originally from the Mohawk Valley in upstate New York to southern Quebec and eastern Ontario. Their current settlements include areas around Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence River in Canada...
. While the majority of tribes in the region were
alliesIn general, allies are people, groups, or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose. In English usage, those who share a common goal and whose work toward that goal is complementary may be viewed as allies for various purposes even when...
of the French, the Iroquois were aligned first with the Dutch, and, after the ceding of New Netherland to England, with the British, and received their weapons and support.
The French and Iroquois Wars continued intermittently until 1703, with great brutality on both sides. In response to the Iroquois threat, the French government dispatched the
Carignan-Salières RegimentThe Carignan-Salières Regiment was a French military unit formed by merging the Carignan Regiment and the Salières Regiment in 1659. The regiment began their existence in combat against the Ottoman Empire before being reorganized to consist of twenty-four companies before being sent to Canada in...
, the first group of uniformed professional soldiers to set foot on what is today Canadian soil. After peace was attained, this regiment was disbanded in Canada. The soldiers settled in the St. Lawrence valley and, in the late 17th century, formed the core of the
Compagnies Franches de la MarineThe Compagnies Franches de la Marine was the main organization for the defence of New France from 1683 to 1755. In 1683, the Naval Department of France began using the Compagnies to defend the fur trade and the local civilians. They were superseded by the arrival of large units of the army under...
, the local militia. Later, militias were developed on the larger seigneuries.
English–French conflict
Canada was colonised by two major European powers that were historically at odds with each other, and it was inevitable that this age-old tension would spill over into Canada; during the 17th and 18th centuries, there was almost continuous conflict between the colonizing powers in Canada.
17th century
Two years after the French founded Annapolis Royal, the English began their first settlement, at
JamestownJamestown, located on Jamestown Island in the Virginia Colony, was founded on May 14, 1607. It is commonly regarded as the first permanent English settlement in what is now the United States of America, following several earlier failed attempts, including the Lost Colony of Roanoke. It was founded...
,
VirginiaThe Commonwealth of Virginia is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" because it is the birthplace of eight U.S. presidents. The geography and climate of the state are shaped by the Blue...
to the south. From these original footholds, much larger colonies would emerge. The French colony of Canada on the
Saint Lawrence RiverThe Saint Lawrence River is a large river flowing approximately from southwest to northeast in the middle latitudes of North America, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean. It is the primary drainage of the Great Lakes Basin...
was based primarily on the
fur tradeThe fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur.-Russian fur trade:Before the colonization of the Americas, Russia was a major supplier of fur-pelts to Western Europe and parts of Asia. Fur was a major Russian export as trade developed in the early Middle...
and enjoyed only lukewarm support from the
French monarchy. It grew only slowly amidst the tough and unyielding geographical and climatic circumstances. The more favourably located English colonies to the south developed more diversified economies and flourished. The result was that by the 1750s, when the economic, political, and military rivalries came to a head in the struggle of the
Seven Years' WarThe Seven Years' War lasted between 1754 and 1763 and involved all of the major European powers of the period. The war pitted Prussia and Britain and a coalition of smaller German states against an alliance consisting of Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony...
, the total population of the 13 English colonies was 1,500,000, whereas that of their French rivals to the north was only about 60,000. As a result, outside of their strongholds of Quebec City and Louisbourg, the French were forced to employ both
guerrilla warfareGuerrilla warfare is the irregular warfare warfare and combat in which a small group of combatants use mobile military tactics in the form of ambushes and raids to combat a larger and less mobile formal army....
tactics, largely borrowed from the Natives. The guerilla form of fighting became known as
la petite guerre.
During the 17th century, there were several skirmishes between the two
great powerA great power is a nation or state that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess economic, military, diplomatic, and cultural strength, which may cause other smaller nations to consider the opinions of great powers before taking actions of...
s. In 1629, a group of English seaborne marauders captured and burnt the stronghold at Quebec and carried off Champlain and its other leaders into captivity in England. However, the French returned in 1632, rebuilt their capital, and resumed their endeavours. The next most serious threat to Quebec in the seventeenth century came in 1690 when, alarmed by the attacks of the
petite guerre, the New England colonies sent an armed expedition north, under Sir
William PhipsSir William Phips was a colonial governor of Massachusetts.-Military career:Phips was born at Woolwich, Maine, near the mouth of the Kennebec River, the twenty-sixth child in his family. He was a cousin of Sir Constantine Phipps, Lord Chancellor of Ireland, ancestor of the Marquess of Normanby...
, to capture the source of the problems: Quebec itself. This expedition was poorly organized and had little time to achieve its objective, having arrived in mid-October, shortly before the St Lawrence would freeze over. The expedition was responsible for eliciting one of the most famous pronouncements in Canadian military history. When called on by Phips to surrender, the aged Governor
FrontenacLouis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac et de Palluau was a French soldier, courtier, and Governor General of New France from 1672 to 1682 and from 1689 to his death in 1698...
, then serving his second term, replied "I will answer … only with the mouths of my cannon and the shots of my muskets." After a single abortive landing on the Beauport shore to the east of the city, the English force withdrew down the icy waters of the St Lawrence.
In 1695,
Pierre Le Moyne d'IbervillePierre Le Moyne d'Iberville [pronounced as described in note] ,was a soldier, ship captain, explorer, colonial administrator, knight of the order of Saint-Louis, adventurer, privateer, trader, and founder of the French colony of Louisiana. He was born at Ville-Marie, on 16...
was called upon to attack the English stations along the Atlantic coast of Newfoundland. Iberville sailed with his three vessels to
PlacentiaPlacentia is a town on the Avalon Peninsula, Newfoundland and Labrador, consisting of the amalgamated communities of Jerseyside, Townside, Freshwater, Dunville and Argentia...
(Plaisance), the French capital of Newfoundland. Both English and French fishermen exploited the
Grand BanksThe Grand Banks of Newfoundland are a group of underwater plateaus southeast of Newfoundland on the North American continental shelf. These areas are relatively shallow, ranging from in depth. The cold Labrador Current mixes with the warm waters of the Gulf Stream here.The mixing of these waters...
fishery from their respective settlements on Newfoundland under the sanction of the treaty of 1687, but the purpose of the new French expedition of 1696 was nevertheless to expel the English from Newfoundland. Iberville and his men left Placentia on November 1, 1696, and marched overland to
FerrylandFerryland is a town in Newfoundland and Labrador on the Avalon Peninsula. According to the 2006 Statistics Canada census, its population is 529....
, south of
St John'sSt. John's is the provincial capital of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada and located on the eastern tip of the Avalon Peninsula on the island of Newfoundland. St...
. Nine days later, Iberville joined with naval forces and both detachments began the march north to the English capital, which surrendered on November 30, 1696, following a brief siege. After setting fire to
St John'sSt. John's is the provincial capital of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada and located on the eastern tip of the Avalon Peninsula on the island of Newfoundland. St...
, Iberville's Canadians almost totally destroyed the English fisheries along the eastern shore of Newfoundland. Small raiding parties terrorized the hamlets hidden away in remote bays and inlets, burning, looting, and taking prisoners. By the end of March 1697, only
BonavistaBonavista is a town on the Bonavista Peninsula, Newfoundland in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador...
and
Carbonear
Carbonear is a town on the Avalon Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. As of 2006, there are 4,723 people living in Carbonear, down from 4,759 in 2001. -History:...
remained in English hands. In four months of raids, Iberville was responsible for the destruction of 36 settlements.
Early 18th century
During the 18th century, the British-French struggle in Canada intensified as the rivalry between the mother countries worsened in Europe. As concerns grew, the French government poured more and more military spending into its North American colonies. Expensive garrisons were maintained at distant fur trading posts, the fortifications of Quebec City were improved and augmented, and a new fortified town was built on the east coast of Île Royale, or
Cape Breton IslandCape Breton Island is an island on the Atlantic coast of North America. It likely corresponds to the French word "Breton", referring to Brittany.Cape Breton Island is part of the province of Nova Scotia, Canada...
—the fortress of Louisbourg, the so-called "Dunkirk of the North."
Three times during the 18th century, the French and English North American colonies found themselves at war with one another. The first two major wars were local off-shoots of larger European conflicts—the
War of the Spanish SuccessionThe War of the Spanish Succession was fought among several European powers, principally the Holy Roman Empire, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, Portugal, and the Duchy of Savoy, against the Kingdoms of France and Spain and the Electorate of Bavaria, over a possible unification of the Kingdoms of...
(1702–13), the
War of the Austrian SuccessionThe War of the Austrian Succession involved nearly all the powers of Europe...
(1744–48). The last, the
Seven Years' WarThe Seven Years' War lasted between 1754 and 1763 and involved all of the major European powers of the period. The war pitted Prussia and Britain and a coalition of smaller German states against an alliance consisting of Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony...
(1756–63), started in the Ohio Valley. The petite guerre of the Canadiens left a trail of terror and devastation through the northern towns and villages of
New EnglandNew England is a region of the United States. It is located at the northeastern corner of the US, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean, Canada and the state of New York, consisting of the modern U.S...
, sometimes reaching as far south as
VirginiaThe Commonwealth of Virginia is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" because it is the birthplace of eight U.S. presidents. The geography and climate of the state are shaped by the Blue...
. The war also spread to the forts along the Hudson Bay shore. In 1713, a British force managed to capture
Port RoyalPort Royal is a small rural community in the western part of the Canadian province of Nova Scotia. It is located on the north shore of the Annapolis Basin, a sub-basin of the Bay of Fundy, near the town of Annapolis Royal...
, the French capital of
AcadiaAcadia was the name given to lands in a portion of the French colonial empire in northeastern North America that included parts of eastern Quebec, the Maritime provinces, and modern-day New England, stretching as far south as Philadelphia...
in present-day
Nova ScotiaNova Scotia is a Canadian province located on Canada's southeastern coast. It is the most populous province in Atlantic Canada. Its capital, Halifax, is a major economic centre of the region. Nova Scotia is the second-smallest province in Canada with an area of...
. As a result, France was forced to cede control of mainland Nova Scotia to
BritainThe Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a sovereign state in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1801...
in the Treaty of Utrecht, leaving present-day
New BrunswickNew Brunswick is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the only constitutionally bilingual province in the confederation. The provincial capital is Fredericton...
,
Prince Edward IslandPrince Edward Island is a Canadian province consisting of an island of the same name, as well as other islands. The maritime province is the smallest in the nation in both land area and population...
, and Cape Breton Island in the hands of the French. British possession of Hudson Bay was guaranteed by the same treaty.
During the War of the Austrian Succession, a force of New England militia, under
William PepperellSir William Pepperrell, 1st Baronet was a merchant and soldier in Colonial Massachusetts. He is widely remembered for organizing, financing, and leading the 1745 expedition that captured the French garrison at Fortress Louisbourg during King George's War...
and Commodore
Peter WarrenSir Peter Warren, KB was a British naval officer from Ireland who commanded the naval forces in the attack on the French fortress of Louisbourg, Nova Scotia in 1745...
of the
Royal NavyThe Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of HM Armed Forces . From the beginning of the 18th century until well into the 20th century, it was the most powerful navy in the world, playing a key part in establishing the British Empire as the dominant world power from 1815 until the early...
, succeeded in capturing Louisbourg in 1745. Yet by the
Treaty of Aix-la-ChapelleThe second Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1748 ended the War of the Austrian Succession.
A congress assembled at the Imperial Free City of Aachen, in the west of the Holy Roman Empire, on 24 April 1748...
that ended the war in 1748, France got Louisbourg back by trading off other of its conquests in the
NetherlandsThe Netherlands is a country in Northwestern Europe, constituting the major portion of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy. The Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east...
and
IndiaIndia, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal...
. The New Englanders were outraged, and as a counterweight to the continuing French strength at Louisbourg, the British founded the military settlement of
HalifaxThe City of Halifax was the capital of the province of Nova Scotia and shire town of Halifax County, and was the largest city in Atlantic Canada until it was amalgamated into Halifax Regional Municipality in 1996...
in 1749, with a strong naval base in its spacious harbour.
Seven Years' War
In 1754, the Seven Years' War began in North America, where it is sometimes called the
French and Indian WarThe French and Indian War, also known as the War of the Conquest or referred as part of the larger conflict known as the Seven Years' War, was a war fought in North America between 1754 and 1763...
. The French had begun to challenge the claims of Anglo-American
tradersThe fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur.-Russian fur trade:Before the colonization of the Americas, Russia was a major supplier of fur-pelts to Western Europe and parts of Asia. Fur was a major Russian export as trade developed in the early Middle...
and
land speculatorsThe Ohio Company, formally known as the Ohio Company of Virginia, was a land speculation company organized for the colonization of the Ohio Country...
for supremacy in the
Ohio CountryThe Ohio Country was the name used in the 18th century for the regions of North America west of the Appalachian Mountains and in the region of the upper Ohio River south of Lake Erie...
to the west of the
Appalachian MountainsThe Appalachian Mountains , often called the Appalachians, are a vast system of mountains in eastern North America. Definitions vary on the precise boundaries of the Appalachians...
—land that was claimed by some of the British colonies in their royal charters. In 1753, the French started the military occupation of the Ohio Country by building a series of forts. In 1755, the British sent two regiments of the line to North America to drive the French from these forts, but these were
destroyedThe Braddock expedition, also called Braddock's campaign or, more commonly, Braddock's Defeat, was a failed British attempt to capture the French Fort Duquesne in the summer of 1755 during the French and Indian War that ended with the Battle of the Monongahela...
by French Canadians and American Indians as they approached
Fort DuquesneFort Duquesne was a fort established by the French in 1754, at the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers in what is now downtown Pittsburgh in the state of Pennsylvania....
. War was formally declared in 1756, and in Canada, six French regiments of troupes de terre, or line infantry, came under the command of the newly arrived general, the 44-year-old Marquis de Montcalm. Accompanying him were another two battalions of 'troupes de terre', bringing the total number of French professional soldiers in the colony to about 4000. This was the first significant aggregation of trained professional soldiers on what was to be Canadian soil.
Under their new commander, the French at first achieved a number of startling victories over the British, first at
Fort William HenryThe Battle of Fort William Henry or Siege of Fort William Henry was General Montcalm's siege and capture of the British–held Fort William Henry in August 1757....
to the south of Lake Champlain, where, in 1757, over 2400 men, mostly British regulars, surrendered. In the following year, an even greater victory followed when the British army—numbering about 15,000 under Major General
James AbercrombieJames Abercrombie or Abercromby was a British Army general and commander-in-chief of forces in North America during the French and Indian War, best known for the disastrous British losses in the 1758 Battle of Carillon....
—was roundly defeated in its attack on a French fortification at
CarillonThe Battle of Carillon, also known as the 1758 Battle of Ticonderoga, was fought on July 8, 1758, during the French and Indian War...
(later renamed
Fort TiconderogaFort Ticonderoga, formerly Fort Carillon, is a large 18th-century fort built at a narrows near the south end of Lake Champlain in upstate New York...
by the British) at the southern tip of Lake Champlain. The French numbered no more than 3500, but before the British withdrew, the French had inflicted a loss of about 2000 men, mostly regulars, for a total French loss of about 350. In the meantime, the British war effort had been galvanized by the appointment of
William PittWilliam Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham PC was a British Whig statesman who achieved his greatest fame leading Britain during the Seven Years' War...
as
British Prime MinisterThe Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the political leader of the United Kingdom and the Head of Her Majesty's Government...
, who was determined to win battles, and who decided that North America would be the crux of the British war effort. In June 1758, a British force of 13,000 regulars under Major General Geoffrey Amherst, with
James WolfeGeneral James Wolfe was a British Army officer, known for his training reforms but remembered chiefly for his victory over the French in Canada and establishing British rule there.- Early life :...
as one of his brigadiers, landed and permanently captured the
Fortress of LouisbourgThe Fortress of Louisbourg is a Canadian National Historic Site and the location of a partial reconstruction of an 18th century French fortress at Louisbourg, Nova Scotia.-Early history:...
.
A year later Wolfe set his gaze on Quebec City. After several botched landing attempts including particularly bloody defeats at
BeauportThe Battle of Beauport, also known as the Battle of Montmorency, fought on 31 July 1759, was an important confrontation between the British and French Armed Forces during the Seven Years' War of the French province of Canada...
and Montmorency, Wolfe succeeded in slipping his army ashore, forming ranks on the
Plains of AbrahamThe Battle of the Plains of Abraham, also known as the Battle of Quebec, was a pivotal battle in the Seven Years' War . The confrontation, which began on 12 September 1759, was fought between the British Army and Navy, and the French Army, on a plateau just outside the walls of Quebec City...
September 12. Montcalm, against the better judgment of his officers, sallied out with a numerically inferior force to meet the British. An epic battle followed in which Wolfe was killed, Montcalm mortally wounded, and 658 British and 644 French fell dead or wounded. Badly mauled by massed British volleys, the French retreated to the citadel and endured a painful siege and blockade before capitulating on September 18.
However, in the spring of 1760, the last French General, François Gaston de Lévis, marched back to Quebec from Montreal and defeated the British at the
Battle of Sainte-FoyThe Battle of Sainte-Foy, sometimes called the Battle of Quebec, was fought on April 28, 1760 in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada during the Seven Years' War . It was a victory for the French under the Chevalier de Lévis over the British army under General Murray...
in a battle similar to that of the previous year; now the situation was reversed, with the French laying siege to the Quebec fortifications behind which the British retreated. However, the French finally had to concede the loss of New France when the Royal Navy rather than the French fleet sailed up the St Lawrence after the breakup of the winter ice. France lost almost all of its North American possessions, and retained only the small islands of
Saint-Pierre and MiquelonThe Territorial Collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon is a group of small French islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, the main islands being Saint Pierre and Miquelon, south of the Canadian province of Newfoundland & Labrador...
as a base for its fishing fleet, which worked the
Grand BanksThe Grand Banks of Newfoundland are a group of underwater plateaus southeast of Newfoundland on the North American continental shelf. These areas are relatively shallow, ranging from in depth. The cold Labrador Current mixes with the warm waters of the Gulf Stream here.The mixing of these waters...
. The French formally withdrew from much of North America in 1763 when they signed the Treaty of Paris. France was given the choice of keeping either New France or its sugar-producing Caribbean island colony
GuadeloupeGuadeloupe is an archipelago located in the eastern Caribbean Sea at , with a land area of 1,628 square kilometres . It is an overseas department of France. As with the other overseas departments, Guadeloupe is also one of the twenty-six regions of France and an integral part of the Republic...
, and chose the latter as it had ten times the GDP of Canada.
Conflicts with the United States
With the French threat eliminated, Britain's eastern seaboard colonies became increasingly restive. The
American RevolutionThe American Revolution is the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen of Britain's colonies in North America at first rejected the governance of the Parliament of Great Britain, and later the British monarchy itself, to become the sovereign United States of...
largely arose from their resentment of paying taxes to support a large military establishment, when there was no obvious enemy. This was augmented by further suspicions of British motives when the Ohio Valley and other western territories previously claimed by France were not annexed to the existing British colonies, especially Pennsylvania and Virginia, which had long-standing claims to the region. Instead, under the Quebec Act, this territory was set aside for the First Nations. The
American Revolutionary WarThe American Revolutionary War , also sometimes known as the American War of Independence, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen united former British colonies in North America, and concluded in a global war between several European great powers...
(1776–83) saw the revolutionaries use force to break free from British rule and claim these western lands. American forces took Montreal and the chain of forts in the Richelieu Valley, but attempts by the revolutionaries to
take Quebec CityThe Battle of Quebec was an attempt on December 31, 1775, by American colonial forces to capture the city of Quebec, drive the British military from the Province of Quebec, and enlist French Canadian support for the American Revolutionary War. The British governor of Quebec, General Guy Carleton,...
were repelled. During this time most French Canadians stayed neutral. The revolutionaries' failure to achieve success in these areas, and the continuing allegiance to Britain of some colonists, resulted in the split of Britain's North American empire. Many Americans who remained loyal to the Crown, known as the
United Empire LoyalistsThe name United Empire Loyalists is an honorific name which has been given after the fact to those American Loyalists who resettled in British North America and other British Colonies as an act of fealty to King George III after the British defeat in the American Revolutionary War and prior to the...
, moved north, greatly expanding the English-speaking population. The independent republic of the
United StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
emerged to the south, while a series of loyal British colonies remained in place along its northern border. The remaining British colonies were collectively referred to as
British North AmericaBritish North America consisted of the colonies and territories of the British Empire in continental North America after the end of the American Revolutionary War and the recognition of American independence in 1783....
.
War of 1812
After the cessation of hostilities, animosity and suspicion continued between the United States and the
United KingdomThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name and the state form of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927...
. This erupted into a shooting war in 1812, when the Americans declared war on the British. The Americans were irked by British harassment of US ships on the high seas (including impressment of American seamen into the Royal Navy), the occurrence of which was a byproduct of British involvement in the ongoing
Napoleonic WarsThe Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts declared against Napoleon's French Empire and changing sets of European allies by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionized European armies and played...
. The Americans did not possess a navy capable of challenging the
Royal NavyThe Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of HM Armed Forces . From the beginning of the 18th century until well into the 20th century, it was the most powerful navy in the world, playing a key part in establishing the British Empire as the dominant world power from 1815 until the early...
, and so an invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible means of attacking the British Empire. Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to what they saw as British support of American Indian resistance to the westward expansion of the United States, and finalize their claim to the western territories. The early strategy was to temporarily seize Canada as a means of forcing concessions from the British. However, as the war progressed, outright annexation was more frequently cited as an objective—an early expression of what would later be called "
Manifest DestinyManifest Destiny is a term that was used in the 19th century to designate the belief that the United States was destined, even divinely ordained, to expand across the North American continent, from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific Ocean...
". Many Americans hoped the French Canadians would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers.
The Americans launched an invasion across the northern border in July 1812. The war raged back and forth along the border of
Upper CanadaThe Province of Upper Canada was a British colony located in what is now the southern portion of the Province of Ontario in Canada. Upper Canada officially existed from 26 December 1791 to 10 February 1841 and generally comprised present-day Southern Ontario...
, on land as well as on the waters of the
Great LakesThe Great Lakes are a collection of freshwater lakes located in eastern North America, on the Canada – United States border. Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth. They are sometimes referred to as the "Third...
. The British succeeded in capturing
DetroitDetroit is the largest city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the seat of Wayne County. Detroit is a major port city on the Detroit River, in the Midwest region of the United States. Located north of Windsor, Ontario, Detroit is the only major U.S. city that looks south to Canada. It was founded...
in July, and in October. On July 12, U.S. General
William HullWilliam Hull was an American soldier and politician. He fought in the American Revolution, was Governor of Michigan Territory, and was a general in the War of 1812, for which he is best remembered for surrendering Fort Detroit to the British.- Early life and Revolutionary War :He was born in...
invaded Canada at Sandwich (later known as
WindsorWindsor is the southernmost major city in Canada and lies in Southwestern Ontario at the western end of the heavily populated Quebec City-Windsor Corridor. It is within Essex County, although administratively separated from the county government. Windsor is located south of Detroit, is separated...
). The invasion was quickly halted, and Hull withdrew, but this gave Brock the excuse he needed to abandon Prevost's orders. Securing Tecumseh's aid, Brock advanced on
DetroitDetroit is the largest city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the seat of Wayne County. Detroit is a major port city on the Detroit River, in the Midwest region of the United States. Located north of Windsor, Ontario, Detroit is the only major U.S. city that looks south to Canada. It was founded...
. At this point, even with his American Indian allies, Brock was outnumbered approximately two to one. However, Brock had gauged Hull as a timid man, and particularly as being afraid of Tecumseh's natives. Brock thus decided to use a series of tricks to intimidate Hull. Needless to say, the defeat of Detroit was utter and complete.
A major American thrust across the
NiagaraThe Niagara Peninsula is the portion of Southern Ontario, Canada lying between the south shore of Lake Ontario and the north shore of Lake Erie. It stretches from the Niagara River in the east to Hamilton, Ontario in the west. The population of the peninsula is roughly 1,000,000 people...
frontier was defeated at the
Battle of Queenston HeightsThe Battle of Queenston Heights was the first major battle in the War of 1812 and resulted in a British victory. It took place on October 13, 1812, near Queenston in Upper Canada...
by a combined force of British regular troops and colonial militia under Sir
Isaac BrockMajor-General Sir Isaac Brock KB was a British Army officer and administrator. Brock was assigned to Canada in 1802. Despite facing desertions and near-mutinies, he commanded his regiment in Upper Canada successfully for many years...
, who lost his life in the battle.
1813 was the year of American victories, when they retook Detroit and enjoyed a string of successes along the western end of
Lake ErieLake Erie is the fourth largest lake of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the thirteenth largest globally. It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time. It is bounded on the north by the...
, culminating in the
Battle of Lake ErieThe Battle of Lake Erie, sometimes referred to as the Battle of Put-in-Bay, was fought on 10 September, 1813, in Lake Erie off the coast of Ohio during the War of 1812. Nine vessels of the United States Navy defeated and captured six vessels of Great Britain’s Royal Navy...
(September 10) and the Battle of Moraviantown or Battle of the Thames on October 5. The naval battle secured U.S. dominance of lakes Erie and Huron. At Moraviantown, the British lost one of their key commanders, the Shawnee chief
TecumsehTecumseh also Tecumtha or Tekamthi, was a Native American leader of the Shawnee and a large tribal confederacy that opposed the United States during Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812...
. Further east, the Americans succeeded in capturing and burning York (later
TorontoToronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. It is located in Southern Ontario on the northwestern shore of Lake Ontario. With over 2.5 million residents, it is the fifth most populous municipality in North America...
) and taking
Fort George at NiagaraFort George National Historic Site is a historic military structure at Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, that was the scene of several battles during the War of 1812...
, which they held until the end of the year. However, in the same year, two American thrusts against
MontrealMontreal is the second-largest city in Canada and the largest city in the province of Quebec. Originally called Ville-Marie , the city takes its present name from Mont-Royal, the triple-peaked hill located in the heart of the city, whose name was also initially given to the island on which the...
were defeated—one by a force of British regulars at
Crysler's FarmThe Battle of Crysler's Farm, also known as the Battle of Crysler's Field, was fought on 11 November, 1813, during the Anglo-American War of 1812...
southwest of the city on the St Lawrence; the other, by a force of mostly French Canadian militia under the command of
Charles de SalaberryLieutenant Colonel Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry was a French-Canadian of the seigneurial class who served as an officer of the British army in Lower Canada and won distinction for repelling the American advance on Montreal during the War of 1812.-Early years:Born at the manor house of...
, to the south of the city at
Allan's CornersThe Battle of the Chateauguay was a battle of the War of 1812. On 26 October, 1813, a force consisting of about 1,630 French Canadian militia and Mohawk warriors under Charles de Salaberry repulsed an American force of about 2,600 attempting to invade Canada.-The American plan:Late in 1813, United...
on the Chateauguay River. The Iroquois tribes of the
Upper CanadaThe Province of Upper Canada was a British colony located in what is now the southern portion of the Province of Ontario in Canada. Upper Canada officially existed from 26 December 1791 to 10 February 1841 and generally comprised present-day Southern Ontario...
, the Caughnawagas from near Montreal, and western tribes under the
ShawneeThe Shawnee, Shaawanwaki, Shaawanooki and Shaawanowi lenaweeki, are a people native to North America. They originally inhabited the areas of Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, Western Maryland, Kentucky, Indiana, and Pennsylvania...
chief,
TecumsehTecumseh also Tecumtha or Tekamthi, was a Native American leader of the Shawnee and a large tribal confederacy that opposed the United States during Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812...
, were valued allies of the British throughout the campaign. These First Peoples played an important part in many battles and on many occasions had a psychologically debilitating impact on their enemy.
In 1814, was the year of American losses. The British recaptured all of their lost territory and seized Michilimackinac in Michigan. The defeat of Napoleon gave the British the chance to turn their attention to the North American theatre and launch raids on Washington, Baltimore and New Orleans. After the capture of Washington, DC in September at Bladensburg, the British burned down the
White HouseThe White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., it was built between 1792 and 1800 of white-painted Aquia sandstone in the late Georgian style and has been the residence of every...
and other government buildings. The entire occupation of Washington lasted only 26 hours. Americans chose the path of peace after this loss. The war of 1812 is also called the 'Forgotten War'.
In December 1814, the two opponents signed a peace treaty that restored the borders that had existed before the war. While thoroughly British, Sir
Isaac BrockMajor-General Sir Isaac Brock KB was a British Army officer and administrator. Brock was assigned to Canada in 1802. Despite facing desertions and near-mutinies, he commanded his regiment in Upper Canada successfully for many years...
became a martyred Canadian hero. The successful defence of Canada relied almost entirely on British regular troops, the Royal Navy, and Native Indian allies. In Canada the war is famed as a major Canadian victory and in The United States it is instead famed as a major American Victory. (Due to the battles of Baltimore and New Orleans before the wars end)
British withdrawal
The fear that the Americans might reactivate their wish to conquer Canada remained a serious concern for at least the next half century, and was the chief reason for the retention of a large British garrison there. From the 1820s to the 1840s, there was extensive construction of fortifications in the colonies, as the British attempted to create strong points around which defending forces might centre in the event of an American invasion; these include the Citadels at Quebec City and Halifax, and
Fort HenryFort Henry is located in Kingston, Ontario, Canada on Point Henry, a strategic point located near the mouth of the Cataraqui River where it flows into the St. Lawrence River, at the upper end of the Thousand Islands...
in
KingstonKingston, Ontario is a Canadian city located in the eastern portion of Southern Ontario, where Lake Ontario runs into the St. Lawrence River and the Thousand Islands begin.Kingston is the county seat of Frontenac County...
. The
Rideau CanalThe Rideau Canal , also known as the Rideau Waterway, connects the city of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada on the Ottawa River to the city of Kingston, Ontario on Lake Ontario. The canal was opened in 1832 as a precaution in case of war with the United States and is still in use today, with most of its...
was built during these years to allow ships in wartime to travel a more northerly route from Montreal to Kingston. (The customary peacetime route was the St Lawrence River, which constituted the northern edge of the American border, and hence was vulnerable to enemy attack and interference.)
One of the most important actions by the British forces during this period was the putting down of the
Rebellions of 1837The Rebellions of 1837 were a pair of Canadian armed uprisings that occurred in 1837 and 1838 in response to frustrations in political reform. A key shared goal was the allowance of responsible government.-Rebellions:...
. The
Upper Canada RebellionThe Upper Canada Rebellion was, along with the Lower Canada Rebellion in Lower Canada, a rebellion against the British colonial government in 1837 and 1838. Collectively they are also known as the Rebellions of 1837.-Issues:...
was quickly and decisively defeated by the British forces. Attacks the next year by Hunters' Lodges, U.S. irregulars who expected to be paid in Canadian land, were crushed in 1838 in battles at Pelee Island and Prescott. The
Lower Canada RebellionThe Lower Canada Rebellion , commonly referred to as the Patriots' War by Quebecers, is the name given to the armed conflict between the rebels of Lower Canada and the British colonial power of that province...
was a greater threat to the British, and the rebels were victorious at the Battle of St. Denis on November 23. Two days later, the rebels were defeated at the
Battle of Saint-CharlesThe Battle of Saint-Charles was fought on November 25, 1837 between Great Britain and Lower Canada rebels. The British were victorious.On the morning of 25 November 1837, 2 days after Charles Gore's defeat at the Battle of Saint-Denis and the retreat to Sorel the troops of Colonel George Wetherall...
, and on December 14, they were finally routed at the
Battle of Saint-EustacheThe Battle of Saint-Eustache, fought on December 14, 1837, was a decisive battle in the Lower Canada Rebellion in which British forces defeated the principle remaining Patriotes camp at Saint-Eustache.-Prelude:...
.
By the 1850s, fears of an American invasion had begun to diminish, and the British felt able to start reducing the size of their garrison. The
Reciprocity TreatyThe Canadian American Reciprocity Treaty, also known as the Elgin-Marcy Treaty, was a trade treaty between the colonies of British North America and the United States...
, negotiated between Canada and the United States in 1854, further helped to alleviate concerns. However, tensions picked up again during the
American Civil WarThe American Civil War , also known as the War Between the States and several other names, was a civil war in the United States of America. Eleven Southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America...
(1861–65), apparently reaching a peak with the
Trent AffairThe Trent Affair, also known as the Mason and Slidell Affair, was an international diplomatic incident that occurred during the American Civil War. On November 8, 1861, the USS San Jacinto, commanded by Union Captain Charles Wilkes, intercepted the British mail packet Trent and removed two...
of late 1861 and early 1862. This was touched off when the captain of a US gunboat stopped the
Royal Mail Steamship TrentRMS Trent was a British Royal Mail paddle steamer built in 1841 by William Pitcher of Northfleet for the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company. She displaced 1,856 gross tons and could carry 60 passengers....
and removed two
ConfederateThe Confederate States of America was a separatist political entity existing between 1861 to 1865, established by eleven southern slave states of the United States of America, each of which had previously declared their secession from the United States...
officials who were bound for Britain. The British government was outraged and, with war appearing imminent, took steps to reinforce its British North American garrison, which was increased from a strength of 4000 to 18,000. In the end, cooler heads prevailed, war was averted, and the sense of crisis subsided. This incident proved to be the final major episode of Anglo-American military confrontation in North America, as both sides increasingly became persuaded of the benefits of amicable relations. At the same time, many Canadians went south to fight in the Civil War, with most joining the Union army, although some Canadians, especially in the Toronto militias, were sympathetic towards the Confederacy (see
Canada and the American Civil WarAt the time of the American Civil War, Canada did not yet exist as a federated nation. Instead, the territory consisted of the United Province of Canada , the six other remaining colonies of British North America and crown territory administered by the Hudson's Bay Company...
).
In the meantime, Britain was becoming concerned with military threats closer to home, and disgruntled at paying to maintain a garrison in colonies that were becoming increasingly self-assertive, and that, after 1867, were united in the self-governing Dominion of Canada. Consequently, in 1871, the troops of the British garrison were withdrawn from Canada completely, save for Halifax and Esquimalt, where British garrisons remained in place purely for reasons of
imperialThe British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom, that had originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height it was...
strategy.
Fenian raids
It was during this period of re-examination of the British military presence in Canada and its ultimate withdrawal that the last invasion of Canada occurred. It was not carried out by any official US government force, but by an organization called the Fenians. This was a group of Irish-Americans, mostly
Union ArmyThe Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War. It was also known as the Federal Army, the U.S. Army, the Northern Army and the National Army...
veterans from the
Civil WarThe American Civil War , also known as the War Between the States and several other names, was a civil war in the United States of America. Eleven Southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America...
who believed that by seizing Canada, concessions could be wrung from the British government regarding their policy in
IrelandIreland is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island in the world. It lies to the north-west of continental Europe and is surrounded by hundreds of islands and islets. To the east of Ireland, separated by the Irish Sea, is the island of Great Britain...
.
The Fenians had also, to a large degree, incorrectly estimated that Irish Canadians, who were quite numerous in Canada, would support their invasive efforts and rise up, both politically and militarily.
After the events of the Civil War, anti-British sentiment was high in the United States.
British-built Confederate warshipsThe Alabama Claims were a series of claims for damages by the United States government against the government of Great Britain for the covert assistance given to the Confederate cause during the American Civil War. After arbitration, in 1872 Britain paid the U.S...
had wreaked havoc on US commerce during the war. Irish-Americans were a large and politically important constituency, particularly in parts of the
Northeastern StatesThe Northeastern United States is a region of the United States. According to the definition used by the United States Census Bureau, the Northeast region consists of nine states: the New England states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut; and the...
and large regiments of Irish Americans had participated in the war. Thus, while deeply concerned about the Fenians, the US government, led by Secretary of State
William H. SewardWilliam Henry Seward, Sr. was a Governor of New York, United States Senator and the United States Secretary of State under Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson...
, generally ignored the Fenian organizing efforts. The Fenians were allowed to openly organize and arm themselves, and were even allowed to recruit in Union Army camps. The Americans were not prepared to risk war with Britain, and intervened when the Fenians threatened to endanger American neutrality.
The Fenians were a serious threat to Canada, being veterans of the
Union ArmyThe Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War. It was also known as the Federal Army, the U.S. Army, the Northern Army and the National Army...
they were well armed. They made three attacks in 1866: one on Campobello Island in New Brunswick in April, and the others in the Niagara and the St Lawrence Valley regions in July. The Campobello and St. Lawrence valley attacks failed. The Fenians won the Battle of Ridgeway when troops, mostly University of Toronto students and young men from Hamilton, were led into a bungled attack and a sloppy retreat, but the Fenians quickly withdrew, fearing a British counter-attack. In New Brunswick, their failure was due to the presence of a strong force of British regulars and the confiscation of Fenian weapons by the American navy. Two later attacks along the Quebec-Vermont frontier in 1870 and Manitoba in 1871 proved similarly fruitless.
Despite these failures, the raids had some impact on Canadian politicians who were then locked in negotiations leading up to the
ConfederationCanadian Confederation was the process by which the federal Dominion of Canada was formed, officially beginning on July 1, 1867, with the new provinces of Ontario and Quebec along with two other British colonies, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, which also became provinces.-Usage:Canada is a...
agreement of 1867. The raids reinforced a sense of military vulnerability, especially because the British were known to be seriously considering the downsizing of their garrison, if not its outright withdrawal. The Confederation debates were to some degree held in an atmosphere of military crisis, and the greater military security that would be gained through the pooling of colonial resources was one of the factors that weighed heavily in Confederation's favour.
Canadian militia
With Confederation in place and the British garrison gone, Canada assumed full responsibility for its own defence; it passed the Federal Militia Act in 1868 and Britain undertook to send aid in the event of a serious emergency, and the Royal Navy continued to provide oceanic defence. Small professional batteries of artillery were established at Quebec City and Kingston. In 1883, a third battery of artillery was added, and small professional schools of cavalry and infantry were created. These were intended to provide professional backbone for the much larger force of militia that was to form the bulk of the Canadian defence effort. In theory, every able-bodied man between the ages of 18 and 60 was liable to be conscripted for service, but in practice, the defence of the country rested on the services of volunteers who made up the so-called Active Militia, which in 1869 numbered 31,170 officers and men. During the remaining decades of the century, this force was consolidated, attending summer camps, parading about in colourful uniforms, and occasionally being mustered to serve in times of strikes and other civil emergencies.
The most important early tests of the militia were the expeditions against the rebel forces of
Louis RielLouis David Riel was a Canadian politician, a founder of the province of Manitoba, and leader of the Métis people of the Canadian prairies. He led two resistance movements against the Canadian government and its first post-Confederation Prime Minister, Sir John A. Macdonald...
in the Canadian west. The
Wolseley ExpeditionThe Wolseley Expedition was a military force authorized by Sir John A. Macdonald to confront Louis Riel and the Métis in 1870, during the Red River Rebellion, at the Red River Settlement in what is now the Canadian province of Manitoba...
, containing a mix of British and militia forces, restored order after the
Red River RebellionThe Red River Rebellion or Red River Resistance are names given to the events surrounding the actions of a provisional government established by Métis leader Louis Riel in 1869 at the Red River Settlement in what is now the Canadian province of Manitoba....
with little violence in 1870. A greater test was the
North-West RebellionThe North-West Rebellion of 1885 was a brief and unsuccessful uprising by the Métis people of the District of Saskatchewan under Louis Riel against the Dominion of Canada, which they believed had failed to address their concerns for the survival of their people...
in 1885 that saw the largest military effort undertaken on Canadian soil since the end of the War of 1812. The Rebellion saw a series of battles between the
MétisItalic textA Métis is a person born to parents who belong to different groups defined by visible physical differences, regarded as racial, or the descendant of such persons. The term is of French origin, and also is a cognate of mestizo in Spanish, mestiço in Portuguese, and mestee in English...
and their First Nations allies against the Militia and North-West Mounted Police, from which the government forces ultimately emerged victorious despite a number of early defeats and reversals at the
Battle of Duck LakeThe Battle of Duck Lake was a skirmish between Métis soldiers of the Provisional Government of Saskatchewan and Canadian government forces that signalled the beginning of the North-West Rebellion.-Prelude:...
, the
Battle of Fish CreekThe Battle of Fish Creek , fought April 24, 1885 at Fish Creek, Saskatchewan, was a major Métis victory over the Dominion forces attempting to quell Louis Riel's North-West Rebellion...
and the Battle of Cut Knife Hill.
Outnumbered and out of ammunition, the Métis portion of the North-West Rebellion collapsed with the siege and
Battle of BatocheThe Battle of Batoche was the decisive Canadian defeat of Métis attempt to maintain Aboriginal independence in the disputed "Canadian" North West Territories...
. The
Battle of Loon LakeThe Battle of Loon Lake concluded the North-West Rebellion on June 3, 1885 and was the last battle ever fought on Canadian soil. Led by Major Sam Steele, a force of North-West Mounted Police, Alberta Mounted Rifles and Steele's Scouts caught up with and dispersed a band of Plains Cree warriors and...
, which ended this conflict, is notable as the last battle to have been fought on Canadian soil.
In 1884, Britain for the first time asked Canada for aid in defending the empire. The mother country asked Canada to send experienced boatmen to the
SudanSudan is a country in northeastern Africa. It is the largest country in Africa and in the Arab World, and tenth largest in the world by area...
to help rescue Major-General
Charles GordonMajor-General Charles George Gordon, CB , known as Chinese Gordon, Gordon Pasha, and Gordon of Khartoum, was a British army officer and administrator...
from the
MahdiMuhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd Allah was a religious leader in Sudan who proclaimed himself the Mahdi in 1881, and declared a jihad against Egyptian authority in Sudan...
uprising. However, Ottawa was reluctant to do this, and eventually
Governor GeneralThe Governor General of Canada is the viceregal representative in the federal jurisdiction of the Canadian monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, who is equally shared with 15 other sovereign nations in a form of personal union, but resides predominantly in her oldest realm,...
Lord LansdowneHenry Charles Keith Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne, KG, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, PC was a British politician and Irish peer who served successively as Governor General of Canada, Viceroy of India, Secretary of State for War, and Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs...
recruited a private force of 386
VoyageurVoyageur is a French word meaning "voyager" or "traveller".Voyageur can refer to:*Voyageurs, licensed coureur des bois fur traders in 17th and 18th century North America*The Voyageurs, a Canadian soccer fan club founded in 1996...
s who were placed under the command of
Canadian MilitiaThe Canadian Militia was the traditional title for the land forces of Canada from before Confederation in 1867 to 1940 when it was renamed the Canadian Army.The Militia consisted of:* Permanent Active Militia* Non-Permanent Active Militia...
officers. This force, known as the
Nile VoyageurThe Nile Expedition, sometimes called the Gordon Relief Expedition, was a British mission to relieve Major-General Charles George Gordon at Khartoum, Sudan. Gordon had been sent to the Sudan to help Egyptians evacuate from Sudan after Britain decided to abandon the country in the face of a...
s, served ably in the Sudan and became the first Canadian force to serve abroad.
Boer War
The military business of the empire was again an issue when Britain found itself hard pressed in the
Second Boer WarThe Second Boer War , commonly referred to as The Boer War and also known as the South African War , the Anglo-Boer War and in Afrikaans as the Anglo-Boereoorlog or Tweede Vryheidsoorlog , or the Engelse oorlog was fought...
in
South AfricaThe Republic of South Africa is a country located at the southern tip of Africa, with a coastline on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. To the north lie Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, to the east are Mozambique and Swaziland, while Lesotho is an independent country surrounded by South Africa.Modern...
. The British asked for Canadian help in the conflict, and the
Conservative PartyThe Conservative Party of Canada has gone by a variety of names over the years since Canadian Confederation. Initially known as the "Liberal-Conservative Party", it dropped "Liberal" from its name in 1873, although many of its candidates continued to use this name.As a result of World War I and the...
was adamantly in favour of raising divisions for service in South Africa.
English CanadianAn English Canadian is a Canadian whose principal language is English or who is of English ancestry; it is used primarily in contrast with French Canadian. Canada is an officially bilingual and multicultural country, with French and English official language communities...
opinion was overwhelmingly in favour of active Canadian participation in the war. French-Canadians almost universally opposed the war, as did several other groups. This split the
governing Liberal PartyThe Liberal Party of Canada , colloquially known as the Grits, is a major political party in Canada. The party sits between the centre-left and centre of the Canadian political spectrum. The party currently forms the Official Opposition in the Parliament of Canada since the 2006 federal election...
deeply, as it relied on both pro-imperial Anglo-Canadians and anti-imperial Franco-Canadians for support. Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier initially sent 1,000 soldiers of the 2nd (Special Service) Battalion of
The Royal Canadian RegimentThe Royal Canadian Regiment is an infantry regiment of the Canadian Forces. The RCR is the senior infantry regiment in the Regular Force, but its 4th Battalion is ranked 11th in the order of precedence among Reserve Force infantry regiments...
. Later, other contingents were sent, including the privately raised Lord Strathcona's Horse.
The Canadian forces missed the early period of the war and the great British defeats of
Black WeekBlack Week is a phrase frequently used in the popular press to mark periods of a few days when a string of similar unfortunate events occur. Its celebrity usually fades to be replaced by another Black Week a few years later...
. The Canadians in South Africa won much acclaim for leading the charge at the Second
Battle of PaardebergThe Battle of Paardeberg or Perdeberg was a major battle during the Second Anglo-Boer War. It was fought near Paardeberg Drift on the banks of the Modderrivier in the Orange Free State near Kimberley....
, one of the first decisive victories of the war. At the
Battle of LeliefonteinThe Battle of Leliefontein was an engagement between Canadian and Boer forces during the Second Boer War on 7 November 1900, at the Komati River south of Belfast at the present day Nooitgedacht Dam....
on November 7, 1900, three Canadians, Lieutenant Cockburn, Lieutenant Turner, and Sergeant Holland of the Royal Canadian Dragoons were awarded the
Victoria CrossThe Victoria Cross is the highest military decoration which is, or has been, awarded for valour "in the face of the enemy" to members of the armed forces of various Commonwealth countries, and previous British Empire territories. It takes precedence over all other orders, decorations and medals...
for protecting the rear of a retreating force. About 7,400 Canadians, including 12 female nurses, served in South Africa. Of these, 224 died, 252 were wounded, and several were decorated with the Victoria Cross. The war remained deeply unpopular in Quebec, where many people viewed it as crushing a democratic minority group, that, in many ways, was similar to French-Canadians. Canadian forces also participated fully in the concentration camp programs that led to the deaths of thousands of Boer civilians.
Creation of a Canadian navy
Soon after the debate over the Second Boer War, a similar one developed over whether or not Canada should have its own navy. Canada had long had a small fishing protection force attached to the Department of Marine and Fisheries, but relied on Britain for maritime protection. Britain was increasingly engaged in an
arms raceThe term arms race, in its original usage, describes a competition between two or more parties for real or apparent military supremacy. Each party competes to produce larger numbers of weapons, greater armies, or superior military technology in a technological escalation...
with
GermanyGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium,...
, and in 1908, asked the colonies for help with the navy. The Conservative Party of Canada argued that Canada should merely contribute money to the purchase and upkeep of some British
Royal NavyThe Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of HM Armed Forces . From the beginning of the 18th century until well into the 20th century, it was the most powerful navy in the world, playing a key part in establishing the British Empire as the dominant world power from 1815 until the early...
vessels. Some French-Canadian nationalists felt that no aid should be sent; others advocated an independent Canadian navy that could aid the British in times of need.
Eventually, Prime Minister Laurier decided to follow this compromise position, and the
Royal Canadian NavyThe Royal Canadian Navy was the navy of Canada from 1911 until 1968 when the three Canadian services were unified to form the Canadian Forces....
was created in 1910. To appease imperialists, the
Naval Service ActNaval Service Act of 1910 was the federal act that gave rise to the Royal Canadian Navy to replace the role of Royal Navy in protecting the soverignty of the Canadian waters....
included a provision that in case of emergency, the fleet could be turned over to the British. This provision led to the strenuous opposition to the bill by Quebec nationalist
Henri BourassaJoseph-Napoléon-Henri Bourassa was a French Canadian political leader and publisher. He is seen by many as an ideological father of Canadian nationalism....
. The bill set a goal of building a navy composed of five
cruiserA cruiser is a large type of warship, which had its prime period from the late 19th century to the end of the Cold War. The first cruisers were intended for individual raiding and protection missions on the seas...
s and six
destroyerIn naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet, convoy or battle group and defend them against smaller, short-range but powerful attackers .Before World War II, destroyers were light vessels without the endurance...
s. The first two ships were the
Niobe and
RainbowHMCS Rainbow formerly HMS Rainbow was an Apollo-class protected cruiser built for Britain's Royal Navy by Palmers at Hebburn-On-Tyne in England. She was launched on the 25th of March, 1891 as HMS Rainbow and entered service in 1893. She would serve in the China Station in Hong Kong from 1895 to...
, somewhat aged and outdated vessels purchased from the British. With the election of the Conservatives in 1911, in part because the Liberals had lost support in Quebec, the navy was starved for funds, but during the First World War, it was greatly expanded and played an important role in both the Atlantic and
PacificThe Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. Its name is derived from the Latin name Tepre Pacificum, "peaceful sea", bestowed upon it by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan. It extends from the Arctic in the north to Antarctica in the south, bounded by Asia and...
.
Creation of a Canadian army
As British troops began to leave Canada in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the importance of the Militia (comprising various cavalry, artillery, infantry and engineer units) grew. The last Officer Commanding the Forces (Canada), Lord Dundonald, instituted a series of reforms in which Canada gained its own technical and support branches. These various services, called "corps", included
- Canadian Engineer Corps (created July 1, 1903)
- Signalling Corps (created October 24, 1903)
- Canadian Army Service Corps December 1, 1903
- Permanent Active Militia Army Medical Corps July 2, 1904
- Ordinance Stores Corps July 1, 1903
- Corps of Guides 1902
In 1904, the appointment of Officer Commanding the Forces was replaced with a Canadian
Chief of the General StaffThe Chief of the General Staff was the most senior member of the Canadian Army from 1904 until Unification in 1964. Previously, the position was held by the General Officer Commanding the Forces...
. Additional corps would be created in the years before the First World War, including the world's first separate military dental corps.
Creation of a Canadian air force
The First World War was the catalyst for the formation of Canada's air force. At the outbreak of war, there was no independent Canadian air force, although many Canadians flew with the
Royal Flying CorpsThe Royal Flying Corps was the over-land air arm of the British military during most of the First World War. During the early part of the war, the RFC's responsibilities were centred on support of the British Army, via artillery cooperation and photographic reconnaissance...
and the
Royal Naval Air ServiceThe Royal Naval Air Service or RNAS was the air arm of the Royal Navy until near the end of the First World War, when it merged with the British Army's Royal Flying Corps to form a new service , the Royal Air Force...
.
In 1914 the Canadian government authorized the formation of the
Canadian Aviation CorpsCanadian Aviation Corps was an early attempt to create an air force for Canada at the beginning of the First World War. The unit was created in 1914 and was under the charge of the Canadian Expeditionary Force. The CAC had a maximum strength of three personnel and one aircraft which was delivered...
(CAC). The CAC was formed to accompany the
Canadian Expeditionary ForceThe Canadian Expeditionary Force was the designation of the field force created by Canada for service overseas in the First World War. Units of the C.E.F. were further divided into field formation in France, where they were largely organized into divisions and eventually a Canadian Corps within...
to Europe and consisted of one aircraft, a Burgess-Dunne, that was never used. The CAC was disbanded in 1915.
A second attempt at forming a truly Canadian "air force" was made in 1918 when two Canadian squadrons (one bomber and one fighter) were formed by the British
Air MinistryThe Air Ministry was formerly a department of the British Government with the responsibility of managing the affairs of the Royal Air Force, existing from 1918 to 1964...
in Europe. The Canadian government took control of the two squadrons in 1918 by forming the
Canadian Air ForceThe Canadian Air Force was a contingent of two Canadian air force squadrons - one fighter and one bomber - authorized by the British Air Ministry in August 1918 during the close of the First World War...
. This air force, however, never saw service and was disbanded in 1920.
The British government encouraged Canada to institute a peacetime air force by giving Canada several surplus aircraft, and in 1920 a new Canadian Air Force (CAF) directed by the
Air BoardThe Air Board was Canada's first governing body for aviation that existed from 1919 to 1923. The Canadian government established the Air Board by act of Parliament on June 6, 1919 with the purpose of controlling all flying within Canada...
was formed as a part-time or militia service providing flying refresher training. After a reorganization the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. Air Board and CAF civil flying responsibilities would be handled by the
Royal Canadian Air ForceThe Royal Canadian Air Force was the air force of Canada from 1924 until 1968 when the three branches of the Canadian military were merged into the Canadian Forces...
(RCAF) after its creation in April 1924.
The Second World War would see the RCAF become a truly military service.
First and Second World War
First World War
On August 4, 1914, Britain entered the First World War by declaring war on Germany. The British declaration of war automatically brought Canada into the war, because of Canada's legal status as subservient to Britain. However, the Canadian government had the freedom to determine the country's level of involvement in the war. The Militia was not mobilized and instead an independent
Canadian Expeditionary ForceThe Canadian Expeditionary Force was the designation of the field force created by Canada for service overseas in the First World War. Units of the C.E.F. were further divided into field formation in France, where they were largely organized into divisions and eventually a Canadian Corps within...
was raised, which eventually numbered
four divisions which fought on the
Western FrontWestern Front was a term used during the First and Second World Wars to describe the "contested armed frontier" between lands controlled by Germany to the East and the Allies to the West...
.
In the later stages of the war, the four-division
Canadian CorpsFor other uses of Canadian Corps, see Canadian Corps The Canadian Corps was a World War I corps formed from the Canadian Expeditionary Force in September 1915 after the arrival of the 2nd Canadian Division in France. The corps was expanded by the addition of the 3rd Canadian Division in December...
was regarded as among the most effective and respected formation on the
Western FrontWestern Front was a term used during the First and Second World Wars to describe the "contested armed frontier" between lands controlled by Germany to the East and the Allies to the West...
. Because its component divisions were larger than comparable British formations (who were suffering manpower shortages by 1916), Canadian divisions came to be relied on as "shock troops" and used frequently in an assault role. This led to Canada's own manpower problems in the aftermath of the Battle of the Somme, and plans for a second Canadian corps and two additional divisions were scrapped, and a divisive national dialogue on conscription for overseas service was begun. Canadian troops were also employed to defend the British colonies of the West Indies from the German navy on the island of
Saint LuciaSaint Lucia is an island nation in the eastern Caribbean Sea on the boundary with the Atlantic Ocean. Part of the Lesser Antilles, it is located north/northeast of the islands of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, northwest of Barbados and south of Martinique. Its size is 620 km² with an...
, and later a contingent was sent to Siberia.
Without
conscriptionConscription is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by an established authority. It is most often used in the specific sense of requiring citizens to serve in the armed forces...
, the Canadian force was limited to those dedicated enough to enlist. The high point of Canadian military achievement came at the
Battle of Vimy RidgeThe Battle of Vimy Ridge was a military engagement fought as part of the Battle of Arras, in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France, during the First World War. The main combatants were the Canadian Corps against three divisions of the German Sixth Army...
on April 9, 1917, during which Canadian troops captured a fortified German hill that had resisted British and French attacks earlier in the war. Vimy, as well as the success of the Canadian flying aces
William BarkerWilliam Barker may refer to:*Sir William Barker, 5th Baronet , British Member of Parliament for Ipswich, Thetford and Suffolk*William Charles Barker , footballer for Middlesbrough F.C...
and
Billy BishopAir Marshal William Avery "Billy" Bishop VC, CB, DSO & Bar, MC, DFC, ED was a Canadian First World War flying ace, officially credited with 72 victories, making him the top Canadian ace, and according to some sources, the top ace of the British Empire.-Early life:Bishop was born in Owen...
, helped to give Canada a new sense of identity. This translated into greater autonomy, with Canada sending its own delegates to the
Treaty of VersaillesThe Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
negotiations in 1919, joining the
League of NationsThe League of Nations was an inter-governmental organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members...
as a member in 1921, and being formally granted autonomy via the
Statute of WestminsterThe Statute of Westminster 1931 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which established a status of legislative equality between the self-governing dominions of the British Empire and the United Kingdom, with a few residual exceptions...
in 1931.
The other major combatants had all introduced conscription to replace the massive casualties they were suffering. Spearheaded by Sir Robert Borden who wished to maintain the continuity of Canada's military contribution and with a burgeoning pressure to introduce and enforce conscription, the
Military Service ActIn Canadian history, the Military Service Act was a 1917 Act passed by the Canadian government to introduce conscription during World War I.On May 18, 1917, Prime Minister Robert Borden announced in the Canadian House of Commons that Canada would begin registering and conscripting men for the Great...
was ratified. Although reaction to
conscriptionConscription is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by an established authority. It is most often used in the specific sense of requiring citizens to serve in the armed forces...
was favourable in English Canada (as well as at the front), the idea was deeply unpopular in
QuebecQuebec is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking identity and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....
. In the end, conscription raised about 120,000 soldiers, of whom about 47,000 actually went overseas. The
Conscription Crisis of 1917The Conscription Crisis of 1917 was a political and military crisis in Canada during World War I.-Background:Officially, Canada entered World War I at 20:45 on 4 August 1914. This came automatically as a result of Britain declaring war on Germany. Colonel Sam Hughes was the Canadian Minister of...
did much to highlight the divisions between French and English-speaking
CanadiansCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
in Canada.
Despite the rancour, the
Conscription Crisis of 1917The Conscription Crisis of 1917 was a political and military crisis in Canada during World War I.-Background:Officially, Canada entered World War I at 20:45 on 4 August 1914. This came automatically as a result of Britain declaring war on Germany. Colonel Sam Hughes was the Canadian Minister of...
did not hinder Prime Minister
Robert BordenSir Robert Laird Borden PC GCMG KC was a Canadian lawyer and politician. He served as the eighth Prime Minister of Canada from October 10, 1911, to July 10, 1920, and was the third Nova Scotian to hold this office...
's political career, for in the following election of that year, Borden's Union government won 153 seats, nearly all from English Canada. However, of
QuebecQuebec is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking identity and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....
's 65 seats, Borden's government won only 3.
For a nation of eight million people, Canada's war effort was widely regarded as remarkable. A total of 619,636 men and women served in the Canadian forces in the First World War, and of these 66,655 were killed and another 172,950 were wounded.
In 1919, Canada sent an
expeditionary force to SiberiaThe Allied intervention was a multi-national military expedition launched in 1918 during the Russian Civil War and World War I. The intervention involved fourteen nations and was conducted over a vast expanse of territory...
to aid the
White RussiansThe White movement , whose military arm was the White Army aka the White Guard , and as the Whites comprised some of the politico-military Russian forces who unsuccessfully fought the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution and...
in the
Russian Civil WarThe Russian Civil War was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed and the Soviets under the domination of the Bolshevik party assumed power, first in Petrograd The Russian Civil War (1917–1923) was a multi-party war that...
. These troops were based in
VladivostokVladivostok is Russia's largest port city on the Pacific Ocean and the administrative center of Primorsky Krai. It is situated at the head of the Golden Horn Bay not far from Russia's border with China and North Korea...
and saw little combat before they withdrew, along with other foreign forces.
Canadian sacrifices are commemorated at eight memorials in France and Belgium. Two of the eight are unique in design: the giant white
Vimy MemorialThe Canadian National Vimy Memorial is a memorial site in France dedicated to the memory of Canadian Expeditionary Force members killed during the First World War. It also serves as the place of commemoration for First World War Canadian soldiers killed, or presumed dead, in France that have no...
and the distinctive Brooding Soldier at the
Saint Julien MemorialThe St. Julien Memorial is a Canadian war memorial and small commemorative park located in Saint Julien, Belgium. The memorial commemorates the Canadian First Division's participation in the Second Battle of Ypres of World War I and their defence against the first poison gas attacks along the...
. The other six follow a standard pattern of granite monuments surrounded by a circular path. They are the
Hill 62 MemorialThe Canadian Hill 62 Memorial is a war memorial that commemorates the actions of the Canadian Corps in defending the southern stretches of the Ypres Salient between April and August 1916 including actions in battle at the St. Eloi Craters, Hill 62, Mount Sorrel and Sanctuary Wood...
and
Passchendaele MemorialThe Passchendaele Memorial is a Canadian war memorial that commemorates the actions of the Canadian Corps in the Second Battle of Passchendaele of World War I...
in Belgium, and the
Bourlon Wood MemorialThe Bourlon Wood Memorial is a Canadian war memorial that commemorates the actions of the Canadian Corps during the final months of the First World War; a period also known as Canada's Hundred Days, part of the Hundred Days Offensive...
,
Courcelette MemorialThe Courcelette Memorial is a Canadian war memorial that commemorates the actions of the Canadian Corps during in the final two and a half months of the infamous four and a half month long Somme Offensive of the First World War...
,
Dury MemorialThe Dury Memorial is a World War I Canadian war memorial that commemorates the actions of the Canadian Corps in the Second Battle of Arras, particularly the their breakthrough at the Drocourt-Quéant Line switch of the Hindenburg Line just south of the town of Dury. The Drocourt-Quéant Line was a...
, and
Le Quesnel MemorialThe Le Quesnel Memorial is a Canadian war memorial that commemorates the actions of the Canadian Corps during the 1918 Battle of Amiens during World War I...
in France. There are also separate war memorials to commemorate the actions of the soldiers of Newfoundland in the Great War. The largest are the
Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland MemorialThe Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial is a memorial site in France dedicated to the commemoration of Dominion of Newfoundland forces members who were killed during World War I...
and the National War Memorial in
St. John'sSt. John's is the provincial capital of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada and located on the eastern tip of the Avalon Peninsula on the island of Newfoundland. St...
. Newfoundland did not join Confederation until 1949.
Second World War
Following the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, Canada's Parliament supported the government's decision to declare war on Germany on September 10, one week after the United Kingdom and France. Canadian airmen played a small but significant role in the
Battle of BritainThe Battle of Britain is the name given to the air campaign waged by the German Air Force against the United Kingdom during the summer and autumn of 1940. The objective of the campaign was to gain air superiority over the Royal Air Force , especially Fighter Command...
, the
Royal Canadian NavyThe Royal Canadian Navy was the navy of Canada from 1911 until 1968 when the three Canadian services were unified to form the Canadian Forces....
and the Canadian merchant marine played a crucial role in the Battle of the Atlantic.
C Force"C" Force was the Canadian military contingent involved in the Battle of Hong Kong, in December 1941. Members of the force were the first Canadian soldiers to see action in World War II....
, two Canadian infantry battalions were involved in the failed
defence of Hong KongThe Battle of Hong Kong took place during the Pacific campaign of World War II. It began on 8 December 1941 and ended on Christmas Day with Hong Kong, then a Crown colony, surrendering to Empire of Japan.-Background:...
. Troops of the
2nd Canadian Infantry DivisionThe 2nd Canadian Infantry Division was an infantry division of the First Canadian Army, mobilized on 1 September 1939 during the Second World War. Initially composed of volunteers within brigades established along regional lines, a halt in recruitment in the early months of the war caused a delay...
also played a leading role in the disastrous
Dieppe RaidThe Dieppe Raid, also known as The Battle of Dieppe, Operation Rutter or later on Operation Jubilee, during the Second World War, was an Allied attack on the German-occupied port of Dieppe on the northern coast of France on 19 August 1942. The assault began at 5:00 AM in the morning and by 9:00 AM...
in August 1942. The
1st Canadian DivisionThis article refers to the division raised in the First World War. For divisions raised afterwards, see 1st Canadian Infantry DivisionFormed in August 1914, the 1st Canadian Division was a formation of the Canadian Expeditionary Force...
and tanks of the independent 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade landed on Sicily in July 1943 and after a 38-day campaign there, took part in the successful
Allied invasion of ItalyThe Allied invasion of Italy, was the Allied landing on mainland Italy on September 3, 1943, by General Harold Alexander's 15th Army Group during World War II. The operation followed the successful invasion of Sicily during the Italian Campaign...
. Canadian forces played an important role in the long advance north through Italy, eventually coming under their own corps headquarters after 5th Canadian Armoured Division joined them on the line in early 1944 after the costly battles on the Moro River and at
OrtonaThe Battle of Ortona was a small, yet extremely fierce, battle fought between German Fallschirmjäger of the German 1st Parachute Division under Generalleutnant Richard Heidrich, and assaulting Canadian forces from the 1st Canadian Infantry Division under Major General Chris Vokes...
.
On June 6, 1944, the
3rd Canadian DivisionThe 3rd Canadian Division was a formation of the Canadian Corps during the First World War.The 3rd Canadian Division was formed in France in December 1915 under the command of Major-General M.S. Mercer. Its members served in both France and Flanders until Armistice Day...
(supported by tanks of the independent 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade) landed on
Juno BeachJuno Beach was one of the five main landing sites of the Allied invasion of the coast of Normandy on D-Day during World War II. It was situated between Sword Beach and Gold Beach. It is also known as the Canadian beach, as it was assigned to the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division. Juno Beach stretched...
in the Battle of Normandy. Canadian airborne troops had also landed earlier in the day behind the beaches. Resistance on Juno was fierce, and casualties were high in the assault waves, in particular the first assault waves, which sustained a 50 percent casualty rate. By day's end, however, the Canadians had made the deepest penetrations inland of any of the five seaborne invasion forces. The Canadians went on to play an important role in the subsequent fighting in Normandy, with the
2nd Canadian Infantry DivisionThe 2nd Canadian Infantry Division was an infantry division of the First Canadian Army, mobilized on 1 September 1939 during the Second World War. Initially composed of volunteers within brigades established along regional lines, a halt in recruitment in the early months of the war caused a delay...
coming ashore in July and the 4th Canadian Armoured Division in August. In the meantime, both a corps headquarters (
II Canadian CorpsII Canadian Corps was a corps-level formation that, along with I Corps and I Canadian Corps , comprised the First Canadian Army in Northwest Europe during World War II.Authorization for the formation of the Corps headquarters became effective in England on...
) and eventually an army headquarters—for the first time in Canadian military history—were activated. One of the most important Canadian contributions to the war effort was in the
Battle of the ScheldtThe Battle of the Scheldt was a series of military operations of the First Canadian Army, led by Lieutenant General Guy Simonds. The battle took place in northern Belgium and southwestern Netherlands during World War II from October 2, 1944 to November 8, 1944By September, 1944, it had become...
, where
First Canadian ArmyThe First Canadian Army was the senior Canadian operational formation in Europe during the Second World War.The Army was formed in early 1942, replacing the existing unnumbered Canadian Corps, as the growing number of Canadian forces in the United Kingdom necessitated an expansion to two corps...
defeated an entrenched German force at great cost to help open
Antwerp||-||-||-||}Antwerp is a city and municipality in Belgium and the capital of the Antwerp province in Flanders, one of Belgium's three regions. Antwerp's total population is 472,071 and its total area is , giving a population density of 2,308 inhabitants per km²...
to Allied shipping.
First Canadian Army fought in two more large campaigns; the Rhineland in February and March 1945, clearing a path to the Rhine River in anticipation of the assault crossing of that obstacle, and the subsequent battles on the far side of the Rhine in the last weeks of the war. The
I Canadian CorpsI Canadian Corps was one of the two corps fielded by the Canadian Army during World War II. From December 24, 1940 until the formation of the First Canadian Army in April 1942, there was a single unnumbered Canadian Corps...
returned to northwest Europe from Italy in early 1945, and as part of a reunited First Canadian Army assisted in the liberation of The Netherlands (including the rescue of many Dutch from near-starvation conditions) and the invasion of
GermanyGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium,...
.
The Royal Canadian Air Force had three key responsibilities during the war: the
British Commonwealth Air Training PlanThe British Commonwealth Air Training Plan, also known as the Empire Air Training Scheme, Empire Air Training Plan, Commonwealth Air Training Plan or simply "The Plan" or "The Scheme", was a massive air-training program involving the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Southern...
(BCATP), Canada's contribution to training military aviators; the
Home War Establishment (HWE), which provide 37 squadrons for coastal defence, protection of shipping, air defence and other duties in Canada, and the
Overseas War Establishment (OWE), which provided 48 squadrons serving with the
Royal Air ForceThe Royal Air Force is the United Kingdom's air force, the oldest independent air force in the world. Formed on 1 April 1918, the RAF has taken a significant role in British military history ever since, playing a large part in World War II and in more recent conflicts.The RAF operates almost 1,109...
(RAF) in Europe, the Mediterranean and the Far East.
RCAF airmen served with RAF fighter and bomber squadrons, and played key roles in the
Battle of BritainThe Battle of Britain is the name given to the air campaign waged by the German Air Force against the United Kingdom during the summer and autumn of 1940. The objective of the campaign was to gain air superiority over the Royal Air Force , especially Fighter Command...
, antisubmarine warfare during the Battle of the Atlantic, and the
bombingA bomber is a military aircraft designed to attack ground and sea targets, primarily by dropping bombs on them.-Classifications of bombers:...
campaigns against Germany. Even though many RCAF personnel served with the RAF,
No. 6 GroupNo. 6 Group RCAF was an organization of Royal Canadian Air Force bomber squadrons which operated from airfields in Yorkshire, England during the Second World War. Although 6 Group was RCAF, it was controlled by the Royal Air Force as part of Bomber Command. No. 6 Group had been previously active...
RAF Bomber CommandRAF Bomber Command was the organisation that controlled the RAF's bomber forces from 1936 to 1968. During World War II, the command destroyed a significant proportion of Nazi Germany's industries and many German cities, and in the 1960s was at the peak of its postwar power with the V bombers and a...
was formed entirely of RCAF squadrons. Canadian air force personnel also provided close support of Allied forces during the
Battle of NormandyOperation Overlord was the code name for the invasion of western Europe during World War II by Allied forces. The operation began on 6 June 1944 with the Normandy Landings when an airborne assault preceded an amphibious assault...
and subsequent land campaigns in Europe. To free up male RCAF personnel who were needed on active operational or BCATP training duties, the
RCAF Women's DivisionThe Royal Canadian Air Force Women's Division was an element of the Royal Canadian Air Force which was active during the Second World War....
was formed in 1941. By the end of the war, the RCAF would be the fourth largest allied air force.
Of a population approximately 11.5 million, 1.1 million Canadians served in the armed forces in the Second World War. Of these, an officially recorded total of 42,042 members of the armed forces gave their lives, and another 55,000 were wounded. Many others shared the suffering and hardship of war. In line with other Commonwealth countries, a women's corps entitled the
Canadian Women's Army CorpsThe Canadian Women's Army Corps was a non-combatant branch of the Canadian Army for women established during World War II to release men from those non-combatant roles in the Canadian armed forces as part of expanding Canada's war effort. Most women served in Canada but some served overseas, most...
, similar to the RCAF Women's Division, was established to release men for front-line duties. The corps existed from 1941 to 1946, was re-raised in 1948 and finally disbanded in 1964.
Multilateralism, peacekeeping and the Cold War
Soon after the end of the Second World War, the
Cold WarThe Cold War was the continuing state of political conflict, military tension, and economic competition existing after World War II , primarily between the USSR and its satellite states, and the powers of the Western world, including the United States...
began. As a founding member of
NATOThe North Atlantic Treaty Organization ); ), also called "the Atlantic Alliance", is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on April 4, 1949...
and a signatory to the NORAD treaty with the US, Canada committed itself to the alliance against the Communist bloc. Canadian troops were stationed in Germany throughout the Cold War, and Canada joined with the Americans to erect defences against Soviet attack, such as the DEW Line. As a
middle powerMiddle power is a term used in the field of international relations to describe states that are not superpowers or great powers, but still have large or moderate influence and international recognition. There is no single specific definition of which countries are middle powers.-Definition:There is...
, Canadian policy makers realized that Canada could do little militarily on its own, and thus a policy of
multilateralismMultilateralism is a term in international relations that refers to multiple countries working in concert on a given issue.Most international organizations, such as the United Nations and the World Trade Organization are multilateral in nature...
was adopted whereby Canada would only join military efforts as part of a large coalition. Canada also chose to stay out of several wars, despite the participation of close allies, most notably the
Vietnam WarThe Vietnam War or the Second Indochina War was a Cold War military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1959 to 30 April 1975...
and the Second Iraq War, although Canada lent indirect support and Canadian citizens served in foreign armies in both conflicts. The postwar period saw a major reorganization when, in 1968, the three forces were merged into the
Canadian ForcesThe Canadian Forces , officially the Canadian Armed Forces , are the unified armed forces of Canada, as constituted by the National Defence Act, which states: "The Canadian Forces are the armed forces of Her Majesty raised by Canada and consist of one Service called the Canadian Armed Forces."...
. (See also Canada and the Cold War,
Canada and the Vietnam WarCanada did not fight in the Vietnam War and diplomatically it was officially "non-belligerent". The country's troop deployments to Vietnam were limited to a small number of national forces in 1973 to help enforce the Paris Peace Accords...
and
Canada and the Iraq WarCanada's relation to the Iraq War that began in 2003 was, unlike the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, limited only to indirect connections, with no troops deployed for combat in that theatre...
).
Canada in Korea
After the Second World War, Canada rapidly demobilized. When the
Korean WarThe Korean War is a war that started between North Korea and South Korea on 25 June 1950 and paused with an armistice signed 27 July, 1953...
broke out, Canada needed several months to bring its military forces up to strength, and eventually formed part of
British Commonwealth Forces KoreaBritish Commonwealth Forces Korea was the formal name, from 1952, of the Commonwealth army, naval and air units serving with the United Nations in the Korean War. Australian, British, Canadian, Indian and New Zealand units were part of BCFK...
. Canadian land forces thus missed most of the early back-and-forth campaigns because they did not arrive until 1951, when the attrition phase of the war had largely started. Canadian troops fought as part of the
1st Commonwealth DivisionThe 1st Commonwealth Division was the name given, after July 1951, to Commonwealth land forces in the Korean War. The division was a multinational unit that was part of British Commonwealth Forces Korea, and whilst British and Canadian Army units formed the bulk of the division, Australian...
, and distinguished themselves at the
Battle of KapyongThe Battle of Kapyong was waged during the Korean War. The battle began on 22 April and lasted until 25 April 1951. The Chinese People's Liberation Army assaulted positions held by United Nations forces from Australia, Canada and Britain...
and in other land engagements. HMCS
Haida and other ships of the Royal Canadian Navy were in active service in the Korean conflict. Although the Royal Canadian Air force did not have a combat role in Korea, twenty-two RCAF fighter pilots flew on exchange duty with the
USAFThe United States Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the U.S. armed forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947 - 80 P.L....
in Korea. The RCAF was also involved with the transportation of personnel and supplies in support of the Korean War.
Canada sent 26,791 troops to fight in Korea. There were 1,558 Canadian casualties, including 516 dead. Korea has often been described as "The Forgotten War", because for most Canadians it is overshadowed by the Canadian contributions to the two world wars. Canada is a signatory to the original 1953 armistice, but did not keep a garrison in South Korea after 1955.
Peacekeeping
Closely related to Canada's commitment to multilateralism has been its strong support for
peacekeepingPeacekeeping, as defined by the United Nations, is "a way to help countries torn by conflict create conditions for sustainable peace." It is distinguished from both peacebuilding and peacemaking....
efforts. Canadian
Nobel Peace PrizeThe Nobel Peace Prize is one of the five Nobel Prizes bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel.-Background:...
laureate
Lester B. PearsonLester Bowles "Mike" Pearson, PC, OM, CC, OBE was a Canadian statesman, diplomat and politician who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 for organizing the United Nations Emergency Force to resolve the Suez Canal Crisis...
is considered to be the father of modern United Nations Peacekeeping, and Canada has a long history of participation in these missions. Canada participated in every UN peacekeeping effort from their beginning until 1989, and has since then continued to play a significant role. More than 125,000 Canadians have served in some 50 UN peacekeeping missions since 1949, with 116 deaths.
Since 1995, however, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined. In July 2006, for instance, Canada ranked 51st on the list of UN peacekeepers, contributing 130 peacekeepers out of a total UN deployment of over 70,000. That number decreased largely because Canada began to direct its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through NATO, rather than directly to the UN. The number of Canadian soldiers on UN-sanctioned operations in July 2006 was 2,859.
The first Canadian peacekeeping mission, even before the creation of the formal UN system, was a 1948 mission to
KashmirKashmir is the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent...
. Other important missions include the long stay in
CyprusCyprus , officially the Republic of Cyprus , is a Eurasian island country situated in the eastern Mediterranean, south of Turkey and west of Syria and Lebanon....
, observation missions in the
SinaiThe Sinai Peninsula or Sinai The Sinai Peninsula or Sinai The Sinai Peninsula or Sinai (sina; Egyptian Arabic: سينا sina; sina'a; is a triangular peninsula in Egypt. It lies between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the south, forming a land bridge between Africa and Southwest...
and
Golan HeightsThe Golan Heights is a strategic plateau and mountainous region at the southern end of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and remains a highly contested land straddling the borders of Syria and Israel. Two-thirds of the area is currently governed by Israel...
, and the
NATOThe North Atlantic Treaty Organization ); ), also called "the Atlantic Alliance", is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on April 4, 1949...
mission in
BosniaBosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina ( or (Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian Latin: Bosna i Hercegovina; Serbian Cyrillic: Босна и Херцеговина) is a country in Southeast Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula...
. The 1993 Canadian response to
Operation Medak pocketOperation Medak Pocket was a military operation undertaken by the Croatian Army between 9 September – 17 September 1993, in which a salient reaching the south suburbs of Gospić, in the south-central Lika region of Croatia, then under the control of the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina,...
in Bosnia was the largest battle fought by Canadian forces since the Korean War. One of the darkest moments in recent Canadian military history occurred during the humanitarian mission to
SomaliaSomalia , officially the Republic of Somalia and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic, is a country located in the Horn of Africa...
in 1993, when Canadian soldiers tortured a Somali teenager to death, leading to the
Somalia AffairThe Somalia Affair was a 1993 military scandal later dubbed "Canada's national shame". It peaked with the brutal beating death of a Somali teenager at the hands of two Canadian soldiers participating in humanitarian efforts in Somalia. The crime, documented by grisly photos, shocked the Canadian...
. Following an inquiry, the elite
Canadian Airborne RegimentThe Canadian Airborne Regiment was a Canadian Forces formation created on April 8, 1968. It was not an administrative regiment in the commonly accepted British Commonwealth sense, but rather a tactical formation manned from other regiments and branches...
was disbanded and the reputation of the Canadian Forces suffered within Canada.
The loss of nine Canadian peacekeepers when
their planeBuffalo 461 was a Canadian military De Havilland Canada DHC-5 Buffalo assigned to the second United Nations Emergency Force force in Syria in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 340...
was shot down over
SyriaSyria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south and Israel to the southwest....
in 1974 remains the largest loss of life in a single event in Canadian peacekeeping history.
Canadian Forces in Europe
Canada maintained a mechanized infantry brigade in
West GermanyWest Germany is a common English name for the period of the Federal Republic of Germany between its' formation in May 1949 to German reunification in October 1990, when the German Democratic Republic was dissolved and the five states on its territory joined the Federal Republic of Germany,...
from the 1950s (originally the 27th Canadian Infantry Brigade, later named 4 Combat Group and 4 Canadian Mechanized Brigade) to the 1990s as part of Canada's NATO commitments. This brigade was maintained at close to full strength and was equipped with Canada's most advanced vehicles and weapons systems as it was anticipated the brigade might have to move quickly in the event of a
Warsaw PactThe Warsaw Pact is the informal name for the mutual defense Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance subscribed by eight Communist states in Eastern Europe, that was established at the USSR’s initiative and realised on 14 May 1955, in Warsaw, Poland...
invasion of the west. The brigade was augmented by Militia soldiers from Canada and for a time even
Royal Canadian Army CadetsThe Royal Canadian Army Cadets is a Canadian national youth program sponsored by the Canadian Forces and the civilian Army Cadet League of Canada. Administered by the Canadian Forces, the program is funded through the Department of National Defence with the civilian partner providing support in...
were permitted to serve in the brigade for short periods.
The Royal Canadian Air Force established No. 1 Air Division in the early 1950s to meet Canada's NATO air defence commitments in Europe. It consisted of twelve fighter squadrons located in four wings, two of which were in France, and two in West Germany.
Unification
In 1964 the Canadian government decided to merge the Royal Canadian Air Force, the Royal Canadian Navy and the Canadian Army to form the unified
Canadian ForcesThe Canadian Forces , officially the Canadian Armed Forces , are the unified armed forces of Canada, as constituted by the National Defence Act, which states: "The Canadian Forces are the armed forces of Her Majesty raised by Canada and consist of one Service called the Canadian Armed Forces."...
. The aim of the merger was to reduce costs and increase operating efficiency. The Minister of National Defence,
Paul HellyerPaul Theodore Hellyer, PC is a Canadian politician and commentator who has had a long and varied career.- Early life :Hellyer was born and raised on a farm near Waterford, Ontario. Upon completion of high school he studied aeronautical engineering at the Curtiss-Wright Technical Institute of...
stated on November 4, 1966, that "the amalgamation...will provide the flexibility to enable Canada to meet in the most effective manner the military requirements of the future. It will also establish Canada as an unquestionable leader in the field of military organization." On February 1, 1968, unification was completed.
Gulf War
The 1991
Gulf WarThe Persian Gulf War , known also as the Gulf War, the First Gulf War,or often as the Second Gulf War and by Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein as The Mother of all Battles, or commonly as Desert Storm, for the military response...
was a conflict between Iraq and a coalition force of 34 nations, led by the US. The result was a decisive victory of the coalition forces. Canada was one of the first nations to agree to condemn Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait, and promptly agreed to join the US-led coalition.
In August,
Prime MinisterThe Prime Minister of Canada is the primary Minister of the Crown, chairman of the Cabinet, and thus head of government of Canada. The office is not outlined in any of the documents that constitute the written portion of the constitution of Canada; executive authority is formally vested in the...
Brian MulroneyMartin Brian Mulroney, PC, CC, GOQ was the eighteenth Prime Minister of Canada from September 17, 1984, to June 25, 1993 and was leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1983 to 1993. His tenure as Prime Minister was marked by the introduction of highly contentious economic...
sent the destroyers HMCS
Terra Nova,
HMCS AthabaskanSeveral Canadian naval ships have been named HMCS Athabaskan. , a Tribal class destroyer, commissioned in 1943 and torpedoed in the English Channel on 29 April 1944. , later renumbered , was a Tribal Class destroyer commissioned in 1947....
, and HMCS Huron to enforce the trade blockade against Iraq. The supply ship HMCS
Protecteur was sent to aid the gathering coalition forces. While all others returned to Canada in the spring of 1992, HMCS Huron remained on station to enforce sanctions and was the first warship to enter Kuwait Harbour following the war. When the UN authorized full use of force in the operation, Canada sent a CF-18 squadron with support personnel. The nation sent a field hospital to deal with casualties from the ground war.
When the air war began, Canada's planes were integrated into the coalition force and provided air cover and attacked ground targets. This was the first time since the
Korean WarThe Korean War is a war that started between North Korea and South Korea on 25 June 1950 and paused with an armistice signed 27 July, 1953...
that its forces had participated in combat operations. Canada suffered no casualties during the conflict, but since its end, many veterans have complained of suffering from
Gulf War SyndromePersian Gulf War syndrome or Persian Gulf War illness is an illness reported by combat veterans of the 1991 Persian Gulf War typified by a range of medically unexplained symptoms...
.
A Canadian combat engineer regiment was investigated following the release of 1991 photographs which showed members posing with the dismembered bodies in a Kuwaiti minefield.
Peacekeeping in Croatia
Canada's forces were part of UNPROFOR, UN peacekeeping force in
CroatiaCroatia , officially the Republic of Croatia , is a country in southeast Europe, at the crossroads of the Pannonian Plain, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean Sea. Its capital is Zagreb...
and in
Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina ( or (Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian Latin: Bosna i Hercegovina; Serbian Cyrillic: Босна и Херцеговина) is a country in Southeast Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula...
during the
Yugoslav warsThe Yugoslav Wars were a series of violent conflicts fought in former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the 1990s and 2001...
in the 1990s.
The Canadian government claims that Canadian forces within the UN contingent clashed with the Croatian Army in what has been called
Operation Medak PocketOperation Medak Pocket was a military operation undertaken by the Croatian Army between 9 September – 17 September 1993, in which a salient reaching the south suburbs of Gospić, in the south-central Lika region of Croatia, then under the control of the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina,...
, where 27 Croatian soldiers are reported to have been killed. The battle at the Medak Pocket was called "the greatest battle of the Canadian Army since the Korean War", and in 2002, the 2nd Battalion
Princess Patricia's Canadian Light InfantryPrincess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry is an infantry regiment in the Canadian Forces , belonging to 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group . It is one of the most decorated regiments in the CF. It currently consists of three Regular Force battalions and one Reserve Force. The PPCLI is ranked...
Battle Group were awarded the Commander-in-Chief Unit Commendation "for a heroic and professional mission during the Medak Pocket Operation". But according to some sources, this battle never happened. Former UNPROFOR Canadian officer, John John McGuinnes, a witness at the Norac-Ademi trial for war crimes in Medak Pocket, stated that there were one or two shootouts, but there were no injuries. He also said that the decorations were awarded for whole tour in Croatia, not only for participation in Medak pocket activity.
Kosovo: Operation Allied Force
The NATO Bombing of Yugoslavia (code-name Operation Allied Force or, by the United States, Operation Noble Anvil) was NATO's military operation against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War. The strikes lasted from March 24, 1999, to June 11, 1999.
The Canadian Air Force deployed a total of 18 CF-18s, enabling them to be responsible for 10% of all bombs dropped in the operation.
War in Afghanistan
Canada joined a U.S.-led coalition in the
2001 Attack on AfghanistanThe War in Afghanistan is an ongoing coalition conflict which began on October 7, 2001, as the British military participated in the US military's Operation Enduring Freedom that was launched in response to the September 11 attacks...
. The war was a response to the September 11, 2001, Terrorist Attacks, with the goal to defeat the Taliban government and rout
Al-QaedaAl-Qaeda , alternatively spelled al-Qaida and sometimes al-Qa'ida, is an Islamist group founded sometime between August 1988 and late 1989 and early 1990...
. Canada sent
special forcesCanadian special forces can refer to:* Canadian Special Operations Forces Command * Special Operations Group * 1st Special Service Force, The Devil's Brigade* Special Emergency Response Team * Joint Task Force 2...
and ground troops to the conflict. In this war, a Canadian
sniperA sniper is a highly trained marksman who shoots targets from concealed positions or distances exceeding the capabilities of regular personnel. Snipers typically have specialized training and distinct high-precision rifles...
set the world record for longest distance kill. In early 2003, Canadian JTF2 troops were photographed taking Afghan prisoners, sparking a debate of the Geneva Conventions. After the war, Canada formed an important part of the NATO-led stabilization force,
ISAFInternational Security Assistance Force is a NATO-led security and development mission in Afghanistan established by the United Nations Security Council on 20 December 2001 as envisaged by the Bonn Agreement.- Overview :...
. In November 2005, Canadian military participation shifted from ISAF in
KabulKabul , is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with a population of over 2.5 million, and is located in the province of Greater Kabul...
to
Operation ArcherOperation Archer is the Canadian Forces contribution to Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. It began in July 2005 with the deployment of a 220 member "theater activation team" to Kandahar...
, a part of
Operation Enduring FreedomOperation Enduring Freedom is the official name used by the U.S. Government for its War in Afghanistan and Iraq, together with three smaller military actions, under the umbrella of its Global War on Terror...
in and around Khandahar. As of April 24 2009, 118 Canadian soldiers had been killed in the Afghanistan mission (see also:
Canadian Forces casualties in AfghanistanThe number of Canadian Forces' fatalities resulting from Canadian military activities in Afghanistan is the largest for any single Canadian military mission since the 25th Canadian Brigade suffered 516 deaths in the Korean War between 1950 and 1953...
).
On May 17, 2006, Captain
Nichola GoddardCaptain Nichola Kathleen Sarah Goddard, MSM was the first female Canadian combat soldier killed in combat, and the 16th Canadian soldier killed in Canadian operations in Afghanistan.-Profile:...
of the
Royal Canadian Horse ArtilleryThe Royal Canadian Horse Artillery is the name given to the regular field artillery units of the Canadian Army. RCHA units are the senior units of the Canadian regular forces, with a history dating back to the birth of Canada as a nation...
became Canada's first female combat arms casualty. One of the most notable battles that the Canadian Forces have fought in Afghanistan thus far is the Canadian-led
Operation MedusaOperation Medusa was a Canadian-led offensive by major elements of the International Security Assistance Force and Afghan National Army that began on September 2, 2006 as part of the ongoing war in Afghanistan. It aimed to establish government control over an area of Kandahar Province centered on...
in which the second battle of Panjwaii was fought. Canada was also the main allied combatant in the first but less intense battle of Panjwaii.
Canadian troops have taken on an extended role in combat operations in southern Afghanistan, meeting Taliban forces in open conflict. The Canadian mission to Afghanistan is scheduled to end in February 2011, but there is divisive debate in Canada as to whether the mission should be extended.
Invasion of Iraq (2003)
In 2003, under
Prime MinisterA prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. The position is usually held by, but need not always be held by, a politician. In many systems, the prime minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet, and...
Jean ChrétienJoseph Jacques Jean Chrétien , is a Canadian politician who was the 20th Prime Minister of Canada from November 4, 1993 to December 12, 2003, and leader of the Liberal Party of Canada from 1990 to 2003.-Early life:Chrétien was born on January 11, 1934 in Shawinigan, Quebec, as the 18th of 19...
, about a hundred Canadian soldiers, on exchange to American units, participated in the
2003 invasion of IraqThe 2003 invasion of Iraq, was led by the United States, backed by British forces and smaller contingents from Australia, Denmark, Poland and Spain. Four countries participated with troops during the initial invasion phase, which lasted from March 20 to May 1...
. Nevertheless,
CanadaCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
chose not to "join with the so-called
Coalition of the willingThe term coalition of the willing is a post-1990 political phrase used to describe military or military/humanitarian interventions for which the United Nations Security Council cannot agree to mount a full UN peacekeeping operation...
" during the
invasion of IraqThe 2003 invasion of Iraq, was led by the United States, backed by British forces and smaller contingents from Australia, Denmark, Poland and Spain. Four countries participated with troops during the initial invasion phase, which lasted from March 20 to May 1...
. Canada refused to do so unless it was approved by the
United NationsThe United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the achieving of world peace...
. This decision, popular in most of Canada, upset the administration of American president
George W. BushGeorge Walker Bush was the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 and the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000....
.
Concurrently, Canada deployed some additional troops to the
War on TerrorismThe War on Terrorism is the common term for the military, political, legal and ideological conflict against what the effort's leaders describe as Islamic terrorism and Islamic militants, and was specifically used in reference to operations by the...
in
AfghanistanThe Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is a landlocked country in south central Asia. It is variously described as being located within Central Asia, South Asia, or the Middle East...
. Some claim that it incidentally freed up some
AmericanThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
and
BritishThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands...
troops for assignment in Iraq. Canada continues to have warships in the Persian Gulf area as part of
Operation AltairOperation ALTAIR is the Canadian Forces maritime contribution to the U.S.-led coalition anti-terrorist campaign known as Operation Enduring Freedom . Operation ALTAIR mainly consists of single ship deployments. HMCS Toronto , a Halifax-class patrol frigate with an embarked helicopter detachment,...
. Their presence is justified by Canada's commitment to Operation Enduring Freedom.
On October 9, 2008, the
CBCThe Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , a Canadian crown corporation, is the country’s national public radio and television broadcaster. In French, it is called la Société Radio-Canada...
published this statement:
"in their book, The Unexpected War , University of TorontoThe University of Toronto is a public research university in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, situated north of the city's Financial District on the grounds that surround Queen's Park. The university was founded by royal charter in 1827 as King's College, the first institution of higher learning in the...
professor Janice Gross Stein and public policy consultant Eugene LangEugene M. Lang or Gene Lang is an American philanthropist who founded REFAC Technology Development Corporation in 1951. He created the I Have A Dream Foundation in 1981, and Project Pericles, Inc. in 2001. He has also made large donations to Swarthmore College, Eugene Lang College, and the Eugene M...
write that the LiberalThe Liberal Party of Canada , colloquially known as the Grits, is a major political party in Canada. The party sits between the centre-left and centre of the Canadian political spectrum. The party currently forms the Official Opposition in the Parliament of Canada since the 2006 federal election...
government would actually boast of that contribution to Washington.
"In an almost schizophrenic way, the government bragged publicly about its decision to stand aside from the war in Iraq because it violated core principles of multilateral-ism and support for the United NationsThe United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the achieving of world peace...
. At the same time, senior Canadian officials, military officers and politicians were currying favour in Washington, privately telling anyone in the State Department or the PentagonIn geometry, a pentagon is any five-sided polygon. A pentagon may be simple or self-intersecting. The internal angles in a simple pentagon total 540°.- Regular pentagons :...
who would listen that, by some measures, Canada's indirect contribution to the American war effort in Iraq — three ships and 100 exchange officers — exceeded that of all but three other countries that were formally part of the coalition.""
In January 2004 (in the first month under
Prime MinisterA prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. The position is usually held by, but need not always be held by, a politician. In many systems, the prime minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet, and...
Paul MartinPaul Edgar Philippe Martin, PC is a Canadian politician who was the Prime Minister of Canada, as well as leader of the Liberal Party of Canada....
) Walter J. Natynczyk deployed with III Corps to Baghdad, Iraq, serving first as the Deputy Director of Strategy, Policy and Plans, and subsequently as the Deputy Commanding General of the Multi-National Corps (Iraq) during Operation Iraqi Freedom. Natynczyk led the Corps' 35,000 soldiers, consisting of 10 separate brigades, stationed throughout the Iraq Theatre of Operations. He stayed there one year, until January 2005. On January 24, 2006, (in the last few days under
Prime MinisterA prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. The position is usually held by, but need not always be held by, a politician. In many systems, the prime minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet, and...
Paul MartinPaul Edgar Philippe Martin, PC is a Canadian politician who was the Prime Minister of Canada, as well as leader of the Liberal Party of Canada....
), Natynczyk "was awarded the
Meritorious Service CrossThe Meritorious Service Cross is a decoration that is, within the Canadian system of honours, one of the two Meritorious Service Decorations gifted by the Canadian monarch, generally through his or her viceroy-in-Council...
[specifically] for his [combat] efforts [in Iraq]." On June 6, 2008, the Government of Canada (under
Prime MinisterA prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. The position is usually held by, but need not always be held by, a politician. In many systems, the prime minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet, and...
Stephen HarperStephen Joseph Harper, PC, MP is the 22nd and current Prime Minister of Canada, and leader of the Conservative Party. Harper became Prime Minister after his party won a minority government in the January 2006 federal election...
) named Natynczyk as the next
Chief of the Defence StaffThe Chief of the Defence Staff is the second most senior member of the Canadian Forces, and heads the Armed Forces Council, having primary responsibility for command, control, and administration of the forces, as well as military strategy, plans, and requirements.-Rank and command:The Chief of...
(CDS), replacing retiring General
Rick HillierGeneral Rick Hillier, CMM, MSC, CD , is the former Chief of the Defence Staff of the Canadian Forces. He held this appointment from February 4 2005 to July 1 2008. He retired on July 1, 2008, and was replaced by former Vice-Chief of the Defence Staff Walter Natynczyk. He is also the highest...
.
In mid February, 2008, (under
Prime MinisterA prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. The position is usually held by, but need not always be held by, a politician. In many systems, the prime minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet, and...
Stephen HarperStephen Joseph Harper, PC, MP is the 22nd and current Prime Minister of Canada, and leader of the Conservative Party. Harper became Prime Minister after his party won a minority government in the January 2006 federal election...
) Canadian
GeneralA general officer is an officer of high military rank. The term or equivalent is used by nearly every country in the world. General can be used as a generic term for all grades of general officer, or it can specifically refer to a single rank that is simply called general.-All general officer...
Nicolas Matern, a Special Forces officer and former commander of Canada's elite counter-terrorism unit, began to serve as deputy to Lt. Gen. Lloyd Austin III, incoming commander of the 170,000-strong Multi National Corps-Iraq. By January 23, 2008, Fort Bragg had already confirmed that Matern had already been deployed to Iraq.
See also
- Canadian Forces
The Canadian Forces , officially the Canadian Armed Forces , are the unified armed forces of Canada, as constituted by the National Defence Act, which states: "The Canadian Forces are the armed forces of Her Majesty raised by Canada and consist of one Service called the Canadian Armed Forces."...
- Canada and the American Civil War
At the time of the American Civil War, Canada did not yet exist as a federated nation. Instead, the territory consisted of the United Province of Canada , the six other remaining colonies of British North America and crown territory administered by the Hudson's Bay Company...
- Canada and the Iraq War
Canada's relation to the Iraq War that began in 2003 was, unlike the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, limited only to indirect connections, with no troops deployed for combat in that theatre...
- Canada and the Vietnam War
Canada did not fight in the Vietnam War and diplomatically it was officially "non-belligerent". The country's troop deployments to Vietnam were limited to a small number of national forces in 1973 to help enforce the Paris Peace Accords...
- Canada and NATO
Canada has been a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization since its inception in 1949.Canada was not only a member but one of the principal initiators of the alliance. This was a marked break with Canada's pre-war isolationism, and was the first peacetime alliance Canada had ever joined....
- Canada and the United Nations
Canada has been a member of the United Nations Organization since the body's creation and has served for 12 years on the Security Council, the fourth most of any non-permanent member . This was spread over six terms: 1948-49, 1958-59, 1967-68, 1977-78, 1989-90, and 1999-2000...
- Canada–United States relations
- Canadian War Museum
The Canadian War Museum is Canada’s national museum of military history. Located in Ottawa, Ontario, the museum focuses on military conflicts that occurred on Canadian soil, involved Canadian forces, or had a significant effect on the country and its people...
- Colonial militia in Canada
From the founding of New France until the establishment of a professional Canadian Army, the colonial militia played an extremely important role in the defence of Canada...
- Foreign relations of Canada
The foreign relations of Canada are Canada's relations with other governments and peoples. Canada's most important relationship is with the neighbouring United States and the United Kingdom...
- George F.G. Stanley, Canadian military historian, soldier, designer of Canadian flag, Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick
- History of the Canadian Army
The Canadian Army as such only existed under that name from November 1940 to February 1968. However, the term has been traditionally applied to the ground forces of Canada's military from Confederation in 1867 to the present...
- History of Canada
The history of Canada begins with the arrival of human beings thousands of years ago. Inhabited for millennia by aboriginal peoples, Canada has evolved from a group of French and British colonies into a bilingual, multicultural federation. France sent the first large group of settlers in the 17th...
- List of conflicts in Canada
- List of Canadian military operations
- List of Canadian Victoria Cross recipients
- Military history
Military history is a humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, their cultures, economies and changing intra and international relationships....
- Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion
The Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion or Mac-Paps were a battalion of Canadians who fought as part of the XV International Brigade on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War. Except for France, no other country gave a greater proportion of its population as volunteers in Spain than Canada.The first...
- Canada and the Spanish Civil WarThe Spanish Civil War was a major conflict that devastated Spain from 17 July 1936 to 1 April 1939. It began after an attempted coup d'état by a group of Spanish Army generals against the government of the Second Spanish Republic, then under the leadership of president Manuel Azaña...
- Organization of Military Museums of Canada
The Organization of Military Museums of Canada is a national organization for the promotion of military museums in Canada.The OMMC was established in 1967 by a group of military museums, historians, and military history enthusiasts. It has over 40 individual and 60 institutional members including...
- Royal Military College of Canada
The Royal Military College of Canada , is the military academy of the Canadian Forces, and is a degree-granting university. RMC is the only federal institution in Canada with degree granting powers. Located on Point Frederick, a 41-hectare peninsula in Kingston, Ontario, the college is a blend of...
External links
Further reading
- Faces of War at Library and Archives Canada
- Barkwell, Lawrence J. Batoche 1885: The Militia of the Metis Liberation Movement. Winnipeg: Manitoba Metis Federation, #0-9683493-3-1, [2005].
- Engler, Yves
Yves Engler is a Montreal writer and political activist. In addition to three published books, many of Engler’s writings have appeared in the alternative press, with articles also appearing in mainstream publications such as the The Globe and Mail, Toronto Star, Ottawa Citizen and Ecologist.In June...