Rabbi is the term in Judaism for a religious teacher. The word rabbi derives from the Hebrew root word , rav, which in biblical Hebrew means ‘great’ in many senses, including "revered." The word comes from the Semitic root R-B-B, and is cognate to Arabic ربّ rabb, meaning "lord" Rabbi ' onMouseout='HidePop("50554")' href="http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Midrash">Midrash
Midrash is a homiletic method of biblical exegesis. The term also refers to the whole compilation of homiletic teachings on the Bible....
) and legal discussion (
MishnahThe Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah" and the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
and Tosfeta) that eventually began to be written down towards the end of the 2nd Century AD.
Important figures (known as
TannaimThe Tannaim were the Rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 70-200 CE. The period of the Tannaim, also referred to as the Mishnaic period, lasted about 130 years...
) include
- Hillel the Elder
Hillel was a famous Jewish religious leader, one of the most important figures in Jewish history. He is associated with the development of the Mishnah and the Talmud...
(working c.30 BCYear 30 BC was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.-Rome:*Octavian becomes Roman Consul for the fourth time. His partner is Marcus Licinius Crassus Dives.*August 1—Octavian captures Alexandria...
to 10Year 10 was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:* Differentiation of localized Teutonic tribes of the Irminones.* The Greek dynasty in Bactria is extinguished....
AD)
- Shamai (c.50 BC
Year 50 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar.-Rome:* Consuls: Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor.* The Senate refuses Julius Caesar permission to stand for consul in absentia, and demands that he lay down his command....
to 30Year 30 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.-Religion:* The Sermon on the Mount...
AD)
- Gamliel I (died c. 50
Year 50 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:*Roman Emperor Claudius appoints Agrippa II governor of Chalcis.*Claudius adopts Nero....
)
- Yohanan ben Zakkai (1st century
The 1st century was the century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period...
)
- Gamliel II (1st century
The 1st century was the century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period...
)
- Rabbi Akiva
Akiba ben Yossef or simply Rabbi Akiva was a Judean tanna of the latter part of the 1st century and the beginning of the 2nd century . He was a great authority in the matter of Jewish tradition, and one of the most central and essential contributors to the Mishnah and Midrash Halakha...
(c.50Year 50 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:*Roman Emperor Claudius appoints Agrippa II governor of Chalcis.*Claudius adopts Nero....
to c.135-Roman Empire:* The Bar Kokhba revolt ends and, with it, Judean independence. Simon bar Kokhba is killed after 13 December in Betar, the fortress in which he had taken refuge...
)
- Simeon bar Yohai
Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai, Shimon son of Yohai, Simon son of Yohai or Rashbi , was a famous rabbi who lived in the era of the Tannaim in the area of what is today Israel during the Roman period, after the destruction of the Second Temple...
(2nd centuryThe 2nd century is the period from 101 to 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period...
)
- Rabbi Judah haNasi
Rabbi Judah haNasi, , also known as Rebbi and Rabbeinu HaKadosh , was a key leader of the Jewish community of Judea toward the end of the 2nd century CE, during the occupation by the Roman Empire. He is best known as the chief redactor and editor of the Mishnah...
(2nd centuryThe 2nd century is the period from 101 to 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period...
).
On the other hand, there is the attempt to accommodate traditional Jewish exegesis of the Jewish Scriptures and tradition with
Greek philosophyGreek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry. Many philosophers today concede that Greek philosophy has shaped the entire Western thought since its inception...
—a strand of thought of which
PhiloPhilo , known also as Philo of Alexandria , Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria, Yedidia and Philo the Jew, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher born in Alexandria....
(c.
20 BCYear 20 BC was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.-Rome:* Peace treaty between Rome and Parthia, in which the captured eagles of Crassus and Mark Antony are returned....
to
40Year 40 was a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:* The emperor Caligula is consul without colleague.* Caligula embarks on a campaign to conquer Britain, and fails miserably...
AD) is the best known proponent. The destruction of the
Jerusalem templeThe Temple in Jerusalem or Holy Temple , refers to a series of structures located on the Temple Mount in the old city of Jerusalem. Historically, two temples were built at this location, and a future Temple features in Jewish eschatology. According to classical Jewish belief, the Temple acts as...
in 70 AD and the
dispersionDispersion may refer to:In physics:*Dispersion *Dispersion *Dielectric dispersion*Dispersive mass transfer, in fluid dynamics, the spreading of mass from areas of high to low concentration**Atmospheric pollution dispersion...
of many Jews from
IsraelIsrael officially the State of Israel , is a developed state in Western Asia located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan in the east, and Egypt on the southwest, and contains geographically diverse features within its...
had a profound effect on Jewish Theology.
In the period of the Talmud
In the centuries after its compilation, discussion and commentary upon the
MishnahThe Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah" and the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
flourished in Jewish academies in
IsraelIsrael officially the State of Israel , is a developed state in Western Asia located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan in the east, and Egypt on the southwest, and contains geographically diverse features within its...
and in
BabylonBabylon was a city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad...
. Collections of opinions from these discussions, known as
GemaraThe Gemara is the part of the Talmud that contains rabbinical commentaries and analysis of the Mishnah. After the Mishnah was published by Rabbi Judah the Prince The Gemara (also transliterated Gemora or, less commonly, Gemorra) (from Aramaic גמרא gamar; literally, "[to] study" or "learning by...
were eventually edited together and placed with the Mishnah itself, in both Israel (around 350 AD – the
Jerusalem TalmudThe Jerusalem Talmud or Talmud Yerushalmi , often the Yerushalmi for short, is a collection of Rabbinic notes about the Jewish Oral tradition as detailed in the 2nd-century Mishnah...
) and Babylon (around 550 AD, with further editing in the two centuries that followed – the Babylonian
TalmudThe Talmud is a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs, and history. It is a central text of mainstream Judaism....
).
Important figures (known as Amoraim) include
- Samuel of Nehardea (Shmuel) (c.165
-Roman Empire:* A Roman military operation under Avidius Cassius is successful against Parthia, capturing Artaxata, Seleucia, and Ctesiphon. The Parthians sue for peace....
-c.257-Roman Empire:*Valerian I recovers Antioch from Shapur.*The Goths build a fleet on the Black Sea.*The Goths separate into the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths.*Aurelian defeats the Goths along the lower Danube, bringing many prisoners back to Rome.-Religion:...
)
- Resh Lakish
Simeon ben Lakish , better known by his nickname Resh Lakish, was an amora who lived in the Roman province of Syria Palaestina in the third century CE...
(born c.200Year 200 was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:* Septimus Severus visits Syria, Palestine and Arabia....
)
- Hillel, son of Gamaliel III
Hillel, son of Gamaliel III, was a Jewish scholar in the 3rd century CE. He was son of Gamaliel III, brother of Judah II, and probably a pupil of his grandfather Judah I.Of his early history nothing is known...
(3rd CenturyThe 3rd century is the period from 201 to 300 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era.In this century, the Roman Empire sees a crisis, marking the beginning of Late Antiquity. In Persia, the Parthian Empire is succeeded by the Sassanid Empire.In India, the Kushan Empire...
)
- Abba Arika
Abba Arika was a Jewish Talmudist who lived in Babylonia, known as an amora of the 3rd century who established at Sura the systematic study of the rabbinic traditions, which, using the Mishnah as text, led to the compilation of the Talmud...
(Rav) (died 247-Roman Empire:* First of the Gothic invasions.* Philip the Arab marks the millennium of Rome by holding the Ludi Saeculares.-Asia:* Himiko of Yamataikoku, in Japan, begins a war against Himikoko, the King of Kunukoku.-Deaths:...
)
- Rabbi Yochanan (died c.279)
- Abaye
Abaye was a Rabbi of the Jewish Talmud who lived in Babylonia [בבל], known as an amora [אמורא] born about the close of the third century; died 339 . His father, Kaylil, was the brother of Rabbah bar Nachmani, a teacher at the Academy of Pumbedita. Abaye's real name was Nachmani, after his...
(278-Births:*Abaye—Babylonian 'amora *Maxentius, Roman emperor *Sima Yu-Deaths:*Fu Xuan, Chinese poet*Xi Zheng, minister of the Kingdom of Shu*Yang Hu*Empress Dowager Yang Huiyu...
-c.338-Roman Empire:*The Romans, allied with the Goths, arrive in the north of the empire to protect the borders.*Constantius II intervenes against the Persians in Armenia.-Religion:...
)
- Abbahu
Abbahu was a Jewish Talmudist, known as an amora, who lived in the Land of Israel, of the 3rd amoraic generation , sometimes cited as R. Abbahu of Caesarea . His rabbinic education was acquired mainly at Tiberias, in the academy presided over by R. Johanan, with whom his relations were almost...
(died c.320-Roman Empire:* Under Crispus, son of Constantine I, the Franks are defeated again, assuring twenty years of peace along the Rhine border.-Asia:* Chandragupta I founds the Gupta dynasty in northern India.* The Huns appear in Persia...
)
- Ashi (352
-Roman Empire:* The Alamanni and the Franks defeat the Roman army, taking control of 40 towns between the Moselle and the Rhine.* Jewish revolt is put down.-Asia:* War begins between the Huns and the Alans....
-427-Europe:*The Roman province of Pannonia Prima is finally assimilated into the Hunnic empire-Asia:*Pyongyang is declared the capital of Goguryeo by king Jangsu.-Deaths:*December 24—Archbishop Sisinnius I of Constantinople...
)
Theologies of the New Testament
The
New TestamentThe New Testament is the name given to the second major division of the Christian Bible, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament, both terms being associated with Supersessionism...
contains evidence of some of the earliest forms of reflection upon the meanings and implications of Christian faith, mostly in the form of guidance offered to Christian congregations on how to live a life consistent with their convictions – notably in the
Pauline corpusPaul of Tarsus, also called Paul the Apostle, the Apostle Paul, or Saint Paul, Paul of Tarsus, also called Paul the Apostle, the Apostle Paul, or Saint Paul, Paul of Tarsus, also called Paul the Apostle, the Apostle Paul, or Saint Paul, ...
and
Johannine corpusScholars have debated the authorship of the Johannine works since at least the third century...
.
Patristic theology
A huge quantity of theological reflection emerged in the early centuries of the Christian church – in a wide variety of genres, in a variety of contexts, and in several languages – much of it the product of attempts to discuss how Christian faith should be lived in cultures very different from the one in which it was born. So, for instance, a good deal of the
Greek languageGreek , an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, is the language of the Greeks. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. In its ancient form, it is the language of classical...
literature can be read as an attempt to come to terms with Hellenistic culture. The period sees the slow emergence of
orthodoxyThe word orthodox, from Greek orthodoxos "having the right opinion", from orthos + doxa , is typically used to mean adhering to the accepted or traditional and established faith, especially in religion.The term did not conventionally exist with any degree of formality The word orthodox, from Greek...
(the idea of which seems to emerge out of the conflicts between
catholicThe word Catholic is derived from the Greek adjective , meaning "universal". In the context of Christian ecclesiology, it has a rich history and several usages. For some, the term "Catholic Church" refers to the church in full communion with the Bishop of Rome, made up of the Latin Rite and the 22...
Christianity and
GnosticGnosticism refers to diverse, syncretistic religious movements in antiquity consisting of various belief systems generally united in the teaching that humans are divine souls trapped in a material world created by an imperfect god, the demiurge; this being is frequently identified with the...
Christianity), the establishment of a
Biblical canonA Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as scripture by a particular religious community, generally in Judaism or Christianity. The term itself was first coined by Christians, but the idea is found in Jewish sources...
, debates about the doctrine of the
TrinityThe Christian doctrine of the Trinity teaches the unity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as three persons in one Godhead. The doctrine states that God is the Triune God, existing as three persons, or in the Greek hypostases, but one being. Each of the persons is understood as having the one...
(most notably between the councils of
NicaeaThe First Council of Nicaea was a council of Christian bishops convened in Nicaea in Bithynia by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325 CE...
in
325-Roman Empire:* Gladiatorial combat is outlawed in the Roman Empire.* Constantine I personally assures the security of the Danube border by defeating the Goths, Vandals and Sarmatians.-Art:...
and
ConstantinopleThe First Council of Constantinople is recognised as the Second Ecumenical Council by the Assyrian Church of the East, the Oriental Orthodox, the Eastern Orthodox, the Roman Catholics, the Old Catholics, and a number of other Western Christian groups...
in
381-Roman Empire:* A deputation from the Roman Senate delivers to Gratianus the robe of the Pontifex Maximus, which has been worn by every Roman Emperor since Augustus...
), about
ChristologyChristology is a field of study within Christian theology which is concerned with the nature of Jesus the Christ, particularly with how the divine and human are related in his person. Christology is generally less concerned with the details of Jesus' life than with how the human and divine...
(most notably between the councils of Constantinople in 381 and
ChalcedonThe Council of Chalcedon is considered by the Roman Catholics, the Eastern Orthodox, the Old Catholics, and various other Western Christian groups to have been the Fourth Ecumenical Council . It was held from 8 October to 1 November 451 at Chalcedon...
in
451-Western Roman Empire:* April 7—The Huns sack Metz.* June 20—Battle of Chalons: The Huns and the Ostrogoths, facing the Romans and the Visigoths, achieve at best a draw. After the battle, between 10,000 and 20,000 men lie dead on the Catalaunian Fields.-Europe:...
), about the purity of the Church (for instance in the debates surrounding the
DonatistThe Donatists were followers of a belief considered a schism by the broader churches of the Catholic tradition, and most particularly within the context of the religious milieu of the provinces of Roman North Africa in Late Antiquity...
s), and about
graceIn Christianity, grace is "unmerited favor" from God. Divine grace is a description of the character of God, which is displayed by God's gifts to humanity. Grace describes the means by which humans are granted salvation...
,
free willFree will raises the question whether, and in what sense, rational agents exercise control over their actions, decisions, choices. Addressing this question requires understanding the relationship between freedom and cause, and determining whether the laws of nature are causally deterministic...
and
predestinationPredestination is a religious concept, which involves the relationship between God and his creation. The religious character of predestination distinguishes it from other ideas about determinism and free will...
(for instance in the debate between
Augustine of HippoAugustine of Hippo , Bishop of Hippo Regius, also known as St. Augustine or St. Austin, was an Algerian Berber philosopher and theologian....
and
PelagiusPelagius was an ascetic who denied the doctrine of original sin, later developed by Augustine of Hippo, and was declared a heretic by the Council of Carthage. His interpretation of a doctrine of free will became known as Pelagianism. He was well educated, fluent in both Greek and Latin, and...
).
Influential texts and writers in the second century include:
- The collection known as the Apostolic Fathers
The Apostolic Fathers are a small number of Early Christian authors who lived and wrote in the second half of the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd century. They are acknowledged as leaders in the early church, although their writings were not included in the New Testament. They include St....
(mostly 2nd centuryThe 2nd century is the period from 101 to 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period...
)
- Justin Martyr
Justin Martyr was an early Christian apologist and saint. His works represent the earliest surviving Christian "apologies" of notable size.-Life:Most of what is known about the life of Justin Martyr comes from his own writings...
(c. 100Year 100 was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:* Bricks become the primary building material in the Roman Empire....
/114-Roman Empire:* The triumphal arch is erected in Benevento.* The kingdom of Osroene becomes a vassal kingdom of the Roman Empire.* Trajan defeats the Parthians and overruns Armenia and northern Mesopotamia....
– c. 162-Roman Empire:*Lucius Verus begins a war with the Parthians, due to the invasion of Syria and Armenia by Vologases IV of Parthia.-Arts and sciences:*Arrian publishes Indica, a work on India and its people.-Births:...
/168-Asia:* Change of Han Huandi to Han Lingdi of Han Dynasty; first year of Jianning era.-Births:* Cao Ren, cousin of the warlord Cao Cao * Gu Yong, minister of kingdom of Wu...
)
- Clement of Alexandria
Titus Flavius Clemens , known as Clement of Alexandria , was a Christian theologian and the head of the noted Catechetical School of Alexandria. Clement is best remembered as the teacher of Origen...
(died c.215-Roman Empire:* Caracalla's troops massacre the population of Alexandria, Egypt.* Caracalla introduces a new coin, the Antoninianus. The weight of this coin is a mere 1/50 of a pound...
)
- Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130
-Roman Empire:* A law is passed in Rome banning the execution of slaves without a trial.* Construction begins on the Olympeion of Athens.* Hadrian visits Petra and Gerasa .* A Triumphal Arch for Hadrian is built in Gerasa....
– 202-Roman Empire:* Septimus Severus returns to Rome after a five year absence. Festivals are held to celebrate his six year reign.* A Roman law bans female gladiators.* An edict bans conversions to Christianity and all Christian propaganda.* Pantheon is restored....
)
- Various ‘Gnostic
Gnosticism refers to diverse, syncretistic religious movements in antiquity consisting of various belief systems generally united in the teaching that humans are divine souls trapped in a material world created by an imperfect god, the demiurge; this being is frequently identified with the...
’ authors, such as Valentinius (c.100Year 100 was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:* Bricks become the primary building material in the Roman Empire....
-c.153-Asia:* Change of era name from Yuanjia to Yongxing of the Chinese Han Dynasty.-Births:* Lü Bu, warrior during the Chinese Han Dynasty * Kong Rong, governor of Beihai...
) and BasilidesBasilides was an early Christian religious teacher in Alexandria, Egypt. He is believed to have written over two dozen books of commentary on the Christian Gospel , making him one of the earliest Gospel commentators...
(c.117-Roman Empire:* Trajan subdues a Jewish revolt , then falls seriously ill, leaving Hadrian in command of the east.* On his death bed, Trajan adopts Hadrian and designates him as his successor....
-138-Roman Empire:* February 25—Roman emperor Hadrian adopts Antoninus Pius on condition that Antoninus adopt Marcus Annius Aurelius Verus.* On Hadrian's death, the Senate, which had been stripped of power during his reign, refuses to deify him...
)
- Some of the texts commonly referred to as the New Testament apocrypha
The New Testament apocrypha are a number of writings by early Christians that give accounts of Jesus and his teachings, the nature of God, or the teachings of his apostles and of their lives. These writings often have links with those books which are regarded as "canonical"...
.
Influential texts and writers between c.
200Year 200 was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:* Septimus Severus visits Syria, Palestine and Arabia....
and
325-Roman Empire:* Gladiatorial combat is outlawed in the Roman Empire.* Constantine I personally assures the security of the Danube border by defeating the Goths, Vandals and Sarmatians.-Art:...
(the
First Council of NicaeaThe First Council of Nicaea was a council of Christian bishops convened in Nicaea in Bithynia by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325 CE...
) include:
- Tertullian
Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, was a prolific and controversial early Christian Berber author, and the first to write Christian Latin literature. He also was a notable early Christian apologist and a polemicist against heresy...
(c.155-Roman Empire:* Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius starts a new war against the Parthians who are led by Vologesus. The war is brief and results in an inconclusive peace....
-230-Roman Empire:* Taxes are increased in order to maintain the unity and defense of the Empire.* Severus Alexander decides that Thessaly should be a separate province from Macedonia.-Asia:* Ardashir I of Persia invades the Roman province of Mesopotamia...
)
- Hippolytus
For places named after the saint, see Saint-HippolyteSaint Hippolytus of Rome was one of the most prolific writers of the early Church. Hippolytus was born during the second half of the 2nd century, probably in Rome. Photius describes him in his Bibliotheca For places named after the saint, see...
(died 235-Roman Empire:* Pressure on Rome by Goths, Quadi, Sassanids, Franks and Alemanni increases. Following a defeat by the Germans, Alexander Severus and his mother Julia Mamaea, are massacred near Mainz by his soldiers. Severan dynasty ends....
)
- Origen
Origen was an early Christian scholar and theologian, and one of the most distinguished of the early fathers of the Christian Church. According to tradition, he is held to have been an Egyptian who taught in Alexandria, reviving the Catechetical School of Alexandria where Clement of Alexandria had...
(c.182-Births:* Origen, Christian theologian * Sun Quan, founder of the Wu Kingdom in China * Zhu Ran, general of Wu * Fu Shiren, general under Liu Bei* Empress Wenzhao, wife of Cao Pi...
-c.251-Roman Empire:* July 1—In the Battle of Abrittus, the Goths defeat the Romans; emperors Decius and Herennius Etruscus are killed.* In Rome, Hostilian, son of Decius, succeeds Decius, while Trebonianus Gallus is proclaimed Emperor by the troops...
)
- Cyprian
Saint Cyprian was bishop of Carthage and an important early Christian writer. He was born around the beginning of the 3rd century in North Africa, perhaps at Carthage, where he received an excellent classical education...
(died c.258-Roman Empire:* The Goths ravage Asia Minor and Trabzon.* Gaul, Britain and Spain break off from the Roman Empire to form the Gallic Empire.* The amount of silver in Roman currency falls below 10%....
)
- Arius
Arius was a Berber Christian priest from Alexandria, Egypt in the early fourth century whose teachings, now called Arianism, were deemed heretical by the Church....
(256-Roman Empire:* Goths invade Asia Minor. Dacia is lost for the Roman Empire.* Emperor Valerian persecutes Christians.* The Franks cross the Rhine, the Alamanni reach Milan....
-336This article is about the year 336. -Roman Empire:* The military successes of Emperor Constantine I result in most of Dacia being reconquered by the Roman Empire.-Deaths:* October 7—Pope Mark* Arius, founder of Arianism...
)
- Other Gnostic
Gnosticism refers to diverse, syncretistic religious movements in antiquity consisting of various belief systems generally united in the teaching that humans are divine souls trapped in a material world created by an imperfect god, the demiurge; this being is frequently identified with the...
texts and texts from the New Testament apocryphaThe New Testament apocrypha are a number of writings by early Christians that give accounts of Jesus and his teachings, the nature of God, or the teachings of his apostles and of their lives. These writings often have links with those books which are regarded as "canonical"...
.
Texts from patristic authors before 325 AD are collected in the
Ante-Nicene FathersThe Ante-Nicene Fathers, subtitled "The Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D. 325", is a collection of books in 10 volumes containing English translations of the majority of Early Christian writings. The period covers the beginning of Christianity until before the promulgation of the Nicene Creed...
.
Influential texts and writers between 325 AD and c.500 AD include:
- Athanasius (298
-Roman Empire:* Constantius Chlorus defeats the Alamanni in the territory of the Lingones and strengthens the border along the Rhine.* Christians are expelled from the Roman army.* The Baths of Diocletian are built in Rome....
-373-Roman Empire:* Quintus Aurelius Symmachus becomes proconsul of Africa.* Valens is converted to Arianism and orders the persecution of orthodox Christians.-Europe:* The Battle of the Tanais River near the Don where the Huns defeat the Alans.-Births:...
)
- The Cappadocian Fathers
The Cappadocian Fathers are Basil the Great, bishop of Caesarea ; Basil's brother Gregory of Nyssa, bishop of Nyssa ; and a close friend, Gregory Nazianzus, Patriarch of Constantinople...
(late 4th centuryAs a means of recording the passage of time, the 4th century was that century which lasted from 301 to 400.- Overview :...
)
- Ambrose
Saint Ambrose was a bishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the fourth century. He is counted as one of the four original doctors of the Church.-Political career:...
(c.340-Roman Empire:* Constantinople, capital of Emperor Constantius II, becomes the largest city of the world, taking the lead from Rome, capital of Emperor Constans....
-397- Religion :* Council of Carthage: The biblical canon is definitely declared.* The Candida Casa is founded by Saint Ninian, marking the beginning of missionary work among the Picts....
)
- Jerome
Saint Jerome was a Christian priest and apologist. He was the son of Eusebius, of the city of Strido, which was on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia...
(c.347-Religion:* Council of Sardica: An attempt is made to resolve the Arian controversy, and ground rules for bishops are laid down.* The Council of Philippopolis is held as the result of Eastern bishops leaving the Council of Sardica...
-420-Asia:* The Jin Dynasty ends in China. Liu Yu is the first ruler of the Song Dynasty.* The Southern Dynasties begin in China.* Bahram V succeeds Yazdegerd as king of Persia.-Deaths:...
)
- Chrysostom (347
-Religion:* Council of Sardica: An attempt is made to resolve the Arian controversy, and ground rules for bishops are laid down.* The Council of Philippopolis is held as the result of Eastern bishops leaving the Council of Sardica...
-407 For the cars, see Peugeot 407 and Bristol 407.-Western Roman Empire:* Gratianus is assassinated, and Constantine III takes his place at the head of the mutinous Roman garrison in Britain. Having been proclaimed the new Roman Emperor by his troops, he leads many of the Roman military...
)
- Augustine of Hippo
Augustine of Hippo , Bishop of Hippo Regius, also known as St. Augustine or St. Austin, was an Algerian Berber philosopher and theologian....
(354-Roman Empire:* Constantius Gallus, Caesar of the East, is deposed and executed on orders of Constantius II.* The Alemanni cross the upper Rhine and invade the lands of the Helvetians.-Religion:...
-430-Asia:* Feng Ba abdicates as emperor of the Northern Yan, one of the states vying for control of China. He is succeeded by Feng Hong.-Religion:* Saint Patrick reaches Ireland on his missionary expedition ....
)
- Cyril of Alexandria
Saint Cyril of Alexandria was the Pope of Alexandria when the city was at its height of influence and power within the Roman Empire. Cyril wrote extensively and was a leading protagonist in the Christological controversies of the later 4th, and 5th centuries...
(376-Roman Empire:* Many Goths appear on the Danube and request entry into the Roman Empire in their flight from the Huns.* The Huns continue to ravage the Balkans....
-444-Religion:* Pope Leo I extinguishes the Gallican vicariate.* Saint /Heretic Dioscorus I of Alexandria becomes the Patriarch of Alexandria / the 25th Pope of Alexandria ....
)
Texts from patristic authors after 325 AD are collected in the
Nicene and Post-Nicene FathersA Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, usually known as the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , is a set of books containing translations of early Christian writings into English. It was published between 1886 and 1900...
. Important theological debates also surrounded the various
Ecumenical CouncilsAn ecumenical council is a conference of the bishops of the whole Christian Church convened to discuss and settle matters of Church doctrine and practice...
–
NicaeaThe First Council of Nicaea was a council of Christian bishops convened in Nicaea in Bithynia by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325 CE...
in 325,
ConstantinopleThe First Council of Constantinople is recognised as the Second Ecumenical Council by the Assyrian Church of the East, the Oriental Orthodox, the Eastern Orthodox, the Roman Catholics, the Old Catholics, and a number of other Western Christian groups...
in 381, Ephesus in 431 and
ChalcedonThe Council of Chalcedon is considered by the Roman Catholics, the Eastern Orthodox, the Old Catholics, and various other Western Christian groups to have been the Fourth Ecumenical Council . It was held from 8 October to 1 November 451 at Chalcedon...
in 451
See also main articles on
PatristicsPatristics or Patrology is the study of early Christian writers, known as the Church Fathers. The names derive from the Latin pater . The period is generally considered to run from the end of New Testament times until around the 8th century.- Patrologia vs. patristica :Some scholars, chiefly in...
and
Church FathersThe Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church, particularly those of the first five centuries of Christian history. The term is used of writers and teachers of the Church, not necessarily saints...
.
Medieval Jewish theology
We may divide medieval Jewish theologians into three categories: those primarily concerned with commentary upon Talmud (who can be further divided into the Genoim and the Rishonim); those whose main interests were more in the area of philosophical theology; and those who were part of the Karaite movement that rejected Talmud.
The Geonim
The
Geonim were Babylonian rabbis who taught Talmud and decided on issues on which no ruling had been rendered during the period of the Talmud. "Geon" is Hebrew for "genius."
Prominent
GeonimGeonim were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, in Babylonia, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the Jewish community world wide in the early medieval era, in contrast to the Resh Galuta who wielded secular authority over the Jews in...
include:
- Amram Gaon
Amram Gaon or Amram bar Sheshna was a famous Gaon or head of the Jewish Talmud Academy of Sura in the 9th century. He was the author of many Responsa, but his chief work was liturgical....
(died 875-Europe:* December 29—Charles the Bald, king of West Francia, is crowned emperor.* The Danes capture Lindisfarne and arrive in Cambridge.* Harald Fairhair subdues the rovers on Orkney and Shetland and adds them to his kingdom.-Asia:...
)
- Saadia Gaon
Saʻadiah ben Yosef Gaon , , was a prominent rabbi, Jewish philosopher, and exegete of the Geonic period....
(892-Europe:* Poppo of Thuringia, count of the march in Thuringia, is deposed by the German Carolingian king Arnulf of Carinthia.* Arnulf of Carinthia invades Great Moravia.-Asia:...
-942-Asia:* Kaminarimon, the eight-pillared gate to Japan's Kinryuzan Sensouji Temple, is erected.* The Chavda Kingdom is overthrown in Gujarat, India.-Europe:* Hywel Dda, king of Deheubarth, annexes Gwynedd to become ruler of most of Wales.-Religion:...
)
- Hai Gaon
Hai ben Sherira, better known as Hai Gaon, was a medieval Jewish theologian, rabbi and scholar who served as Gaon of the Talmudic academy of Pumbedita during the early 11th century. He was born in 939 and died on March 28, 1038. He received his Talmudic education from his father, Sherira ben...
(969-Europe:* Boris II succeeds Peter I as Tsar of Bulgaria.-Africa:* The Fatimids conquer Egypt and move their capital from Kairouan to Fustat, subsequently founding a new capital city just north of Fustat, and naming it Cairo.-Asia:...
-1038)
- Sherira Gaon
Rav Sherira Gaon was the head of the yeshiva in Pumbeditha. He wrote the Iggeret Rav Sherira Gaon, a comprehensive history of the composition of the Talmud. One of the most prominent Geonim of his period, he was the father of Hai Gaon.Gaon of Pumbedita; born about 900; died about 1000 Rav Sherira...
(c.900Year 900 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.-Asia:* Gyeonhwon formally establishes the kingdom of Hubaekje in southwestern Korea....
-c.1000)
The Rishonim
The
Rishonim"Rishon" redirects here. For the preon model in particle physics, see Harari Rishon Model. For the Israeli town, see Rishon LeZion.Rishonim were the leading Rabbis and Poskim who lived approximately during the 11th to 15th centuries, in the era before the writing of the Shulkhan Arukh and...
were the leading rabbis between approximately 1250 to 1550, that is in the era before the writing of the Shulkhan Arukh by Rabbi
Yosef KaroJoseph ben Ephraim Caro, also spelled Karo, or Qaro, was author of the last great codification of Jewish law, the Shulchan Aruch, which is still authoritative for all Jews pertaining to their respective communities...
, which is considered the most authoritative compilation of Jewish law since the Talmud.
Prominent Rishonim include:
- Solomon ben Isaac (Rashi
Shlomo Yitzhaki, better known by the acronym Rashi , , was a medieval French rabbi famed as the author of the first comprehensive commentary on the Talmud, as well as a comprehensive commentary on the Tanakh .Acclaimed for his ability to present the basic meaning of the text in a...
) (1040-1105)
- Isaac Alfasi
Isaac ben Jacob Alfasi ha-Cohen - also known as the Alfasi or by his Hebrew acronym Rif , was a Talmudist and posek . He is best known for his work of halakha, the legal code Sefer Ha-halachot, considered the first fundamental work in halakhic literature...
(1013-1103)
- Abraham Ben Mair ibn Ezra (Abenezra) (c.1092-1167)
- Abraham ben David of Posquières (Rabad) (c.1125-1198)
- Moshe ben Nahman (Nahmnanides) (1194-c.1270)
- Ashur ben Jehiel (Rosh) (1250/1259-1328)
Medieval Jewish philosophy
- Solomon ibn Gabirol
Solomon ibn Gabirol, also Solomon ben Judah was an Andalucian Hebrew poet and Jewish philosopher. He was born in Málaga about 1021; died about 1058 in Valencia.-Biography:Little is known of Gabirol's life. His parents died while he was a child...
(Avicdebron) (c.1021-1070)
- Bahya ibn Paquda
Bahya ben Joseph ibn Paquda was a Jewish philosopher and rabbi who lived at Saragossa, Spain, in the first half of the eleventh century...
(11th centuryAs a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century is the period from 1001 to 1100 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era.
...
)
- Moses ibn Ezra
Rabbi Moses ben Jacob ibn Ezra, known as ha-Sallah was a Jewish, Spanish philosopher, linguist, and poet. He was born at Granada about 1055 – 1060, and died after 1138.-Family:He was related to Abraham ibn Ezra and a pupil of Isaac ibn Ghiyyat...
(c.1070-after 1138)
- Moshe ben Maimon (Maimonides
Moses Maimonides, also known as Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon or the acronym the Rambam , was born in Cordoba, Spain on March 30, 1135, and died in Egypt on December 13, 1204....
) (1135-1204)
- Levi ben Gershon (Gersonides
Levi ben Gershon , better known as Gersonides or the Ralbag , philosopher, Talmudist, mathematician, astronomer/astrologer. He was born at Bagnols in Languedoc, France.- Biography :...
) (1288-1334)
- Hasdai Crescas
Hasdai ben Judah Crescas was a Jewish philosopher and a renowned halakhist...
(1340-1410)
Karaite theologians
- Benjamin Nahawandi
Benjamin Nahawandi or Benjamin ben Moses or Benyamin ben Moshe al-Nahawendi was one of the greatest of the Karaite scholars of the early Middle Ages. His influence was so far-reaching that some regard him as the proper originator of Karaism as it has come down through the ages. The Karaite...
(late 8th centuryThe 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era.-Overview:During this century, the Middle East, the coast of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula rapidly come under Islamic Arab domination...
– early 9th centuryThe 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era.- Britain :Britain experienced a great influx of Viking peoples in the ninth century as the Viking Age continued from the previous century. The kingdoms of the Heptarchy were gradually...
)
- Jacob ben Reuben
*Jacob ben Reuben ; eleventh-century Karaite scholar, probably from Constantinople*Jacob ben Reuben ; author of a polemical work against Christianity*Jacob ben Reuben ibn Zur; Moroccan rabbi of the eighteenth century CE....
(11th centuryAs a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century is the period from 1001 to 1100 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era.
...
)
- Aaron ben Joseph
Aaron ben Joseph of Constantinople , was an eminent teacher, philosopher, physician, and liturgical poet in Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire.-Background:Aaron ben Joseph was born in Sulchat, Crimea...
(c.1260-1320)
- Aaron ben Elijah, the younger (c.1300-1369)
- Elijah ben Moses ben Menahem (Bashyazi) (c.1420-c.1490)
Byzantine theology
While the Western Roman Empire declined and fell, the Eastern Roman Empire, centred on Constantinople, remained standing until 1453, and was the home of a wide range of theological activity that was seen as standing in strong continuity with the theology of the Patristic period; indeed the division between Patristic and Byzantine theology would not be recognised by many Orthodox theologians and historians.
Mystical theology
- Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, also known as Pseudo-Denys, is the anonymous theologian and philosopher of the late 5th to early 6th century whose Corpus Areopagiticum was pseudonymously ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite, the Athenian convert of St. Paul mentioned in...
(working c. 500Year 500 was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.-Europe:* Possible date for the Battle of Mons Badonicus: Romano-British and Celts defeat an Anglo-Saxon army that may have been led by the bretwalda Aelle of Sussex or possibly Cerdic of Wessex...
)
- Symeon the New Theologian
Symeon the New Theologian is the latest of three saints of the Eastern Orthodox church to have been given the title of Theologian thus, although his title of "new" was likely to distinguish him from another contemporary Symeon . Symeon was a poet who embodied the mystical hesychastic tradition...
(949-Science:* 1 February—Belgian astronomer Jean Meeus asserts that the orbits of all the planets of the Solar system were within the same 90° arc of the solar system on this date. The next time it is thought this will occur is on 6 May, 2492.-Deaths:...
-1022)
- Gregory Palamas
Saint Gregory Palamas was a monk of Mount Athos in Greece and later the Archbishop of Thessaloniki known as a preeminent theologian of Hesychasm. He is venerated as a Saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church...
(1296-1359)
Christological controversy after Chalcedon
- Severus of Antioch
Severus, Patriarch of Antioch , born approximately 465 in Sozopolis in Pisidia, was by birth and education a pagan, who was baptized in the martyrium of Leontius at Tripolis.- Life :...
(c.465-Europe:* According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Hengist and Esc slay twelve Welsh leaders near Wippedfleet.-Asia:* Song Qian Fei Di, then Song Ming Di become ruler of the Song Dynasty in China.-Deaths:* August 15—Libius Severus, Western Roman Emperor...
-518-Events:* July 9—Justin becomes Byzantine emperor.* September 29—Severus, Patriarch of Antioch, is deposed by a synod for his Monophysitism. Paul I is appointed to replace him.-Deaths:* July 9—Anastasius I, Byzantine emperor* Flavian II, Patriarch of Antioch...
)
- Leontius of Jerusalem
Leontius , theological writer, born at Constantinople, flourished during the sixth century. He is variously styled Byzantinus, Hierosolymitanus Leontius (c. 485 – c. 543), theological writer, born at Constantinople, flourished during the sixth century. He is variously styled Byzantinus,...
(working 538-Europe:* March 12—Witiges, king of the Ostrogoths, ends his siege of Rome and retreats to Ravenna, leaving the city in the hands of the victorious Byzantine general, Belisarius.* Gabrán mac Domangairt becomes king of Dál Riata....
-544-Byzantine Empire:* Belisarius is sent back to Italy to once more fight the Ostrogoths.* Pope Vigilius is ordered to Constantinople.* Khosrau I of Persia unsuccessfully attacks the Byzantine fortress of Dara.-Southeast Asia:...
)
- Maximus the Confessor
Maximus the Confessor was a Christian monk, theologian, and scholar. In his early life, he was a civil servant, and an aide to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius...
(c.580- Europe :* Ethelbert becomes king of Kent.* The Roman Senate sends an embassy to Constantinople; this is its last recorded act.- Asia :* The ancient Chinese city of Ye is razed to the ground by Yang Jian.- Births :* Uthman Ibn Affan* Umar...
-682-Asia:* Due to a culmination of major droughts, floods, locust plagues, and epidemics, a widespread famine breaks out in the dual Chinese capital cities of Chang'an and Luoyang...
)
- Catholic–Orthodox theological differences
This article discusses Catholic–Orthodox theological differences, or more specifically the views of some Eastern Orthodox Church theologians on what they see as differences between their theology and that of the Roman Catholic Church...
Iconoclasts and iconophiles
- Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople (patriarch 715
-Europe:* September 26—Battle of Compiègne: Ragenfrid defeats Theudoald, becoming mayor of the palace of Neustria and Burgundy.-Asia:* Empress Gemmei of Japan is succeeded by Empress Genshō.* A major earthquake hits Turkey...
-730-Europe:* Charles Martel defeats the last independent dukedom of the Alamanni, and launches raids on the Saxons beyond the Rhine.-Asia:* Chinese Emperor Xuanzong of Tang has four palace walls in the northeast sector of the capital city Chang'an torn down and reassembled to construct a new Daoist...
)
- John of Damascus
Saint John of Damascus was an Arab Christian monk and priest...
(676676 was a leap year of the 7th century.-Asia:* In Japan, Emperor Temmu promulgate a decree about taxes from fiefs and the employment of persons for the service from the outer provinces...
-749-Asia:* Empress Kōken succeeds Emperor Shōmu on the throne of Japan.* Golan earthquake of 749-Deaths:* December 5—Saint John of Damascus , theologian* Ratchis, king of the Lombards...
)
- Theodore the Studite
Theodore the Studite, also called St Theodore of Stoudios or St Theodore of Studium , was a Byzantine monk and abbot of the Stoudios monastery in Constantinople. He played a major role in the revivals both of Byzantine monasticism and of classical literary genres in Byzantium...
(c.758-Asia:* Emperor Junnin succeeds Empress Kōken on the throne of Japan.* During the turmoil of the An Shi Rebellion, the Chinese seaport Guangzhou is sacked by Arab and Persian raiders...
-c.826-Deaths:* Theodore the Studite, monk and theologician * Beornwulf, king of Mercia* Emperor Jingzong of Tang...
)
Before the Carolingian Empire
When the Western Roman Empire fragmented under the impact of various 'barbarian' invasions, the Empire-wide intellectual culture that had underpinned late Patristic theology had its interconnections cut. Theology tended to become more localised, more diverse, more fragmented. The classically-clothed Christianity preserved in Italy by men like
BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius was a Christian philosopher of the early 6th century. He was born in Rome to an ancient and important family which included emperors Petronius Maximus and Olybrius and many consuls. His father, Flavius Manlius Boethius, was consul in 487 after Odoacer deposed the...
and
CassiodorusFlavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator , commonly known as Cassiodorus, was a Roman statesman and writer, serving in the administration of Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. Senator was part of his surname not his rank....
was different from the vigorous
FrankishThe Franks or Frankish people were a West Germanic tribal confederation first attested in the 3rd century as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul...
Christianity documented by
Gregory of ToursSaint Gregory of Tours was a Gallo-Roman historian and bishop of Tours, which made him a leading prelate of Gaul. He was born Georgius Florentius, later adding the name Gregorius in honour of his maternal great-grandfather...
which was different again from the Christianity that flourished in
IrelandIreland is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island in the world. It lies to the north-west of continental Europe and is surrounded by hundreds of islands and islets. To the east of Ireland, separated by the Irish Sea, is the island of Great Britain...
and
NorthumbriaNorthumbria or Northhumbria was a medieval kingdom of the Angles, in what is now north-east England and southern Scotland, becoming subsequently an earldom in a united Anglo-Saxon kingdom of England. The name reflects the approximate southern limit to the kingdom's territory: the Humber...
in the
seventhThe 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era.-Overview:The Muslim conquests began after the death of Muhammad in 632. Islam expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula under the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate...
and
eighth centuriesThe 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era.-Overview:During this century, the Middle East, the coast of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula rapidly come under Islamic Arab domination...
. Throughout this period, theology tended to be a more
monasticMonasticism is the religious practice in which one renounces worldly pursuits in order to fully devote one's life to spiritual work...
affair, flourishing in monastic havens where the conditions and resources for theological learning could be maintained.
Important writers include:
- Caesarius of Arles (c.468
-Eastern Roman Empire:*The Vandal fleet overpowers the navy of Leo I.*The Huns again invade Dacia and are once more repelled by Leo....
-542-Byzantine Empire:*An outbreak of the plague kills at least 230,000 in Constantinople and perhaps two million or more in the rest of the Empire...
)
- Boethius
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius was a Christian philosopher of the early 6th century. He was born in Rome to an ancient and important family which included emperors Petronius Maximus and Olybrius and many consuls. His father, Flavius Manlius Boethius, was consul in 487 after Odoacer deposed the...
(480-Europe:* Odoacer defeats an attempt by Julius Nepos to recapture Italy, and has Julius killed.* Odoacer captures Dalmatia.* Ireland: The Diocese of Connor is erected.-Asia:...
-524- Europe :* Childebert I annexes Orléans and Chartres after the death of Chlodomer.* Boethius writes the Consolation of Philosophy.- Americas :* December 1 – Ahkal Mo' Naab' I, ruler of the Maya city of Palenque, dies...
)
- Cassiodorus
Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator , commonly known as Cassiodorus, was a Roman statesman and writer, serving in the administration of Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. Senator was part of his surname not his rank....
(c.480-Europe:* Odoacer defeats an attempt by Julius Nepos to recapture Italy, and has Julius killed.* Odoacer captures Dalmatia.* Ireland: The Diocese of Connor is erected.-Asia:...
-c.585- Europe :* The Suebi kingdom on the Iberian peninsula is conquered by the Visigoths under King Leovigild.* Hussa succeeds his brother Frithuwald as king of Bernicia .* Creoda becomes king of Mercia.* Famine strikes Gaul.- Asia :...
)
- Pope Gregory I
Pope St. Gregory I , better known in English as Gregory the Great, was pope from 3 September 590 until his death...
(c.540The folowing events are associated with the year 540 AD:-Byzantine Empire:* General Belisarius conquers Milan and the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna.* The Sassanids attack Dara and capture Antioch.* The Huns and Bulgars raid Greece.-Europe:...
-604- Byzantine Empire :* The Sassanids destroy the Byzantine fortress of Dara.- Europe :* Saebert succeeds Sledda as King of Essex.* Theudebert II and Theuderic II defeat Clotaire II in battle.* Aethelfrith of Northumbria unites Deira and Bernicia....
)
- Isidore of Seville
Saint Isidore of Seville was Archbishop of Seville for more than three decades and is considered, as Montalembert put it in an oft-quoted phrase, "le dernier savant du monde ancien"...
(c.560-Europe:* Ceawlin of Wessex becomes King of Wessex .* Æthelbert succeeds his father Eormenric as king of Kent .* Adda succeeds his brother Glappa as king of Bernicia ....
-636-Byzantine Empire:* August 20—Battle of Yarmuk: Khalid ibn al-Walid's victory against the Byzantine army results in the Byzantine Empire losing Roman Syria to the Muslim Arabs.-Persian Empire:...
)
- Bede
Bede , also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or Beda , was a monk at the Northumbrian monastery of Saint Peter at Monkwearmouth, today part of Sunderland, England, and of its companion monastery, Saint Paul's, in modern Jarrow , both in the Kingdom of Northumbria.He is well known as an author and...
(672672 was a leap year of the 7th century.-Asia:* Emperor Kōbun reigns briefly as emperor of Japan, followed by his uncle Emperor Temmu who overthrew his newphew in a brief but violent battle called The Jinshin War.-Religion:...
-736-Asia:* The scholar-priest Rōben invites Shinshō to give lectures on the Avatamsaka Sutra at Kinshōsen-ji ; this event is considered to be the roots of the Kegon school of Buddhism founded in Japan.-Europe:...
)
Theology in the time of Charlemagne
Both because it made communication between different Christian centres easier, and because there was a concerted effort by its rulers to encourage educational and religious reforms and to develop greater uniformity in Christian thought and practice across their territories, the establishment of the
Carolingian EmpireCarolingian Empire is a historiographical term sometimes used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty. This dynasty is seen as the founders of France and Germany...
saw an explosion of theological inquiry, and theological controversy. Controversy flared, for instance, around 'Spanish
AdoptionismAdoptionism, also called dynamic monarchianism, was a minority Christian belief that Jesus was born merely human and that he became divine later in his life....
, around the views on predestination of
GottschalkGottschalk of Orbais was a Saxon theologian, monk and poet who is best known for being an early advocate of the doctrine of two-fold predestination.-Early career:...
, or around the eucharistic views of
RatramnusRatramnus was a Frankish theological controversialist of the second half of the ninth century.He was a monk of the Benedictine abbey of Corbie near Amiens; beyond this fact very little is known about him...
.
Important writers include:
- Alcuin
Alcuin of York or Ealhwine, nicknamed Albinus or Flaccus was a scholar, ecclesiastic, poet and teacher from York, Northumbria. He was born around 735 and became the student of Ecgbert at York...
(c.735-Events:* A smallpox epidemic starts in Ancient Japan, which reduces the population by 30%.* In Tang Dynasty China, by this year there was 149,685,400 kg of grain shipped annually along the Grand Canal of China.-Births:...
-804-Asia:* Japanese monk Kukai visits China, from which he brings back texts of Shingon .* 804–805 – Priest Saicho, patriarch of Tendai Buddhism, visits China and reportedly brings back tea seeds.-Oceania:...
)
- The Spanish Adoptionists
Adoptionism, also called dynamic monarchianism, was a minority Christian belief that Jesus was born merely human and that he became divine later in his life....
Felix of UrgelFelix, Bishop of Urgel , was a Christian bishop and theologian in the eighth century.Felix became Bishop at an unknown date and lived at the monastery Sant Sadurní de Tabernoles in the foothills of the Pyrenees....
and Elipandus of Toledo (late 8th centuryThe 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era.-Overview:During this century, the Middle East, the coast of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula rapidly come under Islamic Arab domination...
)
- Claudius of Turin
Claudius of Turin was the Catholic bishop of Turin from 817 until his death. He was a courtier of Louis the Pious and was a writer during the Carolingian Renaissance. He is most noted for teaching iconoclasm, a radical idea at that time in Latin Church, and for some teachings that prefigured those...
(?-839-Europe:* Louis the Pious attempts to divide his empire among his sons.* Ethelwulf succeeds Egbert as king of Wessex.* Uen is succeeded by Uurad as king of the Picts.* The reign of Alpin II of Dalriada begins ....
)
- Rabanus Maurus
Rabanus Maurus Magnentius , also known as Hrabanus or Rhabanus, was a Frankish Benedictine monk, the archbishop of Mainz in Germany and a theologian. He was the author of the encyclopaedia De rerum naturis . He also wrote treatises on education and grammar and commentaries on the Bible...
(c.780- Byzantine Empire :* Constantine VI becomes Byzantine Emperor with Irene as guardian.- Asia :* Tang Dezong becomes emperor of China.* Borobudur, a Buddhist temple complex, is begun .* The king of Silla is killed in a revolt.- Europe :...
-856-Asia:* December 22—Another deadly earthquake strikes Damghan, Iran, killing 200,000 people.-Europe:* November—An earthquake in Corinth, Greece, kills an estimated 45,000.* Ethelbald usurps the throne of Wessex from his father Ethelwulf....
)
- Radbertus
St. Paschasius Radbertus , was a Frankish Benedictine monk, theologian, and Abbot of Corbie who wrote numerous treatises, expositions and biographies during the Frankish Carolingian era. His feast day is April 26.-Life:...
(c.790-Byzantine Empire:*A revolt against Empress Irene leads to Constantine VI being declared sole ruler of the Byzantine Empire....
-865-Europe:* Ethelred succeeds as king of Wessex .* Louis the German divides his kingdom among his sons.* Lothair, threatened with excommunication, takes back his first wife, Theutberga.* Bulgaria under Boris I converts to Orthodox Christianity.-Asia:...
)
- Ratramnus
Ratramnus was a Frankish theological controversialist of the second half of the ninth century.He was a monk of the Benedictine abbey of Corbie near Amiens; beyond this fact very little is known about him...
(died c.868-Asia:* 11 May—The Diamond Sutra, the oldest dated book, is printed.* The Aghlabid dynasty of Tunisia takes Malta.-Europe:* In Metz, Charles the Bald and Louis the German decide on a division of the lands of former emperor Lothar .* In England, Alfred the Great marries Ealhswith and goes to the aid...
)
- Hincmar (806
-Asia:* Emperor Heizei succeeds Emperor Kammu as Emperor of Japan.* Hōzen-ji is founded in Wakakusa, Nakakoma District, Japan .-Europe:* For a short time, Dalmatia is part of the Frankish rather than the Byzantine Empire....
-882-Europe:* Carloman, King of the West Franks, becomes sole king upon the death of his brother.* Oleg of Novgorod takes Kiev and makes it his capital.-Religion:* December 16—Pope Marinus I succeeds Pope John VIII as the 108th pope....
)
- Gottschalk
Gottschalk of Orbais was a Saxon theologian, monk and poet who is best known for being an early advocate of the doctrine of two-fold predestination.-Early career:...
(c.808-Europe:* King Eardwulf is driven out of North-East England and succeeded by Alfwold II, but Eardwulf is restored following Alfwold’s death.-Births:* Gottschalk, German theologian* Walafrid Strabo, Swabian monk and theological writer...
-c.867-Byzantine Empire:* September—Basil I becomes sole ruler of the Byzantine Empire.* Macedonian dynasty is started.-Religion:*September—Patriarch Photius I of Constantinople is removed from office and banished; Ignatius is patriarch of Constantinople once again....
)
- Johannes Scotus Eriugena
Johannes Scotus Eriugena , was an Irish theologian, Neoplatonist philosopher, and poet...
(c.815* For the area code, see Area code 815.* For the fictional airline flight, see Oceanic Flight 815.* For the Episcopal Church Center see Episcopal Church in the United States of America-Asia:...
-877-Europe:* The Danes take Exeter, England.* Aed Whitefoot succeeds Constantine I of Scotland.* Pope John VIII requests the help of Charles the Bald, King of West Francia, against attacks by the Saracens in Italy....
)
Before Scholasticism
With the division and decline of the Carolingian Empire, notable theological activity was preserved in some of the Cathedral schools that had begun to rise to prominence under it – for instance at
AuxerreAuxerre is a commune in the Bourgogne region in north-central France, between Paris and Dijon. It is the capital of the Yonne department.It is a commercial and industrial centre, with industries including food production, woodworking and batteries...
in the
9th centuryThe 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era.- Britain :Britain experienced a great influx of Viking peoples in the ninth century as the Viking Age continued from the previous century. The kingdoms of the Heptarchy were gradually...
or
ChartresChartres is a town and commune and capital of the Eure-et-Loir department in north-central France It is located southwest of Paris in central France.-Geography:...
in the
11thAs a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century is the period from 1001 to 1100 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era.
...
. Intellectual influences from the Arabic world (including works of classical authors preserved by Islamic scholars) percolated into the Christian West via Spain, influencing such theologians as Gerbert of Aurillac, who went on to become Pope Sylvester II and mentor to Otto III. (Otto was the fourth ruler of the Germanic
OttonianThe Ottonian dynasty was a dynasty of Germanic Kings , named after its first emperor but also known as the Saxon dynasty after the family's origin. The family itself is also sometimes known as the Liudolfings, after its earliest known member Liudolf and one of its primary leading-names...
Holy Roman EmpireThe Holy Roman Empire was a union of territories in Central Europe during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period under a Holy Roman Emperor. The first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was Otto I, crowned in 962. The last was Francis II, who abdicated and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during...
, successor to the Carolingian Empire). With hindsight, one might say that a new note was struck when a controversy about the meaning of the eucharist blew up around
Berengar of ToursBerengar of Tours was a French 11th century Christian theologian and Archdeacon of Angiers, a scholar whose leadership of the cathedral school at Chartres set an example of intellectual inquiry through the revived tools of dialectic that was soon followed at cathedral schools of Laon and Paris, ...
in the
11th CenturyAs a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century is the period from 1001 to 1100 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era.
...
: hints of a new confidence in the intellectual investigation of the faith that perhaps foreshadowed the explosion of theological argument that was to take place in the twelfth century.
Notable authors include:
- Heiric of Auxerre
Heiric of Auxerre was a French Benedictine theologian and writer.He was an oblate of the monastery of St. Germanus of Auxerre, from a young age. He studied with Servatus Lupus and Haymo of Auxerre. His own students included Remigius of Auxerre and Hucbald.His Miracula sancti Germani was a verse...
(c.835-Europe:* Ragnar Lodbrok rises to power .* The celebration of All Saints is made an obligation throughout the Frankish Empire and fixed on November 1.* The Vikings raid Dorestad.-Asia:...
-887-Europe:* Charles the Fat is deposed from the entire Carolingian Empire.* Odo, Count of Paris ascends to the throne of Western Francia .* Berengar of Friuli ascends to the throne of Italy....
)
- Remigius of Auxerre
Remigius of Auxerre was a Benedictine monk during the Carolingian period, a teacher of Latin grammar, and a prolific author of commentaries on classical Greek and Latin texts. He is also accredited with collecting and compiling other early medieval thinkers' commentaries on these works...
(c.841-Europe:* June 25 – Battle of Fontenay: Louis the German and Charles the Bald defeat Lothar.* Battle of Magh-Ochtar : Feidlimid mac Cremthanin is defeated by the Southern Uí Neill.* The Norse town of Dyflinn or Dublin is founded in Ireland....
-908-Asia:* The Battle of Belach Mugna is fought.* Zhu Wen kills the last Tang Dynasty emperor.-Deaths:* Al-Muktafi, Abbasid caliph* Abdullah ibn al-Mu'tazz, poet and caliph of the Abbasid dynasty for a day, following the death of Al-Muktafi...
)
- Gerbert of Aurillac (c.950
-Europe:* Duke Boleslav I of Bohemia makes peace with Otto I.* Page with Joshua Leading the Israelites, from the Joshua Roll, is made in Constantinople. It is now kept at Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Rome .-Asia:...
-1003)
- Fulbert of Chartres
Fulbert of Chartres was the bishop of the Cathedral of Chartres from 1006 till 1028. He was a teacher at the Cathedral school there, he was responsible for the advancement of the celebration of the Feast day of “Nativity of the Virgin”, and he was responsible for one of the many...
(died 1028)
- Berengar of Tours
Berengar of Tours was a French 11th century Christian theologian and Archdeacon of Angiers, a scholar whose leadership of the cathedral school at Chartres set an example of intellectual inquiry through the revived tools of dialectic that was soon followed at cathedral schools of Laon and Paris, ...
(c.999Year 999 was a common year of the Julian Calendar.-Europe:* Silesia is incorporated into territory ruled by Boleslaus I of Poland.* The Orsay commune is founded.-Religion:...
-1088)
- Lanfranc
Lanfranc was Archbishop of Canterbury, and a Lombard by extraction.-Early life:He was born in the early years of the eleventh century at Pavia, where later tradition held that his father, Hanbald, held a rank broadly equivalent to magistrate...
(died 1089)
Early Scholasticism and its contemporaries
Anselm of CanterburyAnselm of Canterbury was a Benedictine monk, an Italian medieval philosopher, theologian, and church official who held the office of Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109. Called the founder of scholasticism, he is famous in the West as the originator of the ontological argument for the...
is sometimes misleadingly called the 'Father of Scholasticism' because of the prominent place that reason has in his theology; instead of establishing his points by appeal to authority, he presents arguments to demonstrate why it is that the things he believes on authority must be so. His particular approach, however, was not very influential in his time, and he kept his distance from the Cathedral Schools. We should look instead to the production of the
glossA gloss is a brief summary of a word's meaning, equivalent to the dictionary entry of that word, but only a word or two in length. It is typically used for the meaning of a word in another language, and hence a simple translation....
on Scripture associated with
Anselm of LaonAnselm of Laon was a French theologian.Remembered in the century after his death as "Anselmus" or "Anselm", his name was more properly "Ansellus" or, in Modern French, "Anseau."...
, the rise to prominence of
dialecticDialectic is a method of argument, which has been central to both Eastern and Western philosophy since ancient times. The word "dialectic" originates in Ancient Greece, and was made popular by Plato's Socratic dialogues...
(middle subject of the medieval trivium) in the work of Abelard, and the production by
Peter LombardPeter Lombard or Petrus Lombardus; was a scholastic theologian and bishop and author of Four Books of Sentences, which became the standard textbook of theology, for which he is also known as Magister Sententiarum.-Biography:Peter Lombard was born in Lumellogno , to a poor...
of a collection of
SentencesThe Four Books of Sentences is a book of theology written by Peter Lombard in the twelfth century. It is a systematic compilation of theology, written around 1150; it derives its name from the sententiae or authoritative statements on biblical passages that it gathered together.- Origin and...
or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities. Scholasticism proper can be thought of as the kind of theology that emerges when, in the Cathedral schools and their successors, the tools of dialectic are pressed into use to comment upon, explain, and develop the gloss and the sentences.
Notable authors include:
- Anselm of Canterbury
Anselm of Canterbury was a Benedictine monk, an Italian medieval philosopher, theologian, and church official who held the office of Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109. Called the founder of scholasticism, he is famous in the West as the originator of the ontological argument for the...
(1033/1034-1109)
- Anselm of Laon
Anselm of Laon was a French theologian.Remembered in the century after his death as "Anselmus" or "Anselm", his name was more properly "Ansellus" or, in Modern French, "Anseau."...
(died 1117)
- Hugh of St Victor
Hugh of Saint Victor was born in France, or probably in Saxony. His early life is rather obscure and not much is known for certain of his origins. What is known is that he was appointed a canon of the Victorine canons around the turn of the twelfth century. Hugh quickly made a name for himself...
(1078-1151)
- Peter Abelard
Peter Abelard was a medieval French scholastic philosopher, theologian and preeminent logician. The story of his affair with and love for Héloïse has become legendary...
(1079-1142)
- Bernard of Clairvaux
Bernard of Clairvaux, O.Cist was a French abbot and the primary builder of the reforming Cistercian monastic order. After the death of his mother, Bernard sought admission into the Cistercian order...
(1090-1153)
- Hildegard of Bingen
Hildegard of Bingen , also known as Blessed Hildegard, Saint Hildegard, and Sybil of the Rhine, was a Christian mystic, German Benedictine abbess, author, counselor, linguist, naturalist, scientist, philosopher, physician, herbalist, poet, channeller, visionary, composer, and polymath...
(1098-1179)
- Peter Lombard
Peter Lombard or Petrus Lombardus; was a scholastic theologian and bishop and author of Four Books of Sentences, which became the standard textbook of theology, for which he is also known as Magister Sententiarum.-Biography:Peter Lombard was born in Lumellogno , to a poor...
(c.1100-1160)
- Joachim of Fiore
Joachim of Fiore, also known as Joachim of Flora and in Italian Gioacchino da Fiore , was the founder of the monastic order of San Giovanni in Fiore . He was a mystic, a theologian and an esoterist...
(c.1135-1202)
High Scholasticism and its contemporaries
The 13th Century saw the attempted suppression of various groups perceived as heterodox, such as the Cathars and
WaldensiansWaldensians, Waldenses or Vaudois are names for a Christian spiritual movement of the later Middle Ages, descendants of which still exist in various regions. Over time, the denomination joined the Genevan or Reformed branch of Protestantism. About the earlier history of the Waldenses considerable...
and the associated rise of the
mendicant ordersThe mendicant orders are religious orders which depend directly on the charity of the people for their livelihood. In principle they do not own property, either individually or collectively, and have taken a vow of poverty, in order that all their time and energy could be expended on religious...
(notably the
FranciscanThe term Franciscan is commonly used to refer to members of Catholic religious orders, also known as the Orders of Friars Minor, that follow a body of regulations known as "The rule of St. Francis", or a member of one of these orders. As well as Roman Catholic there are also small Old Catholic and...
s and
DominicansThe Order of Preachers , after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is a Catholic religious order founded by Saint Dominic in the early 13th century in France...
), in part intended as a form of orthodox alternative to the heretical groups. Those two orders quickly became contexts for some of the most intense scholatsic theologizing, producing such 'high scholastic' theologians as
Alexander of HalesAlexander Hales was a scholastic theologian. He was born at Hales, Gloucestershire, England ca. 1183, and died in Paris on August 21, 1245...
(Franciscan) and
Thomas AquinasSaint Thomas Aquinas, O.P. was a priest of the Roman Catholic Church in the Dominican Order from Italy, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, known as Doctor Angelicus and Doctor Communis...
(Dominican), or the rather less obviously scholastic
BonaventureBonaventure , born John of Fidanza , was an Italian medieval scholastic theologian and philosopher, the eighth Minister General of the Order of Friars Minor. He was a Cardinal Bishop of Albano. He was canonized on 14 April 1482 by Pope Sixtus IV and declared a Doctor of the Church in the year 1588...
(Franciscan). The century also saw a flourishing of
mystical theologyMysticism is the pursuit of communion with, identity with, or conscious awareness of an ultimate reality, divinity, spiritual truth, or God through direct experience, intuition, instinct or insight. Mysticism usually centers on a practice or practices intended to nurture those experiences or...
, with women such as
Mechthild of MagdeburgMechthild of Magdeburg was a medieval mystic, a Beguine, and a Benedictine nun, whose book Das fließende Licht der Gottheit described her visions of God....
playing a prominent role. In addition, the century can be seen as period in which the study of natural philosophy that could anachronistically be called 'science' began once again to flourish in theological soil, in the hands of such men as
Robert GrossetesteRobert Grosseteste , English statesman, scholastic philosopher, theologian and Bishop of Lincoln, was born of humble parents at Stradbroke in Suffolk. A.C...
and
Roger BaconRoger Bacon, O.F.M. , also known as Doctor Mirabilis , was an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on empiricism...
.
Notable authors include:
- Saint Dominic
Saint Dominic , also known as Dominic of Osma, often called Dominic de Guzmán and Domingo de Guzmán Garcés was the founder of the Friars Preachers, popularly called the Dominicans or Order of Preachers , a Catholic religious order...
(1170-1221)
- Robert Grosseteste
Robert Grosseteste , English statesman, scholastic philosopher, theologian and Bishop of Lincoln, was born of humble parents at Stradbroke in Suffolk. A.C...
(c.1175-1253)
- Francis of Assisi
Saint Francis of Assisi was a Catholic deacon and the founder of the Order of Friars Minor, more commonly known as the Franciscans....
(1182-1226)
- Alexander of Hales
Alexander Hales was a scholastic theologian. He was born at Hales, Gloucestershire, England ca. 1183, and died in Paris on August 21, 1245...
(died 1245)
- Mechthild of Magdeburg
Mechthild of Magdeburg was a medieval mystic, a Beguine, and a Benedictine nun, whose book Das fließende Licht der Gottheit described her visions of God....
(1210-1285)
- Roger Bacon
Roger Bacon, O.F.M. , also known as Doctor Mirabilis , was an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on empiricism...
(1214-1294)
- Bonaventure
Bonaventure , born John of Fidanza , was an Italian medieval scholastic theologian and philosopher, the eighth Minister General of the Order of Friars Minor. He was a Cardinal Bishop of Albano. He was canonized on 14 April 1482 by Pope Sixtus IV and declared a Doctor of the Church in the year 1588...
(1221-1274)
- Thomas Aquinas
Saint Thomas Aquinas, O.P. was a priest of the Roman Catholic Church in the Dominican Order from Italy, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, known as Doctor Angelicus and Doctor Communis...
(1225-1274)
- Angela of Foligno
Angela of Foligno was a Christian author, nun, and mystic. She was noted not only for her spiritual writings, but also for founding a religious order.-Early life and conversion:...
(1248-1309)
Late Scholasticism and its contemporaries
Scholastic theology continued to develop as the thirteenth century gave way to the fourteenth, becoming ever more complex and subtle in its distinctions and arguments. The fourteenth century saw in particular the rise to dominance of the
nominalistNominalism is a metaphysical view in philosophy according to which general or abstract terms and predicates exist, while universals or abstract objects, which are sometimes thought to correspond to these terms, do not exist. Thus, there are at least two main versions of nominalism...
or
voluntaristVoluntarism is a descriptive term for a school of thought that regards the will as superior to the intellect and to emotion. This description has been applied to various points of view, from different cultural eras, in the areas of metaphysics, psychology, sociology, and theology.The term...
theologies of men like
William of OckhamWilliam of Ockham was an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher, from Ockham, a small village in Surrey, near East Horsley...
. The fourteenth century was also a time in which movements of widely varying character worked for the reform of the institutional church, such as
conciliarismConciliarism, or the conciliar movement, was a reform movement in the 14th and 15th century Roman Catholic Church which held that final authority in spiritual matters resided with the Roman Church as corporation of Christians, embodied by a general church council, not with the pope...
,
LollardyLollardy was the political and religious movement of the Lollards from the mid-14th century to the English Reformation. The term Lollards refers to the followers of John Wycliffe, a prominent theologian who was dismissed from University of Oxford in 1381 for criticism of the traditional church,...
and the
HussiteThe Hussites were a Christian movement following the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Huss , who became one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation...
s. Spiritual movements such as the
Devotio ModernaDevotio Moderna, or Modern Devotion, was a religious movement of the Late Middle Ages. It came into advocation at the same time as Christian Humanism, a meshing of Humanism and Christianity. Christian Humanism advocated studying the fundamental texts of Christianity to come to one's own...
also flourished.
Notable authors include:
- Meister Eckhart
Meister Eckhart O.P. , is the most common formula used to refer to Eckhart von Hochheim, a German theologian, philosopher and mystic, born near Gotha, in Thuringia. Meister is German for "Master", referring to the academic title Magister in theologia he obtained in Paris...
(1260-1328)
- Duns Scotus
Blessed John Duns Scotus, O.F.M. was one of the more important theologians and philosophers of the High Middle Ages. He was nicknamed Doctor Subtilis for his penetrating and subtle manner of thought.Scotus has had considerable influence on Roman Catholic thought...
(1266-1308)
- Marsilius of Padua
Marsilius of Padua was an Italian scholar who was deeply involved in the politics of his time. In fact his political treatise Defensor pacis is seen by some as the most revolutionary political treatise written in the later Middle Ages.Born at Padua, Marsilius began studying medicine in Italy...
(1270-1342)
- William of Ockham
William of Ockham was an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher, from Ockham, a small village in Surrey, near East Horsley...
(c.1285-1349)
- John Wycliffe
John Wycliffe was an English theologian, lay preacher, translator, reformist and university teacher who was known as early dissident in the Roman Catholic Church during the 14th century...
(c.1320-1384)
- Julian of Norwich
Julian of Norwich is thought of as one of the greatest English mystics. Little is known of her life aside from her writings. Even her name is uncertain, the name "Julian" coming from the Church of St Julian in Norwich, where she was an anchoress...
(1342-1413)
- Geert Groote
Geert Groote , otherwise Gerrit or Gerhard Groet, in Latin Gerardus Magnus, was a Dutch preacher and founder of the Brethren of the Common Life.- Birth and education :...
(1340-1384)
- Catherine of Siena
Saint Catherine of Siena, O.P. was a tertiary of the Dominican Order, and a Scholastic philosopher and theologian. She also worked to bring the Papacy back to Rome from its displacement in France, and to establish peace among the Italian city-states. She was proclaimed a Doctor of the Church in 1970...
(1347-1380)
- Jean Gerson
Jean Charlier de Gerson , French scholar, educator, reformer, and poet, chancellor of the University of Paris, a guiding light of the conciliar movement and one of the most prominent theologians at the Council of Constance, was born at the village of Gerson, in the bishopric of Reims in...
(1363-1429)
- Jan Hus
Jan Hus aka Jan Huss, John Hus, John Huss , often referred to in English as John Huss or variations thereof, was a Czech Catholic priest, philosopher, reformer, and master at Charles University in Prague.He is famed for having been burned at the stake for what the Roman Catholic Church considered...
(c.1369-1415)
- Thomas a Kempis
Thomas à Kempis was the latinized name of Thomas Haemerken a late Medieval Catholic monk and probable author of The Imitation of Christ, one of the best known Christian books on devotion....
(1380-1471)
See also ScholasticismScholasticism is derived from the Latin word scholasticus , which means "that [which] belongs to the school," and was a method of learning taught by the academics of medieval universities circa 1100–1500...
The beginnings of Kalam
Islamic theologyIslamic theology is a branch of Islamic studies regarding the beliefs associated with the Islamic faith.-Types of theology:Muslim theology is the theology that derived from the Qur'an, Hadith, and Muhammad's life...
or
KalamKalām is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through dialectic. In Arabic the word means "words, discussion, discourse". A scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim...
, in the sense of ordered, rational reflection upon Allah and his Qur’an, is commonly held to begin at the end of the 7th century – the first century A.H. – with debates about divine and human freedom.
The
Qadariyyah were those who defended a fairly strong view of human freedom, and included
- Ma'bad ibn Khalid al-Juhani
Ma'bad ibn Kalid al-Juhani was Qadari who was declared as a misguided by some of the companions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He was crucified by the orders of the Caliph Abd al-Malik in Damascus....
(d.699- Asia :* Umayyad general Hajjaj suppresses a rebellion by Ibn al-Ash'ath.* In Japan, En no Gyōja is accused of confusing the mind of the people with his magic, and is banished to Izu.- Deaths :* February 3—Saint Werburgh* Prince Yuge of Japan...
)
- Ghaylan ibn Marwan al Dimashqi (d.749
-Asia:* Empress Kōken succeeds Emperor Shōmu on the throne of Japan.* Golan earthquake of 749-Deaths:* December 5—Saint John of Damascus , theologian* Ratchis, king of the Lombards...
'The
Jabriyyah were their opponents, and included
Mu'tazilah
The
Qadariyyah evolved into
Mu‘tazilah which for some time was the dominant form of
kalam, imposed as official orthodoxy under the
AbbasidThe Abbasid Caliphate was the third of the Islamic Caliphates of the Islamic Empire. It was ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphs from all but Al Andalus....
dynasty, until the accession of
Al-MutawakkilAl-Mutawakkil ˤAlā Allāh Jaˤfar ibn al-Muˤtasim was an Abbasid caliph who reigned in Samarra from 847 until 861...
in
847-Europe:* Bari is captured by the Saracens.* According to the Annales Bertiniani, Nominoe, king of Brittany, makes war on the Vikings.-Religion:* January – Pope Leo IV succeeds Pope Sergius II as the 103rd pope.* Rabanus Maurus becomes Archbishop of Mainz....
, after which it was suppressed. For the five principal doctrines of Mutazilism, see the main article. Prominent Mutazilite theologians include:
- Wasil ibn Ata
Wasil ibn Ata was a Muslim theologian, and by many accounts is considered to be the founder of the Mutazilite school of Islamic thought....
(c.700-North America:* The Mount Edziza volcanic complex erupts in northern British Columbia, Canada.-Asia:* Musa bin Nusair defeats the Berber army in Algeria, ending resistance against the Arabs there....
-748-Asia:* January—An earthquake strikes the Middle East from northern Egypt to northwestern Mesopotamia, destroying many remnants of Byzantine culture.* The city of Baalbek is sacked.* The plague breaks out in Constantinople....
)
- Abu Huthail al-‘Allaf (c.750
-Asia:* Gopala is proclaimed as the first ruler of the Pala Empire.* After the defeat of his army in the Battle of the Zab the last Umayyad Caliph, Marwan II, is overthrown and killed. Al-Saffah is proclaimed the first Abbasid Caliph...
–c.849-Asia:*In the Tang Dynasty Chinese capital city of Chang'an, an imperial prince was impeached from his position by officials at court for erecting a building that obstructed a street in the northwesternmost ward in South Central Chang'an....
)
- Ibrahim al-Nazzam (died c.846
-Europe:* Nominoe occupies Nantes and Rennes, he makes raids in Anjou and threatens Bayeux. Charles the Bald recognizes him as Duke of Brittany after being defeated three times.* The Moors Nathan LaVelle recapture León....
)
- al-Jahiz
Al-Jāḥiẓ was a famous Afro-Arab scholar of East African descent, the grandson of a Negro slave...
(c.776-Events:* April 14 – Charlemagne spends Easter in Treviso after putting down a revolt by Friuli and Spoleto, removing Hrodgaud, the Duke of Friuli, from power, and signing a treaty with Hildeprand, the Duke of Spoleto. Co-conspirators in the revolt are Arechis, Duke of Benevento, and Adelchis, the...
-869-Asia:* The Zanj , provoked by mercilessly harsh labor conditions in the salt flats and on the sugar and cotton plantations of southwestern Persia, revolt.-Europe:...
)
- al-Jubba'i
Abu 'Ali Muhammad al-Jubba'i was an Arab Mu'tazili philosopher of the 10th century. He was born in Khuzistan and died in 915-916.- External links :*...
(died 916Year 916 was a common year of the Gregorian calendar in the 10th century.-Asia:* Abaoji of the Khitan empire adopts Chinese court rituals.* Abaoji names Prince Bei as heir apparent, a first in the history of the Khitan....
)
- al-Qadi Abdul Jabbar (died 1025)
- al-Mawardi
Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Habib al-Mawardi, known in Latin as Alboacen , was an Arab Muslim jurist of the Shafii school; he also made contributions to Qur'anic interpretations, philology, ethics, and literature...
(974-Africa:* The Carmathians are defeated in Egypt by Jawhar as-Siqilli; Fatimid rule is consolidated there.-Asia:* The Byzantine Empire retakes Syria from the Abbasids.* Al-Ta'i succeeds Al-Muti as Abbasid caliph of Baghdad....
-1058)
- Zamakhshari (died 1144)
Ash'aryah
From the late tenth century onwards,
Mutazilite kalam, opposition to which had hitherto been almost indistinguishable from opposition to
kalam itself, found a new opponent
within kalam:
Ash'ariThe Ashʿari theology is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari...
kalam.
Asharite kalam rose to become the dominant form of Islamic
kalam, and helped distinguish
kalam from
falasafa—from philosophy (a distinction which is less clear when considering
Mutazilite thought).
Prominent Asharites include:
- Abu l'Hasan al-Ashari (died 945
-Asia:* The Buwayhid Dynasty takes control of Baghdad .* The Min Kingdom is taken over by the Southern Tang Kingdom....
)
- Abu Bakr al-Baqillani
Abu Bakr Al-Baqillani was an Ashari Islamic scholar and Maliki lawyer, influential in popularising SunniAsharism.Born in Basra c. 950, he spent most of his life in Baghdad, and studied under disciples of al-Ash'ari. He held the office of chief Qadi outside the capital of the Caliphate...
(died 1013)
- Abu'l Ma'ali al-Juwayni (1028-1085)
- Al-Ghazali
Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī , often Algazel in English, was born and died in Tus, in the Khorasan province of Persia. He was an Islamic theologian, jurist, philosopher, cosmologist, psychologist and mystic of Persian origin, and remains one of the most celebrated scholars in the...
(died 1111)
- Fakhr al-Din Razi (died 1209)
Note should also be taken of the variant of Asharism know as
Maturidism. Prominent
MaturidiIn the Islam, a Maturidi is one who follows Abu Mansur Al Maturidi's theology, which is a close variant of the Ash'ari theology...
authors include:
- Abu Mansur Al Maturidi
Muhammad Abu Mansur al-Maturidi was a Persian Muslim theologian, and a scholar of Islamic jurisprudence and Qur'anic exegesis. Al Maturidi is one of the pioneers of Islamic Jurisprudence scholars and his two works are considered to be authoritative on the subject...
(died 944This article is about the year 944. For the Porsche sports car, see Porsche 944.-Africa:* The city of Algiers is founded by the Zirid king Buluggin ibn Ziri.* Abu Yazid launches a rebellion against the Fatimids in the Aures Mountains.-Asia:...
)
- al-Nasafi (died 1114)
Falasafa (Islamic philosophy)
Whilst the boundaries are sometimes rather porous, scholars of Islamic thought often make a distinction between
Falasafa (
Islamic philosophyIslamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between philosophy and the religious teachings of Islam .-Definition:...
) and
Kalam (Islamic theology). Prominent writers normally held to stand on the Falasafa side of the divide include:
- Al-Kindī
' , also known to the West by the Latinized version of his name Alkindus, was an Arab Iraqi polymath: an Islamic philosopher, scientist, astrologer, astronomer, cosmologist, chemist, logician, mathematician, musician, physician, physicist, psychologist, and meteorologist...
(died 873-Asia:* A widespread failure of the agricultural harvest in Tang Dynasty China leads to a widespread famine; in the previous century the central government was able to curb famine with large grain stores, but this time the central government is already in decline and too weak to properly face the...
)
- Al-Razi
Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyā Rāzī , known as Rhazes or Rasis after medieval Latinists, was a Persian alchemist, chemist, physician, philosopher and scholar...
(865-Europe:* Ethelred succeeds as king of Wessex .* Louis the German divides his kingdom among his sons.* Lothair, threatened with excommunication, takes back his first wife, Theutberga.* Bulgaria under Boris I converts to Orthodox Christianity.-Asia:...
-925-Europe:* Alfonso IV the Monk becomes king of Leon.* Tomislav, duke of the Croatian duchies of Pannonia and Dalmatia, is crowned King of Croatia at Duvno Field.* Simeon I of Bulgaria proclaims himself emperor of all Bulgarians and Greeks.-Asia:...
)
- Al-Farabi
Abū Naṣr al-Fārābi , known in the West as Alpharabius Abū Naṣr al-Fārābi (أبو نصر محمد الفارابي - Abū Naṣr Muḥammad al-Fārābi; in some sources also mentioned as محمد بن محمد بن أوزلغ الفارابي - Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad (ibn Tarḫān) ibn Awzlaġ al-Fārābi), known in the West as...
(870-Europe:* Prague Castle is founded.* The Great Summer Army invades England and conquers East Anglia; the buildings destroyed by the Danish invaders include the abbey of Ely and the monastery of Peterborough....
-950-Europe:* Duke Boleslav I of Bohemia makes peace with Otto I.* Page with Joshua Leading the Israelites, from the Joshua Roll, is made in Constantinople. It is now kept at Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Rome .-Asia:...
)
- Ibn Miskawayh
Abu 'Ali Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ya'qub Ibn Miskawayh, also known as Ibn Miskawayh was a prominent Persian philosopher, scientist, poet and historian from Ray, Iran. He was active politically during the Buwayhid era....
(932-Europe:* St. Ursenstift is founded by the Burgundian Queen Bertha in Solothurn.* Wildeck Castle is built by King Henry I in Zschopau, Germany....
-1030)
- Ibn Sina (Latinised form: Avicenna
, known as Abū Alī Sīnā or Ibn Sīnā , and commonly known in English by his Latinized name Avicenna , was a Persian polymath and the foremost physician and philosopher of his time...
) (980-Europe:* Otto II renounces his claim to Lorraine.* The Viking ring castle of Trelleborg is constructed in Denmark.* Foundation by Notger of the Prince-Bishopric of Liège which will remain an independent state inside the Holy Roman Empire for more than 900 years, and where the Walloon language...
-1037)
- Ibn Hazm
Ibn Hazm – sometimes with al-Andalusī aẓ-Ẓāhirī as well; 7 November 994–15 August 1064 456 AH) was an Andalusian-Arab philosopher, litterateur, psychologist, historian, jurist and theologian born in Córdoba, present-day Spain...
(994-Europe:* Sweyn Forkbeard marries Sigrid the Haughty.* Otto III reaches his majority and begins to rule Germany in his own right.* Aethelred II pays £16,000 of Danegeld to Olaf Trygvasson.-Births:* November 7—Ibn Hazm, Arab philosopher -Europe:* Sweyn Forkbeard marries Sigrid the Haughty.* Otto III...
-1069)
- Ibn Bajjah
Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh , known as Ibn Bājjah , was an Andalusian-Arab Muslim polymath: an astronomer, logician, musician, philosopher, physician, physicist, psychologist, poet and scientist. He was known in the West by his Latinized name, Avempace...
(died 1138)
- Ibn Tufail
Ibn Tufail was an Andalusian-Arab Muslim polymath: an Arabic writer, novelist, Islamic philosopher, Islamic theologian, physician,...
(c.1110-1185)
- Ibn Rushd (Latinised form: Averroes
Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd , better known just as Ibn Rushd , and in European literature as Averroes , was an Andalusian Muslim polymath of Moroccan origins; a master of Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, Maliki law and jurisprudence, logic, psychology, politics, Arabic music...
) (1126-1198)
Reformation and Counter-Reformation Christian theology
The
RenaissanceThe Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe...
yielded scholars the ability to read the scriptures in their original languages and this in part stimulated the
ReformationThe Protestant Reformation was a Christian reform movement in Europe which is generally deemed to have begun with Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses in 1517 although a number of precursors such as Jan Hus predate that event...
, a Theological movement that based its "Protests" on a new understanding of the Bible. Most important were
Martin LutherMartin Luther changed the course of Western civilization by initiating the Protestant Reformation. As a priest and theology professor, he confronted indulgence salesmen with his The Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. Luther strongly disputed their claim that freedom from God's punishment of sin could...
,
John CalvinJohn Calvin was an influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism. Originally trained as a humanist lawyer, he broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530...
, Zwingli, Melanchthon,
Martin BucerMartin Bucer was a Protestant reformer based in Strasbourg who influenced Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican doctrines and practices. Although originally a member of the Dominican Order, after meeting and being influenced by Martin Luther in 1518 he arranged for his monastic vows to be annulled...
and the Anabaptists. Their Theology was developed by successors such as
Theodore BezaTheodore Beza was a French Protestant Christian theologian and scholar who played an important role in the early Reformation...
, the English Puritans and
Francis TurretinFrancis Turretin was a Swiss-Italian Protestant theologian.Turretin is especially known as a zealous opponent of the theology of the Academy of Saumur , as an earnest defender of the Calvinistic orthodoxy represented by the Synod of Dort, and as one of the authors of the Helvetic Consensus,...
.
Malcolm YarnellMalcolm Yarnell is a Baptist theologian affiliated with Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary in Fort Worth, Texas. Yarnell has contributed to academic discussions in the areas of theological method, systematic theology, and historical theology...
has argued that the Anabaptists and other free churches possess a distinct theology over against the Protestant Reformation.
The Roman Catholic
counter-reformationThe Counter-Reformation denotes the period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War, 1648....
spearheaded by the Jesuits under Ignatius Loyola took their Theology from the decisions of the
Council of TrentThe Council of Trent was the 16th-century Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. Considered to be one of the Church's most important councils, it convened in Trento between December 13, 1545, and December 4, 1563 in twenty-five sessions for three periods...
. The overall result of the Reformation was therefore to highlight distinctions of belief that had previously co-existed uneasily.
The fall of
ConstantinopleConstantinople was the imperial capital of the Roman Empire , the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire , the Latin Empire , and the Ottoman Empire...
in the East, 1453, led to a significant shift of gravity to the rising state of
RussiaRussia , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia . It is a semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, the "Third Rome". The Renaissance would also stimulate a program of reforms by patriarchs of prayer books. A movement called the "
Old believersIn the context of Russian Orthodox church history, the Old Believers became separated after 1666-1667 from the official Russian Orthodox Church as a protest against church reforms introduced by Patriarch Nikon...
" consequently resulted and influenced Russian Orthodox Theology in the direction of
conservatismConservatism is the diverse political and social philosophy that supports tradition and the status quo, or that calls for a return to the values and society of an earlier age, the status quo ante. However, the term has been used by politicians and political commentators with a variety of meanings...
and Erastianism.
Modern Christian theology
After the Reformation protestant groups continued to splinter, leading to a range of new theologies. The "Enthusiasts" were so named because of their emotional zeal. These included the Methodists, the Quakers and Baptists. Another group sought to reconcile Christian faith with "Modern" ideas, sometimes causing them to reject beliefs they considered to be illogical, including the
Nicene creedThe Nicene Creed is the creed or profession of faith that is most widely used in Christian liturgy. It is called Nicene because, in its original form, it was adopted in the city of Nicaea by the first ecumenical council, which met there in 325...
and
Chalcedonian CreedThe Confession of Chalcedon , also known as the "Doctrine of the Hypostatic Union" or the "Two-Nature Doctrine", was adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 in Asia Minor. That Council of Chalcedon is one of the seven ecumenical councils accepted by Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, and many...
. these included Unitarians and Universalists. A major issue for Protestants became the degree to which Man contributes to his salvation. The debate is often viewied as
synergismSynergism, in general, may be defined as two or more agents working together to produce a result not obtainable by any of the agents independently...
versus
monergismMonergism describes the position in Christian theology of those who believe that God through the Holy Spirit works to effectually bring about the salvation of individuals through spiritual regeneration without cooperation from the individual...
, though the labels Calvinist and Arminian are more frequently used, referring to the conclusion of the
Synod of DortThe Synod of Dort was a National Synod held in Dordrecht in 1618/19, by the Dutch Reformed Church, in order to settle a serious controversy in the Dutch churches initiated by the rise of Arminianism. The first meeting was on 13 November, 1618, and the final meeting, the 154th, was on 9 May, 1619...
.
The Nineteenth century saw the rise of
biblical criticismBiblical criticism is "the study and investigation of biblical writings that seeks to make discerning and discriminating judgments about these writings." It asks when and where a particular text originated; how, why, by whom, for whom, and in what circumstances it was produced; what influences were...
, new knowledge of religious diversity in other continents and above all the growth of science. This led many church men to espouse a form of
DeismDeism or is a religious and philosophical belief that a supreme being created the universe, and that this can be determined using reason and observation of the natural world alone, without a need for either faith or organized religion...
. This, along with concepts such as the brotherhood of man and a rejection of
miracleA miracle is a perceptible interruption of the laws of nature, such that can be attempted to be explained by divine intervention, and is sometimes associated with a miracle worker. Many folktales, religious texts, and people claim various events they refer to as "miraculous". People in different...
s led to what is called "
Classical liberalismLiberal Christianity, sometimes called liberal theology, is an umbrella term covering diverse, philosophically informed religious movements and ideas within Christianity from the late 18th century and onwards...
". Immensely influential in its day, classic liberalism suffered badly as a result of the two world wars and fell prey to the criticisms of
postmodernismPostmodernism literally means 'after the modernist movement'. While "modern" itself refers to something "related to the present", the movement of modernism and the following reaction of postmodernism are defined by a set of perspectives...
.
Vladimir LosskyVladimir Nikolayevich Lossky was an influential Eastern Orthodox theologian in exile from Russia. He emphasized theosis as the main principle of Orthodox Christianity....
is a famous Eastern Orthodox theologian writing in the 20th century for the Greek church.
Postmodern theology
Postmodern theology seeks to respond to the challenges of post modern and deconstructionist thought, and has included the death of God movement,
Process TheologyProcess theology is a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead . While there are process theologies that are similar, but unrelated to the work of Whitehead the term is generally applied to the Whiteheadian school...
,
Feminist theologyFeminist theology is a movement found in several religions, including Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism, and New Thought, to reconsider the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of those religions from a feminist perspective...
and
Queer TheologyQueer theology refers to the application of queer studies to theology. It emerged from the development of "queer theory" in the 1990s, which sought to explore a multiplicity of human sexualities and sexual identities. This included lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people along with other...
and most importantly Neo-orthodox Theology.
Karl BarthKarl Barth was a Swiss Reformed theologian whom critics hold to be among the most important Christian thinkers of the 20th century; Pope Pius XII described him as the most important theologian since Thomas Aquinas. Beginning with his experience as a pastor, he rejected his training in the...
,
Rudolf BultmannRudolf Karl Bultmann was a German theologian of Lutheran background, who was for three decades professor of New Testament studies at the University of Marburg...
and
Reinhold NiebuhrKarl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr was an American theologian. A Protestant, he is best known for his study of the task of relating the Christian faith to the realities of modern politics and diplomacy...
were Neo-Orthodoxies main representatives. In particular Barth labeled his Theology "Dialectical Theology", a reference to
existentialismLike “rationalism” and “empiricism,” “existentialism” is a term that belongs to intellectual history. Its definition is thus to some extent one of historical convenience...
.
The predominance of Classic Liberalism resulted in many
reactionaryReactionary refers to any political or social movement or ideology that seeks a return to a previous state . The term originated in the French Revolution, to denote the counter-revolutionaries who wanted to restore the real or imagined conditions of the monarchical Ancien Régime...
movements amongst conservative believers. Evangelical theology, Pentecostal or Renewal theology and Fundamentalist theology, often combined with
DispensationalismDispensationalism is a Protestant evangelical tradition and theology based on a biblical hermeneutic that sees a series of chronologically successive "dispensations" or periods in history in which God relates to human beings in different ways under different Biblical covenants. As a system...
, all moved from the fringe into the academy.
MarxismMarxism is the political philosophy and economic worldview based upon a materialist interpretation of history, a Marxist analysis of capitalism, a theory of social change, and an atheist view of human liberation derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels; three primary aspects of...
stimulated the significant rise of
Liberation TheologyLiberation theology is a school of theology within Christianity, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church. It emphasizes the Christian mission to bring justice to the poor and oppressed, particularly through political activism. Its theologians consider sin the root source of poverty, the sin in...
which can be interpreted as a rejection of Academic Theology that fails to challenge
the establishmentThe Establishment is a term used to refer to the traditional ruling class elite and the structures of society that they control. The term can be used to describe specific entrenched elite structures in specific institutions, but is usually informal in application...
and help the poor.
From the late nineteenth century to the early twentieth groups established themselves that derived many of their beliefs from Protestant evangelical groups but significantly differed in doctrine. These include the
Jehovah's WitnessesJehovah's Witnesses is a restorationist, millenarian Christian denomination. The religion reports worldwide membership of over 7 million adherents involved in evangelism; they report convention attendance of over 12 million, and annual Memorial attendance of over 17 million...
, the
Latter Day SaintA Latter Day Saint is an adherent of the Latter Day Saint movement, a group of denominations tracing their heritage to the teachings of Joseph Smith, Jr. and the Church of Christ he organized in 1830...
s and many so called "
cultCult may popularly refer to a religious group with relatively few adherents whose beliefs or practices are regarded by others as strange or sinister.The term "cult" was originally used to denote a system of ritual practices...
s". Many of these groups use the Protestant version of the bible and typically interpret it in a fundamentalist fashion, adding, however, special prophecy or scriptures, and typically denying the trinity and the full deity of Jesus Christ.
Ecumenical Theology sought to discover a common consensus on theological matters that could bring the many Christian denominations together. As a movement it was successful in helping to provide a basis for the establishment of the
World Council of ChurchesThe World Council of Churches is an international Christian ecumenical organization. Based in Geneva, Switzerland , it is a fellowship of about 340 churches of which 157 are members...
and for some reconciliation between more established denominations. But ecumenical theology was nearly always the concern of liberal theologians, often Protestant ones. The movement for ecumenism was opposed especially by fundamentalists and viewed as flawed by many neo-orthodox theologians.
The pattern of challenge from a changing world, liberal response from official representatives and orthodox backlash from conservatives is found also in the history of Islam and Judaism.
Reform JudaismReform Judaism refers to the spectrum of beliefs, practices and organizational infrastructure associated with Reform Judaism in North America and in the United Kingdom....
represents a liberal interpretation as against
Orthodox JudaismOrthodox Judaism is a formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized in the Talmudic texts and as subsequently developed and applied by the later authorities known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and Acharonim.Orthodox...
, and moderate or Liberal Islam continues to be theologically distinct from
Islamic FundamentalismIslamic fundamentalism Arabic: usul , is a term used to describe religious ideologies seen as advocating a return to the "fundamentals" of Islam: the Quran and the Sunnah.Definitions of the term vary...
, notably its
WahabiWahhabi or Wahhabism is a sect attributed to Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab, an 18th century scholar from what is today known as Saudi Arabia, who advocated to purge Islam of what he considered innovations in Islam...
and
DeobandiA Deobandi is an individual, usually an Islamic scholar, who follows the methodology of the Deoband Islamic movement that began at Darul Uloom Deoband in Deoband, India when its foundation was laid in 1867 by its founders...
Schools.