All Topics  
Titus

 
Titus

 
   Email Print
   Bookmark   Link
 

 

Titus
 
 
  Topics Titus Topic Home

Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus (December 30, 39 – September 13, 81), was a Roman Emperor
Roman Emperor

The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period . The Romans had no single term for the office: Latin language titles such as imperator , Augustus , Caesar and princeps were all associated with it....
 who briefly reigned from 79 until his death in 81. Titus was the second emperor of the Flavian dynasty
Flavian dynasty

The Flavian dynasty was a Ancient Rome imperial dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96 AD, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian , and his two sons Titus and Domitian ....
, which ruled the Roman Empire
Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was the Roman Republic phase of the Ancient Rome, characterised by an autocracy form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
 between 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Titus's father Vespasian
Vespasian

Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 69 A.D. until his death in 79 A.D. Vespasian was the founder of the short lived Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 A.D....
 (69–79), Titus himself (79–81) and his younger brother Domitian
Domitian

Titus Flavius Domitianus , commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death. Domitian was the last emperor of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Domitian's father Vespasian , his elder brother Titus , and that of Domitian himself...
 (81–96).

Prior to becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a military commander, serving under his father in Judaea
Iudaea Province

Iudaea was a Roman province that extended over the former region of the Hasmonean and Herodian kingdoms of Israel. It was named after the tetrarchy of Judea of which it was an expansion, the latter name deriving from the Kingdom of Judah of the 6th century BCE....
 during the First Jewish-Roman War
First Jewish-Roman War

The first Jewish-Roman War , sometimes called The Great Revolt , was the first of three Jewish-Roman wars by the Jews of Iudaea Province against the Roman Empire ....
, which was fought between 67 and 70.






Discussion
Ask a question about 'Titus'
Start a new discussion about 'Titus'
Answer questions from other users
Full Discussion Forum



Encyclopedia


Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus (December 30, 39 – September 13, 81), was a Roman Emperor
Roman Emperor

The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period . The Romans had no single term for the office: Latin language titles such as imperator , Augustus , Caesar and princeps were all associated with it....
 who briefly reigned from 79 until his death in 81. Titus was the second emperor of the Flavian dynasty
Flavian dynasty

The Flavian dynasty was a Ancient Rome imperial dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96 AD, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian , and his two sons Titus and Domitian ....
, which ruled the Roman Empire
Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was the Roman Republic phase of the Ancient Rome, characterised by an autocracy form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
 between 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Titus's father Vespasian
Vespasian

Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 69 A.D. until his death in 79 A.D. Vespasian was the founder of the short lived Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 A.D....
 (69–79), Titus himself (79–81) and his younger brother Domitian
Domitian

Titus Flavius Domitianus , commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death. Domitian was the last emperor of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Domitian's father Vespasian , his elder brother Titus , and that of Domitian himself...
 (81–96).

Prior to becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a military commander, serving under his father in Judaea
Iudaea Province

Iudaea was a Roman province that extended over the former region of the Hasmonean and Herodian kingdoms of Israel. It was named after the tetrarchy of Judea of which it was an expansion, the latter name deriving from the Kingdom of Judah of the 6th century BCE....
 during the First Jewish-Roman War
First Jewish-Roman War

The first Jewish-Roman War , sometimes called The Great Revolt , was the first of three Jewish-Roman wars by the Jews of Iudaea Province against the Roman Empire ....
, which was fought between 67 and 70. The campaign came to a brief halt with the death of emperor Nero
Nero

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus , born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and final Roman emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty....
 on June 9, 68, launching Vespasian's bid for the imperial power during the Year of the Four Emperors
Year of the Four Emperors

The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69, in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession. These four emperors were Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian....
. When Vespasian was declared emperor on July 1, 69, Titus was left in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion, which he did in 70, successfully besieging
Siege of Jerusalem (70)

The Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 AD was a decisive event in the First Jewish-Roman War. It was followed by the Masada#History in 73 AD. The Roman Empire army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem, which had been occupied by its Jewish defend...
 and destroying the city and the Temple
Second Temple

The Second Temple was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem which stood between 516 BCE and 70 CE. During this time, it was the center of Judaism worship, which focused on the sacrifices known as the korbanot....
 of Jerusalem
Jerusalem

Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its List of Israeli cities in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if Positions on Jerusalem East Jerusalem is included....
. For this achievement Titus was awarded a triumph
Roman triumph

A Roman triumph was a civil religion and religious rite of ancient Rome, held to publically celebrate the achievements of an army commander who had won great military successes, originally and traditionally, who had successfully completed a war....
; the Arch of Titus
Arch of Titus

The Arch of Titus is a Pentelic marble triumphal arch with a single arched opening, located on the Via Sacra just to the south-east of the Roman Forum in Rome....
 commemorates his victory to this day.

Under the rule of his father, Titus gained infamy in Rome serving as prefect
Praetorian prefect

Praetorian prefect was the constant title of a high office in the Roman Empire state that changed fundamentally in nature.The praetorian prefect was commander of the Praetorian Guard until Constantine I abolished the guard in 314....
 of the Roman imperial bodyguard
Bodyguard

A bodyguard is a type of security guard or government agent who protects a person?usually a famous, wealthy, or politically important figure?from assault, kidnapping, assassination, stalking, loss of Confidentiality, or other threats....
, known as the Praetorian Guard
Praetorian Guard

The Praetorian Guard was a special force of guards used by Roman empire List of Roman Emperorss. Before being appropriated for the use of the Emperors' personal guards, the title was used for the guards of Roman generals, at least since the rise to prominence of the Scipio family around 275 BC....
, and for carrying on a controversial relationship with the Jewish queen Berenice. Despite concerns over his character, however, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on June 23, 79, and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius
Suetonius

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies on the battles of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar until Domitian, entitled On the Life of the Caesars....
 and other contemporary historians. In this role he is best known for his public building program in Rome—completing the Flavian Amphitheatre, otherwise known as the Colosseum— and for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79
Mount Vesuvius

Mount Vesuvius is an stratovolcano east of Naples Italy. It is the only volcano on the European mainland to have erupted within the last hundred years, although it is not currently eruption....
 and the fire of Rome of 80. After barely two years in office, Titus died of a fever
Fever

Fever is a frequent medical sign that describes an increase in internal body temperature to levels above normal. Fever is most accurately characterized as a temporary elevation in the body's thermoregulatory set-point, usually by about 1?2 ?C ....
 on September 13, 81. He was deified
Apotheosis

Apotheosis refers to the exaltation of a subject to divinity level. The term has meanings in theology, where it refers to a belief, and in art, where it refers to a genre....
 by the Roman Senate
Roman Senate

The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. According to the Greek historian Polybius, our principal source on the Constitution of the Roman Republic, the Roman Senate was the predominant branch of government....
 and succeeded by his younger brother Domitian
Domitian

Titus Flavius Domitianus , commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death. Domitian was the last emperor of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Domitian's father Vespasian , his elder brother Titus , and that of Domitian himself...
.

Early life

Titus was born in Rome
Rome

Rome is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city, with 2,724,347 residents in an urban area of some ....
, probably on 30 December 39, as the eldest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus
Vespasian

Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 69 A.D. until his death in 79 A.D. Vespasian was the founder of the short lived Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 A.D....
—commonly known as Vespasian—and Domitilla the Elder
Domitilla the Elder

Flavia Domitilla Major Flavia Domitilla the Elder or Domitilla the Elder was the wife of the Roman Emperor Vespasian. She was a daughter of Flavius Liberalis, a humble quaestor and later clerk....
. He had one older sister, Domitilla the Younger
Domitilla the Younger

Flavia Domitilla the Younger or Flavia Domitilla Minor was the only daughter of the Roman Emperor Vespasian and Domitilla the Elder. Her elder brother was Titus, and her younger brother Domitian....
 (b. 45), and one younger brother, also named Titus Flavius Domitianus
Domitian

Titus Flavius Domitianus , commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death. Domitian was the last emperor of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Domitian's father Vespasian , his elder brother Titus , and that of Domitian himself...
 (b. 51), but commonly referred to as Domitian.

Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old artistocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new provincial nobility during the early part of the 1st century. One such family was the gens Flavia
Flavius

Flavius was the name of a gens in ancient Rome, meaning "blond". The feminine form was Flavia .After the end of the popular Flavian dynasty of emperors, Flavius/Flavia became a praenomen, common especially among royalty: the adoption of this praenomen by Constantine I set a precedent for some imperial dynasties, such as Justinian...
, which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty
Julio-Claudian Dynasty

The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the four Roman Emperors: Tiberius, Caligula , Claudius, and Nero. They ruled the Roman Empire from 27 BC to AD 68, when the last of the line, Nero, committed suicide....
. Titus's great-grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro
Titus Flavius Petro

Titus Flavius Petro was the paternal grandfather of the Roman Emperor Vespasian. He was a son of a contracted labourer, who each summer crossed the Po to assist the Sabines with their harvests....
, had served as a centurion
Centurion

Centurion may refer to:...
 under Pompey
Pompey

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'p?mpi/, Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir , was a distinguished military and political leader of the late Roman Republic....
 during Caesar's civil war
Caesar's civil war

The Roman civil war of 49 BC, sometimes called Caesar's Civil War, is one of the last conflicts within the Roman Republic. It was a series of political and military confrontations between Julius Caesar, his political supporters, and his Roman legion, against the traditionalist conservative faction in the Roman Senate, sometimes known as the O...
. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus
Battle of Pharsalus

The Battle of Pharsalus was a decisive battle of Caesar's civil war. On August 9, 48 BC, the battle was fought at Pharsalus in central Greece between forces of the Populares faction and forces of the Optimates faction....
 in 48 BC. Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I
Titus Flavius Sabinus (father of Vespasian)

See also Titus Flavius Sabinus for other men of this name.Titus Flavius Sabinus, was the son of Titus Flavius Petro and Tertulla. He was an Equestrian from Reate in the Sabina region of Italy....
, Titus's grandfather. Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian
Equestrian (Roman)

The Roman equestrian order constituted the lower of the two aristocratic classes of ancient Rome, ranking below the Roman senate Order . A member of the order was known as an eques , which in Latin has the general meaning of any person mounted on a horse , but in this context carries the specific meaning of "knight"....
 status through his services as tax collector
Tax collector

A tax collector is a person who collects unpaid taxes from other people or corporations. Tax collectors are often portrayed in fiction as being evil, and in the modern world share a somewhat similar stereotype to that of lawyers....
 in Asia and banker in Helvetia
Helvetia

File:Zweifranken.jpgFile:Picswiss BS-53-07.jpgHelvetia is the Ancient Rome name for an ancient region of central Europe occupying a plateau between the Swiss Alps and the Jura Mountains....
. By marrying Vespasia Polla
Vespasia Polla

Vespasia Polla was the mother of the Roman Emperor Vespasian, grandmother to Emperors to Titus and Domitian. Polla came from a good Equestrian family at Nursia....
 he allied himself to the more prestigious patrician
Patrician

The term "patrician" originally referred to a group of elitism citizens in ancient Rome, including both their natural and adopted members. In the late Roman empire, the class was broadened to include high council officials, and after the fall of the Western Empire became a term for Byzantine Imperial governors in the West....
 gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II
Titus Flavius Sabinus (consul 47)

See also Titus Flavius Sabinus for other men of this name.Titus Flavius Sabinus was the elder son of Titus Flavius Sabinus and Vespasia Polla....
 and Vespasian
Vespasian

Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 69 A.D. until his death in 79 A.D. Vespasian was the founder of the short lived Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 A.D....
 to the senatorial rank.

The political career
Cursus honorum

The cursus honorum was the Sequence order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in both the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire....
 of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor
Quaestor

Quaestor is a type of public official.In the Roman Republic a quaestor was an elected official who supervised the treasury and financial affairs of the state, its armies and its officers....
, aedile
Aedile

Aedile was an office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings and regulation of public festivals....
 and praetor
Praetor

Praetor was a Title#Titles_for_heads_of_state granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, either before it was mustered or more typically in the field, or an elected Magistratus assigned duties that varied depending on the historical period....
, and culminated with a consulship
Roman consul

Consul was the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.During the time of ancient Rome as a Republic, the Consuls were the highest civil and military magistrates, serving as the head of government for the Republic....
 in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. What little is known of Titus's early life has been handed down to us by Suetonius
Suetonius

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies on the battles of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar until Domitian, entitled On the Life of the Caesars....
, who records that he was brought up at the imperial court in the company of Britannicus
Britannicus

Tiberius Claudius Caesar Britannicus was the son of the Roman Empire Claudius and his third wife Valeria Messalina. He became the heir-designate of the empire at his birth, less than a month into his father's reign....
, the son of emperor Claudius
Claudius

Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I was the fourth Roman Emperor, a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from January 24, AD 41 to his death in AD 54....
, who would be murdered by Nero
Nero

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus , born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and final Roman emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty....
 in 55. The story was even told that Titus was reclining next to Britannicus, the night he was murdered, and sipped of the poison
Poison

In the context of biology, poisons are Chemical substance that can cause disturbances to organisms, usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when a sufficient quantity is absorbed by an organism....
 that was handed to him. Further details on his education are scarce, but it seems he showed early promise in the military arts
Military science

Military science is the process of translating national defence policy to produce military capability by employing military scientists, including: theorists, researchers, experimental scientists, applied scientists, designers, engineers, test technicians, and military personnel responsible for prototyping....
 and was a skilled poet and orator both in Greek
Koine Greek

Koine Greek is the popular form of Greek which emerged in post-Classical antiquity . Other names are Alexandrian, Hellenistic, Common, or New Testament Greek....
 and Latin
Latin

Latin is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Military history of the Roman Empire, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe....
.

Military career

From c. 57 to 59 he was a military tribune
Tribune

Tribune was a title shared by 10 elected officials in the Roman Republic. Tribunes had the power to convene the Plebeian Council and to act as its president, which also gave them the exclusive right to propose legislation before it....
 in Germania
Germania

Germania was the Latin language exonym for a geographical area of land on the east bank of the River Rhine , which included regions of Sarmatia as well as an area under Ancient Rome control on the west bank of the Rhine....
. He also served in Britannia
Roman Britain

Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410. The Romans referred to their province as Britannia....
, perhaps arriving c. 60 with reinforcements needed after the revolt of Boudica
Boudica

Boudica was a queen of the Iceni tribe of what is now known as East Anglia in England, who led an uprising of the tribes against the occupying forces of the Roman Empire....
. In c. 63 he returned to Rome and married Arrecina Tertulla, daughter of a former Prefect of the Praetorian Guard
Praetorian prefect

Praetorian prefect was the constant title of a high office in the Roman Empire state that changed fundamentally in nature.The praetorian prefect was commander of the Praetorian Guard until Constantine I abolished the guard in 314....
. She died c. 65. Titus then took a new wife of a much more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla
Marcia Furnilla

Marcia Furnilla was a Roman woman that lived in the 1st century. Furnilla was the second and last wife of the future Roman Emperor Titus....
. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Nero
Nero

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus , born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and final Roman emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty....
. Her uncle Barea Soranus
Barea Soranus

Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus was a Roman Senate in the 1st century. Soranus was from the gens Marcius. He was the son of Quintus Marcius Barea, who was Suffect Consul in 26 and was twice Proconsul of the Africa Province....
 and his daughter Servilia
Servilia (1st century)

Marcia Servilia Sorana or commonly known as Servilia was the daughter of Roman Senate Barea Soranus. Servilia was born of the gens Marcius....
 were among those who perished after the failed Pisonian conspiracy
Pisonian conspiracy

The conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso in 65 represented one of the major turning points in the reign of the Roman emperor Nero ....
 of 65. Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy. He never re-married. Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla. The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia
Julia Flavia

Flavia Julia Titi was daughter and only child to the Emperor Titus from his second marriage to the well-connected Marcia Furnilla. Her parents divorced when Julia was an infant, due to her mother's family being connected to the opponents of Roman Emperor Nero....
, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia. During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor
Quaestor

Quaestor is a type of public official.In the Roman Republic a quaestor was an elected official who supervised the treasury and financial affairs of the state, its armies and its officers....
.

Judaean campaigns

First Century Palestine
In 66 the Jews of the Judaea Province
Iudaea Province

Iudaea was a Roman province that extended over the former region of the Hasmonean and Herodian kingdoms of Israel. It was named after the tetrarchy of Judea of which it was an expansion, the latter name deriving from the Kingdom of Judah of the 6th century BCE....
 revolted against the Roman Empire
First Jewish-Roman War

The first Jewish-Roman War , sometimes called The Great Revolt , was the first of three Jewish-Roman wars by the Jews of Iudaea Province against the Roman Empire ....
. Cestius Gallus
Cestius Gallus

Gaius Cestius Gallus was the son of a consul in ancient Rome and himself a suffect consul in 42.He was Legatus of Syria from 63 or 65. He marched into Judea in 66 in an attempt to restore calm at the outset of the Great Jewish Revolt....
, the legate of Syria
History of Syria

This article deals with the history of Syria, and the nations previously occupying its territory....
, was defeated at the battle of
Battle of Beth Horon (66)

The Battle of Beth Horon was a battle fought in 66 CE between Roman and Jewish forces and was one of the decisive battles in the First Jewish-Roman War....
 Beth-Horon
Beth-horon

Bethoron was the name for two adjacent towns, Bethoron Elyon , and Bethoron Tahton , named for the Ancient Egypt-Canaanite deity Horon mentioned in Ugaritic literature and other texts....
 and forced to retreat from Jerusalem
Jerusalem

Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its List of Israeli cities in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if Positions on Jerusalem East Jerusalem is included....
. The pro-Roman king Agrippa II
Agrippa II

Agrippa II , son of Agrippa I, and like him originally named Marcus Julius Agrippa, was the seventh and last king of the family of Herod the Great, thus last of the Herodians....
 and his sister Berenice fled the city to Galilee
Galilee

Galilee , is a large region in northern Israel which overlaps with much of the administrative North District of the country. Traditionally divided into Upper Galilee , Lower Galilee , and Western Galilee , extending from Dan to the north, at the base of Mount Hermon, along Mount Lebanon to the ridges of Mount Carmel and Mount Gilboa t...
 where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, who was dispatched to the region at once with the fifth
Legio V Macedonica

Legio quinta Macedonica was a Roman legion. It was probably originally levied by consul Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus and Augustus in 43 BC, and it existed in Moesia at least until 5th century....
 and tenth legions
Legio X Fretensis

Legio decima Fretensis of the sea strait") was a Roman legion levied by Augustus in 41/40 BC to fight during the period of Roman Civil War that started the dissolution of the Roman Republic....
. He was later joined by Titus at Ptolemais
Acre, Israel

Acre also Akko, is a List of Israeli cities in the Western Galilee region of North District Israel. It is situated on a low promontory at the northern extremity of Haifa Bay....
, bringing with him the fifteenth legion
Legio XV Apollinaris

Legio decima quinta Apollinaris was a Roman legion. It was recruited by Augustus in 41/40 BC. The emblem of this legion was probably a picture of Apollo, or of one of his holy animals....
. With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans prepared to sweep across Galilee and march on Jerusalem.

The history of the war was covered in dramatic detail by the Roman-Jewish historian Josephus
Josephus

Josephus , also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu and, after he became a Roman citizenship, as Titus Flavius Josephus, was a first-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and royal ancestry who survived and recorded the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70....
 in his work The Wars of the Jews
The Wars of the Jews

The Wars of the Jews is a book written by the 1st century Jewish historian Josephus.It is a description of Jewish history from the capture of Jerusalem by the Seleucid Empire ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 164 BC to the fall and destruction of Jerusalem in the First Jewish-Roman War in AD 70....
. Josephus served as a commander in the city of Jotapata
Jotapata

Jotapata was an ancient fortified Jewish village in the Galilee, north of Sepphoris, Israel, mostly known for the bloody and ruthless battle in the year 67, as related by Josephus in his book, The Wars of the Jews, the only account of this battle....
 when the Roman army invaded Galilee in 67. After an exhausting siege which lasted 47 days, the city fell, with an estimated 40,000 killed and the remaining Jewish resistance committing suicide
Suicide

Suicide is the intentional taking of one's own life. Many dictionaries also note the metaphorical sense of "willful destruction of one's self-interest"....
. Josephus himself surrendered to Vespasian, became a prisoner and provided the Romans with intelligence on the ongoing revolt. By 68, the entire coast and the north of Judaea were subjugated by the Roman army, with decisive victories won at Taricheae
Magdala

Magdala is the name of at least two places in ancient Palestine mentioned in the Judaism Talmud and one that may be mentioned in the Christianity New Testament....
 and Gamala
Gamla

Gamla , a site inhabited since the Early Bronze Age, became the capital of the Jewish Golan from 87 BCE to 68 CE when it was sacked by the Romans....
, where Titus distinguished himself as a skilled general.

Year of the Four Emperors
The last and most significant fortress of Jewish resistance
Zealotry

Zealotry was a movement in Tannaim, described by Josephus as one of the "four sects" at this time. The term Zealot, in Hebrew language Kanai , means one who is wikt:zealous on behalf of God....
 was Jerusalem. However the campaign came to a sudden halt when news arrived of Nero's death. Almost simultaneously, the Roman Senate
Roman Senate

The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. According to the Greek historian Polybius, our principal source on the Constitution of the Roman Republic, the Roman Senate was the predominant branch of government....
 had declared Galba
Galba

Servius Sulpicius Galba , also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar Augustus, was Roman Emperor from June 8, 68 until his death. He was the first emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors....
, then governor of Hispania
Hispania

Hispania was the name given by the Ancient Rome to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula . When Rome was a Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into Roman provinces: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior....
, as Emperor of Rome. Vespasian decided to await further orders, and sent Titus to greet the new princeps
Princeps

The Latin word Princeps means exactly 'a prime'. This article is devoted to a number of specific historical meanings the word took, by far the most important of which follows first....
. Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho
Otho

For other uses, see Otho .Marcus Salvius Otho , also called Marcus Salvius Otho Caesar Augustus, was Roman Emperors from 15 January to 16 April 69, the second emperor of the Year of the four emperors....
, governor of Lusitania
Lusitania

Lusitania was an ancient Ancient Rome Roman province including approximately all of modern Portugal south of the Douro river, and part of modern Spain ....
, and that Vitellius
Vitellius

Aulus Vitellius Germanicus, born Aulus Vitellius and commonly known as Vitellius , was a Roman Emperors who reigned from 16 April 69 to 22 December of the same year....
 and his armies in Germania
Germania

Germania was the Latin language exonym for a geographical area of land on the east bank of the River Rhine , which included regions of Sarmatia as well as an area under Ancient Rome control on the west bank of the Rhine....
 were preparing to march on the capital, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, he abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea. Meanwhile, Otho was defeated in the First Battle of Bedriacum and committed suicide. When the news spread across the armies in Judaea and Ægyptus, they took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on July 1, 69. Vespasian accepted, and through negotiations by Titus joined forces with Gaius Licinius Mucianus
Mucianus

Gaius Licinius Mucianus was a general, statesman, and writer of ancient Rome.His name shows that he had passed by adoption from the Mucius to the Licinius gens....
, governor of Syria. A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself travelled to Alexandria
Alexandria

Alexandria , with a population of 4.1 million, is the second-largest city in Egypt, and is the country's largest seaport, serving about 80% of Egypt's imports and exports....
, leaving Titus in charge to end the Jewish rebellion. By the end of 69 the forces of Vitellius had been beaten, and Vespasian was officially declared emperor by the Senate on December 21, thus ending the Year of the Four Emperors
Year of the Four Emperors

The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69, in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession. These four emperors were Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian....
.

Siege of Jerusalem
Francesco Hayez 017
Meanwhile the Jews had become embroiled in a civil conflict
Civil war

A civil war is a war between organized groups to take control of a nation or region, or to change government policies. It is high-intensity conflict, often involving Regular Army, that is sustained, organized and large-scale....
 of their own, splitting the resistance in the city among two factions; the Sicarii
Sicarii

Sicarii is a term applied, in the decades immediately preceding the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, to an extremist splinter group to the Jewish Zealots, who attempted to expel the Roman Empire and their partisans from Judea....
 led by Simon Bar Giora
Simon Bar Giora

Simon Bar Giora was a leader of the Sicarii faction during the First Jewish-Roman War in the 1st century Judea....
, and the Zealots led by John of Gischala. Titus seized the opportunity to begin the assault on Jerusalem
Siege of Jerusalem (70)

The Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 AD was a decisive event in the First Jewish-Roman War. It was followed by the Masada#History in 73 AD. The Roman Empire army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem, which had been occupied by its Jewish defend...
. The Roman army was joined by the twelfth legion
Legio XII Fulminata

Legio duodecima Fulminata , also known as Paterna, Victrix, Antiqua, Certa Constans, and Galliena, was a Roman legion, levied by Julius Caesar in 58 BC and which accompanied him during the Gallic wars until 49 BC....
, which was previously defeated under Cestius Gallus
Cestius Gallus

Gaius Cestius Gallus was the son of a consul in ancient Rome and himself a suffect consul in 42.He was Legatus of Syria from 63 or 65. He marched into Judea in 66 in an attempt to restore calm at the outset of the Great Jewish Revolt....
, and from Alexandria Vespasian sent Tiberius Julius Alexander
Tiberius Julius Alexander

Tiberius Julius Alexander was an Equestrian governor and general in the Roman Empire. Born into a wealthy Jewish family of Alexandria but abandoning or neglecting the Judaism, he rose to become Promagistrate of Iudaea Province under Claudius....
, governor of Ægyptus, to act as Titus's second in command. Titus surrounded the city, with three legions (Vth, XIIth and XVth) on the western side and one (Xth) on the Mount of Olives
Mount of Olives

The Mount of Olives is a mountain ridge in east Jerusalem with three peaks running from north to south. The highest, at-Tur, rises to 818 meters ....
 to the east. He put pressure on the food and water supplies of the inhabitants by allowing pilgrim
Pilgrim

A pilgrim is one who undertakes a pilgrimage, literally 'far afield'. This is traditionally a visit to a place of some religious or historic significance; often a considerable distance is traveled....
s to enter the city to celebrate Passover
Passover

Passover is a Jewish and Samaritan holy day and festival commemorating God sparing the Israelites when He killed the first born of Egypt, and is followed by the seven day Feast of the Unleavened Bread commemorating the Exodus from Ancient Egypt and the liberation of the Israelites from Judaism and slavery....
, and then refusing them egress. Jewish raids continuously harassed the Roman army, one of which nearly resulted in Titus being captured by the enemy.

After attempts by Josephus to negotiate a surrender had failed, the Romans resumed hostilities and quickly breached the first and second walls of the city. To intimidate the resistance, Titus ordered deserters
Desertion

In military terminology, desertion is the abandonment of a "duty" or post without permission from one's Government or superior. Ultimate "duty" or "responsibility," however, under International Law, is not necessarily always to a "Government" nor to a "superior," as seen in the fourth of the Nuremberg Principles, which states:...
 from the Jewish side to be crucified
Crucifixion

Crucifixion is an ancient method of execution , whereby the condemned person is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross and left to hang until dead....
 around the city wall. By this time the Jews had been thoroughly exhausted by famine
Famine

A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any faunal species, which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased death....
, and when the weak third wall was breached bitter street fighting ensued. The Romans finally captured the Antonia Fortress
Antonia Fortress

The Antonia Fortress was a military barracks built by Herod the Great in Jerusalem on the site of an earlier Hasmonean stronghold, named after Herod's patron Mark Antony....
 and began a frontal assault on the gates of the Temple
Second Temple

The Second Temple was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem which stood between 516 BCE and 70 CE. During this time, it was the center of Judaism worship, which focused on the sacrifices known as the korbanot....
. According to Josephus, Titus had ordered that the Temple itself should not be destroyed, but while the fighting around the gates continued a soldier hurled a torch inside one of the windows, which quickly set the entire building ablaze. The later Christian chronicler Sulpicius Severus
Sulpicius Severus

Sulpicius Severus was a Christianity writer and native of Aquitania. He is known for his chronicle of sacred history, as well as his biography of Saint Martin of Tours....
, possibly drawing on a lost portion of Tacitus
Tacitus

Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a Roman Senate and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories —examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those that reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors....
' Histories
Histories (Tacitus)

Histories is a book by Tacitus, written c. 100–110, which covers the Year of Four Emperors following the downfall of Nero, the rise of Vespasian, and the rule of the Flavian Dynasty up to the death of Domitian....
, claims that Titus favoured destruction of the Temple. Whatever the case, the Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator
Imperator

The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. It later went on to become a part of the titulature of the Roman Emperors as part of their cognomen....
 in honor of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish. 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of Gischala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath
Wreath

A wreath is a circle made of flowers, leaf and sometimes fruits that can be used as an ornament, hanging on a wall or door, or resting on a table....
 of victory, as there is "no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God".

Heir to Vespasian

Unable to sail to Italy during the winter, Titus celebrated elaborate games at Caesarea Maritima and Berytus, then travelled to Zeugma
Zeugma (city)

Zeugma is an ancient city of Commagene; currently located in the Gaziantep Province of Turkey . It is a historical settlement which is considered among the four most important settlement areas under the reign of the kingdom of Commagene....
 on the Euphrates
Euphrates

The Euphrates is the western of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia which flows from Anatolia....
, where he was presented with a crown by Vologases I of Parthia
Vologases I of Parthia

Vologases I of Parthia ruled the Parthia from about 51 to 78. Son of Vonones II of Parthia by a Greeks concubine, he succeeded his father in 51 AD....
. While visiting Antioch
Antioch

Antioch on the Orontes was an ancient city on the eastern side of the Orontes River. It is near the modern city of Antakya, Turkey.Founded near the end of the 4th century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals, Antioch eventually rivaled Alexandria as the chief city of the nearer East and was a cradle of gentile hi...
 he confirmed the traditional rights of the Jews in that city. On his way to Alexandria
Alexandria

Alexandria , with a population of 4.1 million, is the second-largest city in Egypt, and is the country's largest seaport, serving about 80% of Egypt's imports and exports....
, he stopped in Memphis
Memphis, Egypt

Memphis was the ancient capital of the first Nome of Lower Egypt, and of the Old Kingdom of Egypt from its foundation until around 2200 BC and later for shorter periods during the New Kingdom, and an administrative centre throughout ancient history....
 to consecrate the sacred bull Apis
Apis (Egyptian mythology)

In Egyptian mythology, Apis or Hapis , was a bull-deity worshipped in the Memphis, Egypt region.According to Manetho, his worship was instituted by Kaiechos of the Second dynasty of Egypt....
. According to Suetonius
Suetonius

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies on the battles of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar until Domitian, entitled On the Life of the Caesars....
, this caused consternation; the ceremony required Titus to wear a diadem
Diadem (personal wear)

A diadem is a type of Crown , specifically an ornamental headband worn by Eastern monarchs and others as a badge of royalty. The word derives from the Greek language d??d??a diadema, from d??d?? diadeo to bind round, or fasten....
, which the Romans associated with kingship, and the partisanship of Titus's legions had already led to fears that he might rebel against his father. Titus returned quickly to Rome – hoping, says Suetonius, to allay any suspicions about his conduct.

Upon his arrival in the city in 71, Titus was awarded a triumph
Roman triumph

A Roman triumph was a civil religion and religious rite of ancient Rome, held to publically celebrate the achievements of an army commander who had won great military successes, originally and traditionally, who had successfully completed a war....
. Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Pentateuch. Simon Bar Giora was executed in the Forum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. The triumphal
Triumphal arch

A triumphal arch is a structure in the shape of a monumental arch, in theory built to celebrate a victory in war, actually used to celebrate a ruler....
 Arch of Titus
Arch of Titus

The Arch of Titus is a Pentelic marble triumphal arch with a single arched opening, located on the Via Sacra just to the south-east of the Roman Forum in Rome....
, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus.

With Vespasian declared emperor, Titus and his brother Domitian likewise received the title of Caesar from the Senate. In addition to sharing tribunician power
Tribune

Tribune was a title shared by 10 elected officials in the Roman Republic. Tribunes had the power to convene the Plebeian Council and to act as its president, which also gave them the exclusive right to propose legislation before it....
 with his father, Titus held seven consul
Consul

Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Roman Empire. The title was also used in other city states, and revived in modern states, notably French Republic before the Napoleon I of Franceic counter-revolution....
ships during Vespasian's reign and acted as his secretary, appearing in the Senate on his behalf. More crucially, he was appointed commander of the Praetorian Guard
Praetorian prefect

Praetorian prefect was the constant title of a high office in the Roman Empire state that changed fundamentally in nature.The praetorian prefect was commander of the Praetorian Guard until Constantine I abolished the guard in 314....
, ensuring their loyalty to the emperor and further solidifying Vespasian's position as a legitimate ruler. In this capacity he achieved considerable notoriety in Rome for his violent actions, frequently ordering the execution of suspected traitors on the spot. When in 79, a plot by Aulus Caecina Alienus
Aulus Caecina Alienus

Aulus Caecina Alienus, Roman general, was quaestor of Hispania Baetica in 68.On the death of Nero, he attached himself to Galba, who appointed him to the command of a legion in upper Germany....
 and Eprius Marcellus to overthrow Vespasian was uncovered, Titus invited Alienus to dinner and ordered him to be stabbed before he had even left the room.

During the Jewish wars, Titus had begun a love affair with Berenice, sister of Agrippa II
Agrippa II

Agrippa II , son of Agrippa I, and like him originally named Marcus Julius Agrippa, was the seventh and last king of the family of Herod the Great, thus last of the Herodians....
. The Herodians
Herodian Dynasty

The Herodian Dynasty was a Jewish dynasty of Idumea descent, who ruled Iudaea Province between 37 BC - AD 92....
 had collaborated with the Romans during the rebellion, and Berenice herself had supported Vespasian upon his campaign to become emperor. In 75, she returned to Titus and openly lived with him in the palace as his promised wife. The Romans were wary of the Eastern Queen and disapproved of their relationship. When the pair was publicly denounced by Cynic
Cynic

The Cynics were an influential group of philosophers from the ancient School of Cynicism. Their philosophy was that the purpose of Personal life was to live a life of Virtue in agreement with Nature....
s in the theatre, Titus caved in to the pressure and sent her away, but his reputation further suffered.

Emperor


Succession

Vespasian died of an infection on June 23 79 AD, and was immediately succeeded by his son Titus. Because of his many alleged vice
Vice

Vice is a practice or habit considered immoral, depraved, and/or degrading in the associated society. In more minor usage, vice can refer to a fault, a defect, an infirmity or merely a bad habit....
s, many Romans feared at this point that he would be another Nero. Against these expectations, however, Titus proved to be an effective emperor and was well-loved by the population, who praised him highly when they found that he possessed the greatest virtue
Virtue

Virtue is morality excellence. Personal virtues are characteristics Value as promoting individual and collective well-being, and thus Goodness and value theory by definition....
s instead of vices. One of his first acts as an emperor was to publicly order a halt to trials based on treason charges, which had long plagued the principate
Principate

The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, after which it was replaced with the Dominate....
. The law of treason
Treason

In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more serious acts of loyalty to one's sovereignty or nation. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, such as the murder of a husband by his wife ....
, or maiestas law
Law of majestas

The Law of Majestas, or lex maiestas, refers to any one of several ancient Roman laws throughout the republican and Imperial periods dealing with crimes against the Roman people, state, or Emperor....
, was originally intended to prosecute those who had corruptly 'impaired the people and majesty of Rome' by any revolution
Revolution

A revolution is a fundamental social change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short period of time....
ary action. Under Augustus, however, this custom had been revived and applied to cover slander or libellous writings
Slander and libel

In law, defamation is the communication of a statement that makes a false claim, expressly stated or implied to be factual, that may give an individual, business, product, group, government or nation a negative image....
 as well, eventually leading to a long cycle of trial
Trial

A trial is, in the most general sense, a test, usually a test to see whether something does or does not meet a given standard.It may refer to:...
s and executions under such emperors as Tiberius
Tiberius

Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus, born Tiberius Claudius Nero , was the second Roman Emperor, from the death of Augustus in AD 14 until his own death in 37....
, Caligula
Caligula

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus , more commonly known by his nickname Caligula , was the third Roman Emperor, reigning from 16 March 37 until his assassination on 24 January 41....
 and Nero, spawning entire networks of informer
Delator

Delator is Latin for a denouncer, i.e. who indicates to a court another as having committed a punishable deed....
s that terrorized Rome's political system for decades. Titus put an end to this practice, against himself or anyone else, declaring:

"It is impossible for me to be insulted or abused in any way. For I do naught that deserves censure, and I care not for what is reported falsely. As for the emperors who are dead and gone, they will avenge themselves in case anyone does them a wrong, if in very truth they are demigods and possess any power."


Consequently, no senator
Roman Senate

The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. According to the Greek historian Polybius, our principal source on the Constitution of the Roman Republic, the Roman Senate was the predominant branch of government....
s were put to death during his reign; he thus kept to his promise that he would assume the office of Pontifex Maximus
Pontifex Maximus

The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the Ancient Rome College of Pontiffs. This was the most important position in the Ancient Roman religion, open only to patricians until 254 BC, when a plebeian first occupied this post....
 "for the purpose of keeping his hands unstained
Ritual purification

Ritual purification is a feature of many religions. The aim of these rituals is to remove specifically defined uncleanliness prior to a particular type of activity, and especially prior to the worship of a deity....
". The informants were publicly punished and banished
Exile

Exile means to be away from one's home while either being explicitly refused permission to return and/or being threatened by prison or death upon return....
 from the city, and Titus further prevented abuses by introducing legislation that made it unlawful for persons to be tried under different laws for the same offense
Double jeopardy

Double jeopardy is a procedural defense that forbids a defendant from being trial twice for the same crime on the same set of facts. At common law a defendant may plead autrefois acquit or autrefois convict , meaning the defendant has been acquitted or convicted of the same offense....
. Finally, when Berenice returned to Rome, he sent her away.

As emperor he became known for his generosity, and Suetonius
Suetonius

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies on the battles of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar until Domitian, entitled On the Life of the Caesars....
 states that upon realising he had brought no benefit to anyone during a whole day he remarked, "Friends, I have lost a day."

Challenges

Pompeii Garden of the Fugitives 02
Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On August 24, 79, barely two months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted
Mount Vesuvius

Mount Vesuvius is an stratovolcano east of Naples Italy. It is the only volcano on the European mainland to have erupted within the last hundred years, although it is not currently eruption....
, resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around the Bay of Naples. The cities of Pompeii
Pompeii

Pompeii is a ruined and partially buried Ancient Rome town-city near modern Naples in the Italy region of Campania, in the territory of the comune of Pompei....
 and Herculaneum
Herculaneum

Herculaneum is an ancient Roman Empire town, located in the territory of the current commune of Ercolano. Its ruins can be found at the co-ordinates , in the Italy region of Campania....
 were buried under metres of stone and lava
Lava

Lava is molten Rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption. When first expelled from a volcanic vent, it is a liquid at temperatures from 700 ?C to 1,200 ?C ....
, killing thousands of citizens. Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort
Humanitarian aid

Humanitarian aid is material or logistical assistance provided for humanitarianism purposes, typically in response to humanitarian crisis. The primary objective of humanitarian aid is to save lives, alleviate suffering, and maintain human dignity....
, while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano. Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year.

During the second visit a fire broke out in Rome which lasted for three days. Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire
Great Fire of Rome

According to the historian Tacitus, the Great Fire of Rome started on the night of 18 July in the year 64 CE, among the shops clustered around the Circus Maximus....
 of 64—crucially sparing the many districts of insulae
Insulae

In Roman architecture, insulae were large apartment buildings where the lower and middle classes of Romans dwelled. The floor at ground level was used for tabernas, shops and businesses with living space on the higher floors....
—Cassius Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon
Temple

A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities, such as prayer and sacrifice, or analogous rites. A ??templum?? constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest, or augur....
, the Temple of Jupiter, the Diribitorium
Diribitorium

The diribitorium was a public voting hall situated on the campus Martius in Ancient Rome. In this building, the votes cast by the people were counted by election officials....
, parts of Pompey's Theatre
Theatre of Pompey

The Theatre of Pompey was a structure in Ancient Rome, built during the Roman Republic era. It was completed in 7 years starting from 61 BC. It was dedicated early in 55 BC before the structure was fully completed....
 and the Saepta Julia
Saepta Julia

The Saepta Julia was a building in Ancient Rome where citizens gathered to cast votes. The building was conceived by Julius Caesar and dedicated by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in 26 Before Christ....
 among others. Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions. According to Suetonius, a plague similarly struck during the fire. The nature of the disease, however, or the death toll
Death Toll

Death Toll is a 2008 action film starring DMX , Lou Diamond Phillips, Leila Arcieri and Keshia Knight Pulliam, written and produced by Daniel Garcia of the rap group Kane & Abel and directed by Phenomenon....
 are unknown.

Meanwhile war had resumed in Britannia
Roman Britain

Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410. The Romans referred to their province as Britannia....
, where Gnaeus Julius Agricola
Gnaeus Julius Agricola

Gnaeus Julius Agricola was a Roman Empire general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Roman Britain. His biography, the Agricola , was the first published work of his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus, and is the source for most of what is known about him....
 pushed further into Caledonia
Caledonia

Caledonia is the Latin name given by the Ancient Rome to the land in today's Scotland north of their Roman provinces of Roman Britain, beyond the Frontiers of the Roman Empire of their Roman Empire....
 and managed to establish several forts there. As a result of his actions, Titus received the title of Imperator
Imperator

The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. It later went on to become a part of the titulature of the Roman Emperors as part of their cognomen....
 for the fifteenth time.

His reign also saw the rebellion led by Terentius Maximus
Terentius Maximus

Terentius Maximus was a Roman Empire also known as the Pseudo-Nero who rebelled during the reign of Titus, but was suppressed. He resembled Nero in appearance and in action, as he was known to perform singing with the accompaniment of the lyre....
, one of several false Neros who continued to appear throughout the 70s. Although Nero was primarily known as a universally hated tyrant
Tyrant

This article is about the political ruler. For other uses see Tyrant and Tyranny In modern usage, a tyrant is a single ruler holding absolute political power over a state or within an organization....
—there is evidence that for much of his reign, he remained highly popular in the eastern provinces. Reports that Nero had in fact survived the assassination attempts were fueled by the vague circumstances surrounding his death and several prophecies
Prophecy

Prophecy, generally, describes the disclosing of information that is not known to the prophet by any ordinary means. In religion, this is thought to be a divinely inspired revelation or interpretation....
 foretelling his return. According to Cassius Dio, Terentius Maximus resembled Nero in voice and appearance and, like him, sang to the lyre
Lyre

The lyre is a string instrument well known for its use in classical antiquity and later. The recitations of the Ancient Greece were accompanied by lyre playing....
. Terentius established a following in Asia minor but was soon forced to flee beyond the Euphrates
Euphrates

The Euphrates is the western of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia which flows from Anatolia....
, taking refuge with the Parthian
Parthian

Parthian may be:A demonym "of Parthia", a region of north-eastern Iran* Parthian language, a now-extinct Middle Iranian language* Parthian shot, an archery skill famously employed by Parthian horsemen...
s. In addition, sources state that Titus discovered that his brother Domitian was plotting against him but refused to have him killed or banished.

Public works

Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as the Colosseum
Colosseum

The Colosseum or Roman Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre , is an elliptical amphitheatre in the center of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire....
, was begun in 70 under Vespasian
Vespasian

Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 69 A.D. until his death in 79 A.D. Vespasian was the founder of the short lived Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 A.D....
 and finally completed in 80 under Titus. In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars
First Jewish-Roman War

The first Jewish-Roman War , sometimes called The Great Revolt , was the first of three Jewish-Roman wars by the Jews of Iudaea Province against the Roman Empire ....
. The inaugural games
Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre

The inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre were held in Anno Domini 80, on the orders of the Roman Emperor Titus, to celebrate the completion of the Colosseum, then known as the Flavian Amphitheatre ....
 lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including gladiatorial combat
Gladiator

A Gladiator was a slave, criminal or professional fighter in ancient Rome. Gladiators fought other gladiators, wild animals and condemned criminals, sometimes to the death, for the entertainment of Spectator sport in cities and towns of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, from the 3rd century BCE to the 5th century CE....
, fights between wild animals (elephant
Elephant

Elephants are large land mammals of the order Proboscidea and the family Elephantidae. There are three living species: the African Bush Elephant, the African Forest Elephant and the Asian Elephant ....
s and cranes
Crane (bird)

Cranes are large, long-legged and long-necked birds of the order Gruiformes, and family Gruidae. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back....
), mock naval battle
Naval battle

A naval battle is a battle fought using ships or other waterborne vessels. Most naval battles have occurred at sea, but a few have taken place on lakes or rivers....
s for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races. During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing
Clothing

A feature of all human societies, except perhaps the most primitive, is the wearing of clothing or clothes, especially in public. The primary purpose of clothing is functional, as a protection from the weather....
, gold
Gold

Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and atomic number 79. It is a highly sought-after precious metal, having been used as money, as a store of value, in jewelry, in sculpture, and for ornamentation since the beginning of recorded history....
, or even slaves
Slavery in antiquity

Slavery in the ancient world, specifically, in Mediterranean cultures, comprised a mixture of debt-slavery, slavery as a punishment for crime, and the enslavement of prisoner of war....
), which could then be traded for the designated item.

Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's Golden House
Domus Aurea

The Domus Aurea was a large landscaped portico villa, designed to take advantage of artificially created landscapes built in the heart of Ancient Rome by the Roman Empire Nero after the Great fire of Rome, which devastated Ancient Rome in 64 AD, had cleared away the aristocratic dwellings on the slopes of the Esquiline Hill....
, Titus had also ordered the construction of a new public bath-house
Thermae

The terms balnea or thermae were the words the Ancient Rome used for the buildings housing their public baths.Most Roman cities had at least one, if not many, such buildings, which were centers of public bathing and socialization....
, which was to bear his name
Baths of Titus

The Baths of Titus were public baths built in Rome in 81 by Emperor Titus.The baths sat in the base of the Esquiline hill, an area of parkland and luxury gardens which had been taken over by Nero for his Golden House or Domus Aurea....
. Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.

Practice of the imperial cult
Imperial cult (Ancient Rome)

The imperial cult in ancient Rome was the worship of a few select Roman Emperors as Roman godss once they were deceased; the only emperor to declare himself a god while still living was Domitian which caused outrage....
 was revived by Titus, though apparently it met with some difficulty as Vespasian was not deified until six months after his death. To further honor and glorify the Flavian dynasty
Flavian dynasty

The Flavian dynasty was a Ancient Rome imperial dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96 AD, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian , and his two sons Titus and Domitian ....
, foundations were laid for what would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus
Temple of Vespasian and Titus

The Temple of Vespasian and Titus is located in Rome at the western end of the Roman Forum between the Temple of Concordia and the Temple of Saturn....
, which was finished by Domitian.

Death

At the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the amphitheatre and the baths, which was to be his final recorded act as an emperor. He set out for the Sabine
Sabine

The Sabines were an Ancient Italic peoples tribe that lived in ancient Italy, inhabiting Latium before the founding of Rome. Their language belonged to the Osco-Umbrian languages subgroup of Italic languages and shows some similarities to Oscan language and Umbrian language....
 territories but fell ill at the first posting station where he died of a fever
Fever

Fever is a frequent medical sign that describes an increase in internal body temperature to levels above normal. Fever is most accurately characterized as a temporary elevation in the body's thermoregulatory set-point, usually by about 1?2 ?C ....
, reportedly in the same farm-house as his father. Allegedly, the last words he uttered before passing away were: "I have made but one mistake". Titus had ruled the Roman Empire
Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was the Roman Republic phase of the Ancient Rome, characterised by an autocracy form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
 for just over two years, from the death of his father in 79 to his own on September 13 81. He was succeeded by Domitian, whose first act as emperor was to deify
Apotheosis

Apotheosis refers to the exaltation of a subject to divinity level. The term has meanings in theology, where it refers to a belief, and in art, where it refers to a genre....
 his brother.

Historians have speculated on the exact nature of his death, and to which mistake Titus alluded in his final words. Philostratus
Philostratus

Philostratus, was the name of four Greek sophists of the Roman Empire:# "Philostratus I": Very minor author, known only for a dialogue Nero, possibly written by Philostratus II....
 writes that he was poisoned by Domitian with a sea hare
Sea hare

The suborder Aplysiomorpha or Sea hares are very large sea slugs with a soft internal shell made of protein. These are marine gastropod molluscs in the superfamilies Aplysioidea and Akeroidea....
, and that his death had been foretold to him by Apollonius of Tyana
Apollonius of Tyana

Apollonius of Tyana was a Greece Neopythagorean philosopher and teacher. He hailed from the town of Tyana in the Roman Empire province of Cappadocia in Asia Minor....
. Suetonius and Cassius Dio maintain he died of natural causes, but both accuse Domitian of having left the ailing Titus for dead. Consequently, Dio believes Titus's mistake refers to his failure to have his brother executed when he was found to be openly plotting against him.

According to the Babylonian Talmud (Gittin 56b), an insect
Insect

Insects are the biggest class of arthropods and the only ones with wings. They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet. They are most diverse at the equator and their diversity declines toward the poles....
 flew into Titus's nose and picked at his brain for seven years. He noticed that the sound of a blacksmith hammering caused the ensuing pain to abate, so he paid for blacksmiths to hammer nearby him; however, the effect wore off and the insect resumed its gnawing. When he died, they opened his skull and found the insect had grown to the size of a bird. The Talmud gives this as the cause of his death and interprets it as divine retribution for his wicked actions.

Legacy


Historiography

Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries, present a highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian.

The Wars of the Jews
The Wars of the Jews

The Wars of the Jews is a book written by the 1st century Jewish historian Josephus.It is a description of Jewish history from the capture of Jerusalem by the Seleucid Empire ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 164 BC to the fall and destruction of Jerusalem in the First Jewish-Roman War in AD 70....
 offers a first-hand, eye-witness
Witness

A witness is someone who has firsthand knowledge about a crime or dramatic event through their senses , and can help certify important considerations to the crime or event....
 account on the Jewish rebellion and the character of Titus. The neutrality of Josephus
Josephus

Josephus , also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu and, after he became a Roman citizenship, as Titus Flavius Josephus, was a first-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and royal ancestry who survived and recorded the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70....
' writings has come into question however as he was heavily indebted to the Flavians
Flavian dynasty

The Flavian dynasty was a Ancient Rome imperial dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96 AD, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian , and his two sons Titus and Domitian ....
. In 71, he arrived in Rome in the entourage of Titus, became a Roman citizen
Roman citizenship

Citizenship in ancient Rome was a privileged social status afforded to certain individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance.It is hard to offer meaningful generalities across the entire Roman period, as the nature and availability of citizenship was affected by legislation, for example, the Lex Iulia....
 and took on the Roman nomen Flavius and praenomen
Praenomen

In Roman naming conventions, the praenomen was the only name in which parents had some choice, roughly equivalent to the given name of today....
 Titus from his patrons. He received an annual pension and lived in the palace. It was while in Rome, and under Flavian patronage
Patronage

Patronage is the support, encouragement, privilege and often financial aid that an organization or individual bestows to another. In the history of art, arts patronage refers to the support that kings or popes have provided to musicians, painters, and sculptors....
, that Josephus wrote all of his known works. The War of the Jews is heavily slanted against the leaders of the revolt, portraying the rebellion as weak and unorganized, and even blaming the Jews for causing the war. The credibility of Josephus as a historian has subsequently come under fire.

Another contemporary of Titus was Publius Cornelius Tacitus
Tacitus

Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a Roman Senate and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories —examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those that reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors....
, who started his public career in 80 or 81 and credits the Flavian dynasty with his elevation. The Histories
Histories (Tacitus)

Histories is a book by Tacitus, written c. 100–110, which covers the Year of Four Emperors following the downfall of Nero, the rise of Vespasian, and the rule of the Flavian Dynasty up to the death of Domitian....
—his account of this period—was published during the reign of Trajan
Trajan

Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan , was a Roman Emperors who reigned from 98 until his death in 117. Born Marcus Ulpius Traianus into a nonpatrician family in the Hispania Baetica province , Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian, serving as a general in the Roman army along the Limes G...
. Unfortunately only the first five books from this work have survived until the present day, with the text on Titus's and Domitian's reign entirely lost.

Suetonius Tranquilius
Suetonius

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies on the battles of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar until Domitian, entitled On the Life of the Caesars....
 gives a short but highly favourable account on Titus's reign in The Lives of Twelve Caesars, emphasizing his military achievements and his generosity as Emperor, in short describing him as follows:

Titus, of the same surname as his father, was the delight and darling of the human race; such surpassing ability had he, by nature, art, or good fortune, to win the affections of all men, and that, too, which is no easy task, while he was emperor.


Finally, Cassius Dio wrote his Roman History over a hundred years after the death of Titus. He shares a similar outlook as Suetonius, possibly even using the latter as a source, but is more reserved, noting:

His satisfactory record may also have been due to the fact that he survived his accession but a very short time, for he was thus given no opportunity for wrongdoing. For he lived after this only two years, two months and twenty days — in addition to the thirty-nine years, five months and twenty-five days he had already lived at that time. In this respect, indeed, he is regarded as having equalled the long reign of Augustus, since it is maintained that Augustus would never have been loved had he lived a shorter time, nor Titus had he lived longer. For Augustus, though at the outset he showed himself rather harsh because of the wars and the factional strife, was later able, in the course of time, to achieve a brilliant reputation for his kindly deeds; Titus, on the other hand, ruled with mildness and died at the height of his glory, whereas, if he had lived a long time, it might have been shown that he owes his present fame more to good fortune than to merit.


Pliny the Elder
Pliny the Elder

Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient author, naturalist or natural philosopher and naval and military commander of some importance who wrote Natural History ....
, who later died during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, dedicated his Naturalis Historia to Titus.

In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil opressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.

Titus in later arts

The war in Judaea and the life of Titus, particularly his relationship with Berenice, have inspired writers and artists through the centuries. The bas-relief in the Arch of Titus has been influential in the depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, with the Menorah frequently being used to symbolise the looting of the Second Temple
Second Temple

The Second Temple was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem which stood between 516 BCE and 70 CE. During this time, it was the center of Judaism worship, which focused on the sacrifices known as the korbanot....
.

Literature
  • Bérénice
    Berenice

    Berenice or Berenike is the Ancient Macedonian language form for Attic Greek Fe?e???? , meaning "bearer of victory", from f??? "to bear" + ???? "victory"....
    , a play by Jean Racine
    Jean Racine

    Jean Racine was a France dramatist, one of the "big three" of 17th century France , and one of the most important literary figures in the Western tradition....
     (1670) which focuses on the love affair between Titus and Berenice.
  • Tite et Bérénice
    Tite et Bérénice

    Tite et B?r?nice is a tragedy by the 17th-century French playwright Pierre Corneille.It was first performed in 1670, the same year as the more famous tragedy on the same theme written by Corneille's rival Jean Racine, B?r?nice....
    , a play by Pierre Corneille
    Pierre Corneille

    File:Pierre Corneille 3.jpgPierre Corneille was a French tragedy who was one of the three great seventeenth Century French dramatists, along with Moli?re and Jean Racine....
     which was in competition with Racine the same year, and concerns the same subject matter.
  • La clemenza di Tito
    La clemenza di Tito

    La clemenza di Tito , K?chel-Verzeichnis 621, is an opera seria composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, with text after Metastasio. It was started after the bulk of The Magic Flute, the last opera that Mozart worked on, was already written ....
    , an opera
    Opera

    Opera is an Performing arts in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work which combines a text and a musical score. Opera is part of the Western classical music tradition....
     by Mozart
    Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

    Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Mozart showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood in Salzburg. Already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty; at seventeen he was engaged as a court musician in Salzburg, but grew restless and traveled in search of a better position, always...
    , about a fictional romance between Emperor Titus and Vitellia, daughter of Vitellius
    Vitellius

    Aulus Vitellius Germanicus, born Aulus Vitellius and commonly known as Vitellius , was a Roman Emperors who reigned from 16 April 69 to 22 December of the same year....
    .
  • The Josephus Trilogy, novels by Lion Feuchtwanger
    Lion Feuchtwanger

    Lion Feuchtwanger was a Germany-Jewish novelist and playwright....
    , about the life of Flavius Josephus
    Josephus

    Josephus , also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu and, after he became a Roman citizenship, as Titus Flavius Josephus, was a first-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and royal ancestry who survived and recorded the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70....
     and his relation with the Flavian dynasty.
    • Der jüdische Krieg (Josephus), 1932
    • Die Söhne (The Jews of Rome), 1935
    • Der Tag wird kommen (The day will come, Josephus and the Emperor), 1942
  • The Marcus Didius Falco
    Marcus Didius Falco

    Marcus Didius Falco is the central character and narrator in a series of novels by Lindsey Davis. Using the conceits of modern detective stories , Davis portrays the world of the Roman Empire under Vespasian....
     novels, which take place during the reign of Vespasian.
  • The Roman Mysteries
    The Roman Mysteries

    The Roman Mysteries is a series of historical novels for children by Caroline Lawrence. The first book, The Thieves of Ostia, was published in 2001, and 17 more novels were planned, plus a number of "mini-mysteries" and companion titles....
    , a series of children's books which take place during the reign of Titus.
  • The High School Latin textbook series Ecce Romani
    Ecce Romani

    Ecce Romani is a series of Latin textbooks. It teaches the Latin language through a series of stories, beginning with introductory Latin and moving on to involve deeper concepts and vocabulary....
     takes place during the reign of Titus.

Paintings
  • The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus by Wilhelm von Kaulbach
    Wilhelm von Kaulbach

    Wilhelm von Kaulbach was a Germany Painting from Bad Arolsen, Waldeck ....
     (1846). Oil on canvas, 585 x 705 cm. Neue Pinakothek, Munich
    Munich

    Munich is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. Munich is located on the River Isar north of the Northern Limestone Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg....
    . An allegorical depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, dramatically centered around the figure of Titus.
  • The Destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem by Nicolas Poussin
    Nicolas Poussin

    Nicolas Poussin was a French Painting in the Classicism style. His work predominantly features clarity, logic, and order, and favors line over color....
     (1637). Oil on canvas, 147 x 198,5 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army led by Titus.
  • The Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem by Francesco Hayez
    Francesco Hayez

    Francesco Hayez was an Italy painter, the leading artist of Romanticism in mid-19th-century Milan, renowned for his grand historical paintings, political allegories and exceptionally fine portraits....
     (1867). Oil on canvas, 183 x 252 cm. Galleria d'Arte Moderna, Venice
    Venice

    Venice is a city in northern Italy, the capital city of the Italian regions Veneto, a population of 271,251 . Together with Padua, Italy, the city is included in the Padua-Venice Metropolitan Area ....
    . Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army.
  • The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans Under the Command of Titus, A.D. 70 by David Roberts
    David Roberts

    David Roberts or Dave Roberts may refer to:...
     (1850). Oil on canvas, 136 x 197 cm. Private collection. Depicts the burning and looting of Jerusalem by the Roman army under Titus.
  • The Triumph of Titus and Vespasian by Giulio Romano
    Giulio Romano

    Giulio Romano was an Italy Painting and Architecture. A prominent pupil of Raffaello Santi, his stylistic deviations from high Renaissance classicism help define the 16th-century style known as Mannerism....
     (1540). Oil on wood, 170 x 120 cm. Louvre
    Louvre

    The Louvre Museum , located in Paris, is a historic monument, and a national museum of France. It is a central landmark, located on the Rive Droite of the Seine in the 1st arrondissement of Paris ....
    , Paris
    Paris

    Paris is the Capital of France and the country's largest city. It is situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the ?le-de-France Regions of France ....
    . Depicts Titus and Vespasian as they ride into Rome on a triumphal chariot, preceded by a parade carrying spoils from the war in Judaea. The painting anachronistically
    Anachronism

    An anachronism is an error in chronology, especially a chronological misplacing of persons, events, objects, or customs in regard to each other....
     features the Arch of Titus, which was not completed until the reign of Domitian.
  • The Triumph of Titus by Lawrence Alma-Tadema
    Lawrence Alma-Tadema

    Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Order of Merit , Royal Academy was one of the most renowned painters of late nineteenth-century United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland....
     (1885). Oil on canvas. Private collection. This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family. Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world. Vespasian, dressed as Pontifex Maximus
    Pontifex Maximus

    The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the Ancient Rome College of Pontiffs. This was the most important position in the Ancient Roman religion, open only to patricians until 254 BC, when a plebeian first occupied this post....
    , walks at the head of his family, followed by Domitian and his first wife Domitia Longina
    Domitia Longina

    Domitia Longina was an Empress and wife to the Roman Emperor Domitian. She was the youngest daughter of the general and Roman consul Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo....
    , who he had only recently married. Behind Domitian follows Titus, dressed in religious regalia. An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair which historians have speculated upon.


Further reading


Primary sources

  • , Latin text with English translation
  • and , English translation
  • Josephus, The War of the Jews, English translation
  • Tacitus, Histories, Books 2, 4 and 5, English translation


Secondary material