Encyclopedia
The French and Indian War was the nine-year North American chapter of the
Seven Years' War. The conflict resulted in the British acquiring
Canada, while
Spain gained
Louisiana in compensation for its loss of
Florida to the British. French administrative presence in North America was almost completely removed and the Aboriginal people of North America were decimated, pacified, or moved farther west.
Nomenclature for the North American conflict
Although scholars, such as Fred Anderson, generally refer to all facets of the conflict as the
Seven Years' War, the conflict is traditionally referred to as the
French and Indian War in the United States, as it is seen from the perspective of British American forces fighting against French forces and their Algonquin and Huron allies in North America. In Britain, France, and
Canada, the designation
French and Indian War is nearly unknown: English Canada, France, and Britain typically refer to the war as the
Seven Years' War , dating the war not from the start of actual fighting in North America, but rather from the official declaration of war in Europe. French Canadians refer to it both as
la Guerre des sept ans and the
Guerre de la conquête since it is the war in which Canada was conquered by the British and became part of the
British Empire. Because of
Quebec provincial regulations on Canada-Quebec history curriculum in
high school , Anglo-Quebecers also refer to it as
The War of the Conquest. In Ontario, it is now increasingly also referred to as "The War of the Conquest," or just "The Conquest." In Britain, it is simply regarded as the most important theatre of the Seven Years' War.
Causes
- Using trading posts and forts, both the British and the French claimed the vast territory between the Appalachians and the Mississippi river, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, known as the Ohio Country.
- Both European countries ignored Native American claims to the land in order to pursue their beaver pelt economies.
- The British colonists feared papal influence in North America . For the predominantly Protestant British settlers, French control over North America could have represented a threat to their religious and other freedoms that were provided by English law.
- Newfoundland's Grand Banks were fertile fishing grounds and coveted by both sides. The conclusion of this war would see France keeping only the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, allowing them access to the Grand Banks to this day.
Beginning of the War
Céloron's expedition
In June of 1749, Galissonière, the Govenor-General of New France, ordered Pierre-Joseph Céloron to mount an expedition to the Ohio Country with the objective of removing British influence from the area. Céloron was also to confirm the allegiance of the Aboriginals inhabiting the territory to the French crown.
Céloron's expedition consisted of 213 soldiers of the Troupes de la Marine , who would be transported by 23 canoes. The expedition left Lachine on June 15, 1749 and two days later reached Fort Frontenac. The expedition then continued along the shoreline of present day Lake Erie. At Chatutauqua Protage , the expedition moved inland to the Allegheny River.
The expedition headed south to Ohio, and Céloron buried some lead plates which were engraved with the French claim to the Ohio Country. Whenever British merchants or fur-traders were encountered by the French, they were informed of the illegality of being on French territory and told to leave the Ohio Country.
When Céloron's expedition arrived at Logstown, the Aboriginals in the area informed Céloron they owned the Ohio Country and that they would trade with the British regardless of what the French told them to do.
The French continued their expedition. At its farthest point south, Céloron's expedition reached the junction between the Ohio River and the Miami River. The junction lay just south of the village of Pickawillany, where the Miami Chief, "Old Britain" lived.
When Céloron arrived at Pickawillany, he informed "Old Britain" of the "dire consequences" if the elderly chief continued to trade with the British. "Old Britain" ignored the warning.
After his meeting with Old Britain, Céloron and his expedition began the trip home. They didn't reach Montreal until November 10, 1749.
The best sum of the expedition's findings came from none other than Céloron himself. In his report, Céloron wrote: "All I can say is that the Natives of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French, and are entirely devoted to the English. I don't know in what way they could be brought back."
Langlade's expedition
Attack on Pickawillany
At dawn on June 21, 1752 a French war party attacked the Miami village, killing fourteen people of the Miami nation, including chief "Old Britain". The expedition then returned home.
Marin's expedition
On March 17, 1752, the Govenor-General of New France, Marquis de la Jonquière died. His temporary replacement was Charles le Moyne de Longueil. It wasn't until July 1, 1752 that Ange Duquense de Menneville arrived in New France to take over the "reigns".
In the spring of 1753, Paul Marin de la Malgue, was given command of a 2,000 man force of Troupes de la Marine and Aboriginals. His orders were to protect the King's land in Ohio from the British.
Marin followed the route that Céloron had mapped out four years previously. The main difference in the two expeditions were that whereas Céloron had buried lead plates Marin was constructing and garrisoning forts.
Marin's Forts
The first fort that was constructed by Paul Marin was at Presque Isle on Lake Erie's south shore. He then had a road built to the headwaters of Rivière aux Boeuf. Marin then constructed a second fort at Le Boeuf . This fort was designed to guard the headwaters of the Rivière aux Boeuf.
Tanaghrisson's proclamation
On September 3, 1753, Tanaghrisson, Chief of the
Mingo arrived at Fort Le Boeuf. Tanaghrisson hated the French because, as legend had it the French killed and ate his father. Tanaghrisson told Marin, "I shall strike at whoever..." This was of course a threat to the French.
The show of force by the French had alarmed the Iroquois in the area. They sent Mohawk runners to William Johnson's manor in Upper New York.
William Johnson was known to the Iroquois as "
Warraghiggey", meaning "
he who does big business". Johnson was an Anglo-Irish man, born in County Meath, Ireland. He felt that in Ireland he had no future. When his Uncle, Sir Peter Warren asked Johnson to manage his affairs in the New World, Johnson quickly agreed. He arrived in 1738, and quickly became a respected member of the Iroquois Confederacy in the area. In 1746, Johnson was made a colonel of the Iroquois, and later a colonel of the Western New York Militia.
At Albany, New York there was a meeting between Govenor Clinton of New York and Chief Hendrick, as well as several other officials from a handful of American colonies. Chief Hendrick inisted that the British abide by their obligations and block French expansion. When an unsatisfactory respose was offered by Clinton, Chief Hendrick proclaimed that the "Covenant Chain", a long standing friendly relationship between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British Crown was broken.
Dinwiddie's reaction
Govenor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia found himself in a predicament. Many merchants had invested heavily in fur-trading in Ohio. If the French made good on their claim to the Ohio Country and drove out the British then the Virginian merchants would be out a lot of money.
Dinwiddie could not possibly allow the loss of the Ohio Country to France. To counter the French military presence in Ohio, in October 1753 Dinwiddie ordered Major
George Washington of the Virginia militia to deliver a message to the commander of the French forces in the Ohio Country, Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre. Washington along with his interpreter Jacob Van Braam and several other men left for Fort Le Boeuf on the 31st of October.
Dinwiddie's Ultimatum
A few days later, Washington and his party arrived at Wills Creek . Here Washington enlisted the help of Christopher Gist, a surveyor who was familiar with the area. Gist joined the party.
Washington and his party arrived at Logstown on November 26, 1753. At Logstown, Washington met with Tanaghrisson, Chief of the Mingo. Tanaghrisson was angry over the encroachment by the French military of his land. Washington convinced Tanaghrisson to accompany his small group to Fort Le Boeuf.
Washington meets Saint-Pierre
On November 12, 1753, Washington and his men reached Fort Le Boeuf. Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre invited Washington to dine with him that evening. Over dinner Washington presented Saint-Pierre with the letter from Dinwiddie that demanded an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country. Saint-Pierre was quite civil in his response, saying, "As to the Summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it."
Washington's party left Fort Le Boeuf early on November 13, 1753. By December 12, 1753 they had arrived in Williamsburg, Virginia. In his report, Washington stated, "The French had swept south." They had constructed and garrisoned forts at Presque Isle, Le Boeuf and Venango.
Overview
The French and Indian War was the last of
four major colonial wars between the British, the French, and their Native American allies. Unlike the previous three wars, the French and Indian War began on North American soil and then spread to
Europe, where Britain and France continued fighting. Britain officially declared war on France on May 15, 1756, marking the beginnings of the Seven Years' War in Europe.
Native Americans fought for both sides but primarily alongside the French . The first major event was in 1754. Major
George Washington, then twenty-one years of age, was sent to negotiate boundaries with the French, who did not give up their forts. Washington led a group of Virginian troops to confront the French at
Fort Duquesne . Washington stumbled upon the French, and in the ensuing skirmish, a French Officer was killed, news of which would certainly provoke a strong French response. Washington pulled back a few miles and established
Fort Necessity. The French forced Washington and his men to retreat. Meanwhile, the
Albany Congress was taking place as means to discuss further action.
Edward Braddock led a campaign against the French in 1755; Washington was among the British and colonial troops. Braddock employed European tactics: bold, linear marches and firing formations. This led to disaster at
the Monongahela, where the French and natives, though heavily outmanned and outgunned , used superior tactics to gun down and rout the British. Braddock was killed; Washington, despite four close calls, escaped unharmed and led the survivors in retreat. When he took off his jacket, it had four bullet holes in it. Major French victories continued at Fort William Henry,
Fort Duquesne, and
Carillon, where
Montcalm famously defeated five times his number. The only British success in 1755 was the taking of
Fort Beausejour by Colonel
Robert Monckton, thus protecting the
Nova Scotia frontier. An unfortunate consequence of this was the subsequent forced deportation of the
Acadian population of
Nova Scotia and the
Beaubassin region of
Acadia.
1756 brought with it
William Pitt, Secretary of State of Great Britain. His leadership, and France's continued neglect of the North-American theatre, turned the tide in favour of the British. The French were driven from many frontier posts such as Fort Niagara, and the key
Fortress Louisbourg fell to the British in 1758. In 1759, the
Battle of the Plains of Abraham gave
Quebec City to the British, who had to withstand a siege there after the
Battle of Sainte-Foy a year later. In September of 1760,
Pierre François de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal, the King's Governor of New France, negotiated a surrender with British General
Jeffrey Amherst. General Amherst granted Vaudreuil's request that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their
Roman Catholic tradition, continued ownership of their property, and the right to remain undisturbed in their homes. The British provided medical treatment for the sick and wounded French soldiers and
French regular troops were returned to France aboard British ships with an agreement that they were not to serve again in the present war.
French and Indian War timeline
| Year | Dates | Event | Location |
|---|
| 1754 | May 28
July 3 | Battle of Jumonville Glen
Battle of the Great Meadows | Uniontown, Pennsylvania
Uniontown, Pennsylvania |
|---|
| 1755 | May 29 – July 9
June 3 – 16
July 9
September 8 | Braddock expedition
Battle of Fort Beauséjour
Battle of the Monongahela
Battle of Lake George | Western Pennsylvania
Sackville, New Brunswick
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Lake George, New York |
|---|
| 1756 | August 10 – 14
September 8 | Battle of Fort Oswego
Kittanning Expedition | Oswego, New York
Western Pennsylvania |
|---|
| 1757 | August 2 – 6 | Battle of Fort William Henry | Lake George, New York |
|---|
| 1758 | June 8 - July 26
July 7 – 8
September 14
October 12 | Second Battle of Louisbourg
Battle of Carillon
Battle of Fort Duquesne
Battle of Fort Ligonier | Louisbourg, Nova Scotia
Ticonderoga, New York
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Western Pennsylvania |
|---|
| 1759 | July
July 6 – 26
July 31
September 13 | Battle of Ticonderoga
Battle of Fort Niagara
Battle of Beauport
Battle of the Plains of Abraham | Ticonderoga, New York
Fort Niagara, New York
Quebec City
Quebec City |
|---|
| 1760 | April 28
August 16 – 24 | Battle of Sainte-Foy
Battle of the Thousand Islands | Quebec City
Ogdensburg, New York |
|---|
| 1762 | | Battle of Signal Hill | St. John's, Newfoundland |
|---|
| 1763 | February 10 | Treaty of Paris | Paris, France |
|---|
Outcome
Though the North American fighting ended on Sept. 8, 1760, when the marquis de Vaudreuil surrendered Montreal, indeed all of Canada to Britain , the war officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 10, 1763. The treaty resulted in France's loss of all its North American possessions east of the Mississippi except
Saint Pierre and Miquelon, two small islands of
Newfoundland. France regained the Caribbean islands of
Guadeloupe and
Martinique, which had been occupied by the British. The economic value of these islands was greater than that of Canada at the time, because of their rich
sugar crops, and the islands were easier to defend. Spain gained
Louisiana, including
New Orleans, in compensation for its loss of
Florida to the British.
One result of the war was that Britain gained control of a strip of territory along the
St. Lawrence River that now forms part of the
Province of Quebec with approximately 54,000 French-speaking,
Roman Catholic population. Near the beginning of the war, in 1755, the British had expelled French-speaking populations in
Acadia to Louisiana, creating the
Cajun population, the Acadians would not be allowed to return until 1764.
The European theatre of the war was settled by the Treaty of Hubertusburg on February 15, 1763.It also changed economic, political and social relations between Britian and its colonies.
Minor facts
- The Battle of Fort Necessity, one of the opening engagements of the war, marked the first and only instance of George Washington surrendering in battle.
- Fort Ticonderoga was built by the French after a battle near Lake George, New York.
- The novel and movie The Last of the Mohicans is an epic novel [i] by James Fenimore Cooper [i], first published in Janua ...
is set around the events of the Battle of Fort William Henry - The final battle of the war in North America was the Battle of Signal Hill
...
, in which the French surrendered
St. John's to the British under the command of Colonel William Amherst.
- As part of the peace treaty, France agreed that it would not build any military establishments in India, thereby allowing Britain to become the dominant European power in India. France was from then on powerless in North America.
Present day locations of battles and expeditions
...
Further reading
See also
External links
