Virtue

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Virtue

Virtue (Latin

Latin

Latin is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Military history of the Roman Empire, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe....
virtus; Greek

Greek language

Greek is an Indo-European languages native to the southern Balkan peninsula, the language of the Greek people. It forms an independent branch within Indo-European....
) is moral

Morality

Morality has three principal meanings.In its first, descriptive usage, morality means a code of conduct which is held to be authoritative in matters of right and wrong....
excellence

Excellence

Excellence is the state or quality of excelling. Particularly in the field of business and organizations, excellence is considered to be an important Value theory, and a goal to be pursued....
. Personal virtues are characteristics valued

Value (personal and cultural)

A personal and cultural value is a relative ethic value, an assumption upon which implementation can be extrapolated. A value system is a set of consistent value and measures....
as promoting individual and collective well-being, and thus good by definition. The opposite of virtue is vice

Vice

Vice is a practice or habit considered immoral, depraved, and/or degrading in the associated society. In more minor usage, vice can refer to a fault, a defect, an infirmity or merely a bad habit....
.
ues can be placed into a broader context of values.

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Quotations

Female virtue has been held in suspicion from the beginning of the world, and ever will be.

Napoléon Bonaparte

Virtue consisted in avoiding scandal and venereal disease.

Robert Cecil, Life in Edwardian England, 1969

Virtue does not come from

ink1" href="http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/money">money, but rather from virtue comes money, and all other things good to man." - Socrates

Virtue is the public face of vice.

Leonid S. Sukhorukov, All About Everything (2005)

To be able to practise five things everywhere under heaven constitutes perfect virtue...gravity, generosity of soul, sincerity, earnestness, and kindness.

Confucius, Analects, fifth century B.C.

The problem with people who have no vices is that generally you can be pretty sure they're going to have some pretty annoying virtues.

-Elizabeth Taylor

Encyclopedia

Virtue (Latin

Latin

Greek language

Greek is an Indo-European languages native to the southern Balkan peninsula, the language of the Greek people. It forms an independent branch within Indo-European....
) is moral

Morality

Morality has three principal meanings.In its first, descriptive usage, morality means a code of conduct which is held to be authoritative in matters of right and wrong....
excellence

Excellence

Value (personal and cultural)

Vice

Virtues and values

Virtues can be placed into a broader context of values. Each individual

Individual

As vernacular, individual refers to a person or to any specific object in a collection. In the 15th century and earlier, and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics, individual means "indivisible", typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a person." ....
has a core of underlying values that contribute to our system of beliefs, ideas and/or opinions (see value

Value (semiotics)

In semiotics, the value of a sign depends on its position and relations in the system of signification and upon the particular code being used....
in semiotics

Semiotics

'Semiotics, also called semiotic studies or semiology, is the study of sign processes , or signification and communication, sign and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems....
). Integrity in the application of a value ensures its continuity and this continuity separates a value from beliefs, opinion and ideas. In this context a value (e.g., Truth or Equality or Greed) is the core from which we operate or react. Societies have values that are shared among many of the participants in that culture. An individual's values typically are largely, but not entirely, in agreement with their culture's values.

Individual virtues can be grouped into one of four categories of values:

Ethics
Ethics

Ethics is a word for a philosophy that encompasses proper conduct and good living. It is significantly broader than the common conception of ethics as the analyzing of right and wrong....
(virtue - vice
Vice

Vice is a practice or habit considered immoral, depraved, and/or degrading in the associated society. In more minor usage, vice can refer to a fault, a defect, an infirmity or merely a bad habit....
, good - bad, moral
Morality

Morality has three principal meanings.In its first, descriptive usage, morality means a code of conduct which is held to be authoritative in matters of right and wrong....
- immoral - amoral
Amorality

Amoralism is the disbelief in any of the concepts of morality....
, right - wrong, permissible
Permission

Permission, in philosophy, is the attribute of a person whose performance of a specific philosophy of action, otherwise ethically wrong, would thereby involve no ethical fault....
- impermissible)
Aesthetics
Aesthetics

Aesthetics or esthetics is commonly known as the study of senses or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste ....
(beautiful
Beauty

Beauty is a characteristic of a person, Location , Object , or idea that provides a perception experience of pleasure, Value , or satisfaction....
, ugly, unbalanced, pleasing)
Doctrinal
Doctrine

Doctrine is a codification of beliefs or "a body of teachers" or "instructions", taught principles or positions, as the body of teachings in a branch of knowledge or belief system....
(political
Politics

Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions. The term is generally applied to behaviour within civil governments, but politics has been observed in all human group interactions, including corporation, academia, and religion institutions....
, ideological
Ideology

An ideology is a set of aims and ideas, especially in politics. An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things , as in common sense and several philosophical tendencies , or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to all members of this society....
, religious
Religion

A religion is an organized approach to human spirituality which usually encompasses a set of myth, symbols, beliefs and practices, often with a supernatural or transcendence quality, that give meaning to the practitioner's experiences of life through reference to a higher power or truth....
or social
Social

Social refers to a characteristic of living organisms . It always refers to the interaction of organisms with other organisms and to their collective co-existence, irrespective of whether they are aware of it or not, and irrespective of whether the interaction is voluntary or involuntary....
belief
Belief

Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a proposition or premise to be true....
s and values)
Innate/Inborn (inborn values such as reproduction
Biological reproduction

Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms are produced. Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction....
and survival
Survival skills

Survival skills are techniques a person may utilize for an indefinite duration in order to survive a dangerous situation . Generally speaking, these techniques are meant to provide the basic human needs for human life: fire, water, food, shelter, habitat, AND the needs to think straight, to signal for help, to navigate safely'...
)

A wide variety of qualities have been named as virtues.

Four classic Western virtues

The four classic Western Cardinal virtues

Cardinal virtues

In some Christian traditions, there are four cardinal virtues:*Prudence - able to judge between actions with regard to appropriate actions at a given time...
are:

temperance
Temperance (virtue)

Temperance is the practice of moderation. It was one of the four "cardinal" virtues held to be vital to society in Ancient Greece culture. It is one of the Four Cardinal Virtues considered central to Christian behaviour by the Catholic Church and is an important tenet of the moral codes of other world religions—for example, it is...
: (sophrosyne)
prudence
Prudence

Prudence is the exercise of sound judgment in practical affairs. It is classically considered to be a virtue, and in particular one of the four Cardinal virtues ....
: (phronesis)
fortitude : (andreia)
justice
Justice (virtue)

Justice is one of the four cardinal virtues in classical European philosophy and Roman Catholicism. It is the moderation between selfishness and selflessness....
: (dikaiosyne)

This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy, and was listed at least by Plato

Plato

Plato , was a Classical Greece Greeks philosopher, mathematician, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Platonic Academy in Ancient Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the western world....
, if not also by Socrates

Socrates

Socrates was a Classical Greece Philosophy. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known only through the classical accounts of his students....
, from whom no attributable written works exist. Plato also mentions "Holiness".

It is likely that Plato believed that virtue was, in fact, a single thing, and that this enumeration was created by others in order to better define virtue. In Protagoras

Protagoras (dialogue)

Protagoras is a dialogue of Plato. The main argument is between the elderly Protagoras, a celebrated sophist, and Socrates. The discussion takes place at the home of Callias, who is host to Protagoras while he is in town, and concerns a familiar theme in the dialogues: the teaching of virtue....
and Meno

Meno

Meno is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato. Written in the Socratic method, it attempts to determine the definition of virtue, or arete , meaning in this case virtue in general, rather than particular virtues ....
, he states that the separate virtues can't exist independently, and offers as evidence the contradictions of acting with wisdom (prudence), yet in an unjust way, or acting with bravery (fortitude), yet without knowing (prudence).

Aristotle's golden mean

In the Nicomachean Ethics

Nicomachean Ethics

Nicomachean Ethics, or Ta Ethika, is a work by Aristotle on virtue and moral character which plays a prominent role in defining Aristotelian ethics....
, Aristotle describes every virtue as a balance point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait. The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, but at a "golden mean" sometimes closer to one extreme than the other. For example, courage is the mean between cowardice and foolhardiness, confidence the mean between self-deprecation and vanity, and generosity the mean between miserliness and extravagance.

Prudence and virtue

Seneca

Seneca the Younger

Lucius Annaeus Seneca was a Ancient Rome Stoicism philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature....
, the Roman Stoic

STOIC

STOIC was a variant of Forth .It started out at the MIT and Harvard Biomedical Engineering Centre in Boston, and was written in February 1977 by Jonathan Sachs....
, said that perfect prudence

Prudence

Prudence is the exercise of sound judgment in practical affairs. It is classically considered to be a virtue, and in particular one of the four Cardinal virtues ....
is indistinguishable from perfect virtue. Thus, in considering all consequences, a prudent person would act in the same way as a virtuous person.

The same rationale was followed by Plato in Meno, when he wrote that people only act for what they perceive will maximize the good. It is the lack of wisdom which results in the making of a bad choice, rather than a good one. In this way, wisdom is the central part of virtue. However, he realized that if virtue was synonymous with wisdom, then it could be taught, a possibility he had earlier discounted. He then added "correct belief" as an alternative to knowledge, proposing that knowledge is merely correct belief that has been thought through and "tethered".

Roman virtues

Auctoritas
Auctoritas

Auctoritas is a Latin word and is the origin of English "authority." While historically its use in English was restricted to discussions of the political history of Rome, the beginning of Phenomenology philosophy in the twentieth century changed the use of the word substantially....
— "Spiritual Authority" — The sense of one's social standing, built up through experience, Pietas, and Industria.
Comitas
Comitas

Comitas is a genus of medium-sized sea snails, Marine gastropod molluscs in the family Turridae....
— "Humour" — Ease of manner, courtesy, openness, and friendliness.
Constantinum — "Perseverance" — Military stamina, mental and physical endurance.
Clementia
Clementia

In Roman mythology, Clementia was the goddess of forgiveness and mercy. She was deified as a celebrated virtue of Julius Caesar, who was famed for his forbearance....
— "Mercy" — Mildness and gentleness.
Dignitas — "Dignity" — A sense of self-worth, personal pride.
Disciplina
Disciplina

In Roman mythology, Disciplina was a minor deity and the personification of discipline. The word disciplina itself, a Latin noun, is multi-faceted in meaning; it refers to education and training, self-control and determination, knowledge in a field of study, and an orderly way of life....
— "Discipline" — Military oath under Roman protective law & citizenship.
Firmitas — "Tenacity" — Strength of mind, the ability to stick to one's purpose.
Frugalitas — "Frugalness" — Economy and simplicity of style, without being miserly.
Gravitas
Gravitas

'Gravitas' is a quality of substance or depth of personality.Gravitas is one of the several Roman virtues expected Man to possess, along with pietas , Dignitas , and Justice ....
— "Gravity" — A sense of the importance of the matter at hand, responsibility and earnestness.
Honestas — "Respectability" — The image that one presents as a respectable member of society.
Humanitas
Humanitas

The word humanitas was created by Cicero to describe a good human. In Cicero's opinion it was a necessity for the education in the classics studies....
— "Humanity" — Refinement, civilization, learning, and being cultured.
Industria
Industria

Industria can refer to:* Industria , a Colonia of Ancient Rome, ancestral to Monteu da Po in the Province of Turin, Italy.* Industria , a sans-serif typeface designed by Neville Brody in 1984....
— "Industriousness" — Hard work.
Iustitia — "Justice" — Sense of moral worth to an action.
Pietas
Pietas

Pietas was one of the Ancient Rome virtues, along with gravitas and Dignitas . Pietas is usually translated as "duty" or "devotion," and it simultaneously suggests duty to the gods and duty to family - particularly to the father ....
— "Dutifulness" — More than religious piety; a respect for the natural order socially, politically, and religiously. Includes the ideas of patriotism and devotion to others.
Prudentia — "Prudence" — Foresight, wisdom, and personal discretion.
Salubritas — "Wholesomeness" — Health and cleanliness.
Severitas — "Sternness" — Gravity, self-control.
Veritas
Veritas

In Roman mythology, Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn and the mother of Virtue. It was believed that she hid in the bottom of a holy well because she was so elusive....
— "Truthfulness" — Honesty in dealing with others.

Abrahamic religions

The Jewish tradition

In the Jewish tradition

Judaism

Judaism is a set of beliefs and practices originating in the Hebrew Bible , as later further explored and explained in the Talmud and other texts....
God

God

God is a deity in theism and deism religions and other belief systems, representing either the sole deity in monotheism, or a principal deity in polytheism....
is the Compassionate and is invoked as the Father of Compassion: hence Ra?mana or Compassionate becomes the usual designation for His revealed word. (Compare, below, the frequent use of ra?man in the Qur'an

Qur'an

The Qur?an is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe the Qur?an to be the book of divine guidance and direction for mankind, and consider the original Arabic text to be the final revelation of God....
).

Sorrow and pity for one in distress, creating a desire to relieve, is a feeling ascribed alike to man and God: in Biblical Hebrew, ("ri?am," from "re?em," the mother, womb), "to pity" or "to show mercy" in view of the sufferer's helplessness, hence also "to forgive" (Hab. iii. 2); , "to forbear" (Ex. ii. 6; I Sam. xv. 3; Jer. xv. 15, xxi. 7.) The Rabbi

Rabbi

Rabbi , in Judaism, means a religious ?teacher?, or more literally, ?my great one?, when addressing any master. The word rabbi derives from the Hebrew root word , rav, which in biblical Hebrew means ?great?, used in many senses, including the sense of a ?master? and apprentice, whence someone who is a distinguished ?teacher?....
s speak of the "thirteen attributes of compassion." The Biblical

Hebrew Bible

The term Hebrew Bible is a generic reference to those books of the Bible originally written mostly in Biblical Hebrew with some Biblical Aramaic....
conception of compassion is the feeling of the parent for the child. Hence the prophet's appeal in confirmation of his trust in God invokes the feeling of a mother for her offspring (Isa. xlix. 15).

Lack of compassion, by contrast, marks a people as cruel (Jer. vi. 23). The repeated injunctions of the Law and the Prophet

Prophet

In religion, a prophet is a person who has claimed to have encountered the supernatural or the Divinity, often one who serves as an intermediary with humanity....
s that the widow, the orphan and the stranger should be protected show how deeply, it is argued, the feeling of compassion was rooted in the hearts of the righteous in ancient Israel.

A classic articulation of the Golden Rule (see above) came from the first century Rabbi Hillel the Elder

Hillel the Elder

Hillel was a famous Jewish religious leader, one of the most important figures in Jewish history. He is associated with the development of the Mishnah and the Talmud....
. Renowned in the Jewish tradition as a sage and a scholar, he is associated with the development of the Mishnah

Mishnah

The Mishnah or Mishna is a major work of Rabbinic literature, and the first major redaction into written form of Jewish oral traditions, called the Oral Torah....
and the Talmud

Talmud

The Talmud is a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Halakha, Jewish ethics, customs, and history. It is a central text of mainstream Judaism....
and, as such, one of the most important figures in Jewish history

Jewish history

Jewish history is the history of the Jewish people, Judaism, and Jewish culture. Since Jewish history encompasses nearly four thousand years and hundreds of different populations, any treatment can only be provided in broad strokes....
. Asked for a summary of the Jewish religion in the most concise terms, Hillel replied (reputedly while standing on one leg): "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah. The rest is the explanation; go and learn."

Post 9/11, the words of Rabbi Hillel are frequently quoted in public lectures and interviews around the world by the prominent writer on comparative religion Karen Armstrong

Karen Armstrong

Karen Armstrong is a British author of numerous works on comparative religion, who first rose to prominence with her highly successful A History of God....
.

The Christian tradition

In Christianity

Christianity

Christianity is a Monotheistic religion #Christian view religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus as New Testament view on Jesus' life....
, the theological virtues are faith

Faith

Faith is the confident belief in the truth of or trustworthiness of a person, idea, or thing. It is also used for a belief, characteristically without proof....
, hope

Hope

Hope is a belief in a positive outcome related to events and circumstances in one's life. Hope is the feeling that what is wanted can be had or that events will turn out for the best....
and charity

Charity (virtue)

In Christian theology charity, or Love #Christian , means an unlimited loving-kindness toward all others.The term should not be confused with the more restricted modern use of the word charity to mean benevolent giving....
or love

Love

Love is any of a number of emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong affection and attachment . The word wikt:en:love can refer to a variety of different feelings, states, and attitudes, ranging from generic pleasure to intense interpersonal attraction....
/agape

Agape

Agape , is one of several Greek words for love. The word has been used in different ways by a variety of contemporary and ancient sources, including Bible authors....
, a list which comes from 1 Corinthians 13:13 (???? de µe?e? p?st?? e?p?? a?ap? ta t??a ta?ta µe???? de t??t?? ? a?ap? pistis, elpis, agape). These are said to perfect one's love of God and Man and therefore to harmonize and partake of prudence

Prudence

Prudence is the exercise of sound judgment in practical affairs. It is classically considered to be a virtue, and in particular one of the four Cardinal virtues ....
.

There are many listings of virtue additional to the traditional Christian virtues (faith, hope and love) in the Christian Bible. One is the so-called "Fruit of the Spirit," found in Galatians 5:22-23:

"By contrast, the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, generosity, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. There is no law against such things."

The Holy Bible : New Revised Standard Version (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1989).

22 ? d? ?a?p?? t?? p?e?µat?? ?st?? ???p? ?a?? e?????, µa?????µ?a ???st?t?? ??a??s???, p?st?? 23 p?a?t?? ?????te?a· ?at? t?? t????t?? ??? ?st?? ??µ??. Barbara Aland, Kurt Aland, Matthew Black, Carlo M. Martini, Bruce M. Metzger and Allen Wikgren, The Greek New Testament, 4th ed. (Federal Republic of Germany: United Bible Societies, 1993, c1979).

The Muslim tradition

In the Muslim tradition the Qur'an

Qur'an

Muhammad

Muhammad Patronymic#Arabic Abd Allah ibn Abd al Muttalib , is the founder of the Major religious groups of Islam and is regarded by Muslims as a Rasul and prophet of , the last and the greatest law-bearer in a series of prophets....
, particularly via his hadiths or reported sayings, the exemplar of virtue in human form.

The very name of Islam, meaning "acceptance," proclaims the virtue of submission to the will of God, the acceptance of the way things are. Foremost among God's

Allah

Allah is the standard Arabic language word for God. While the term is best known in the Western world for its use by Muslims as a reference to God, it is used by Arabic-speakers of all Abrahamic faiths, including Christians and Jews, in reference to "God"....
attributes are mercy and compassion

Compassion

Compassion is commonly defined as a profound human emotion prompted by the suffering of others. More vigorous than empathy, the feeling commonly gives rise to an active desire to alleviate another's suffering....
or, in the canonical language of Arabic, Rahman and Rahim. Each of the 114 chapters of the Qur'an

Qur'an

The Qur?an is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe the Qur?an to be the book of divine guidance and direction for mankind, and consider the original Arabic text to be the final revelation of God....
, with one exception, begins with the verse, "In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful".

The Arabic for compassion is rahmah. As a cultural influence, its roots abound in the Qur'an. A good muslim is to commence each day, each prayer and each significant action by invoking God the Merciful and Compassionate, i.e. by reciting Bi Ism-i-Allah al-Rahman al-Rahim. The Muslim scriptures urge compassion towards captives as well as to widows, orphans and the poor. Traditionally, Zakat, a toll tax to help the poor and needy, was obligatory upon all muslims (9:60). One of the practical purposes of fasting or sawm

Sawm

Sawm is an Arabic language word for fasting regulated by Islamic jurisprudence. In the terminology of Islamic law, Sawm means "to abstain from eating, drinking and sexual intercourse"....
during the month of Ramadan

Ramadan

Rama?an is an Islamic religious observance that takes place during the ninth month of the Islamic calendar; the month in which the Qur'an was revealed to the Prophet of Islam Muhammad....
is to help one empathize with the hunger pangs of those less fortunate, to enhance sensitivity to the suffering of others and develop compassion for the poor and destitute.

The Muslim virtues are: prayer, repentance, honesty, loyalty, sincerity, frugality, prudence, moderation, self-restraint, discipline, perseverance, patience, hope, dignity, courage, justice, tolerance, wisdom, good speech, respect, purity, courtesy, kindness, gratitude, generosity and contentment.

Hindu virtues

Hinduism, or Sanatana Dharma

Sanatana Dharma

The Sanskrit term Sanatana Dharma or Dharmam Sanatanam , lit. "the way of life", is an epithet used natively in Indian Religions, notably Hinduism and early Buddhism to collectively refer to their religious practices and beliefs respectively....
(Dharma means moral duty), has pivotal virtues that everyone keeping their Dharma is asked to follow. For they are distinct qualities of manusya (mankind), that allow one to be in the mode of goodness. There are three modes of material nature (guna), as described in the Vedas and other Indian Scriptures: Sattva (goodness, creation, stillness, intelligence), Rajas (passion, maintenance, energy, activity) , and Tamas (ignorance, restraint, inertia, destruction). Every person harbours a mixture of these modes in varying degrees. A person in the mode of Sattva has that mode in prominence in his nature, which he obtains by following the virtues of the Dharma .

The modes of Sattva are as following.

Altruism
Altruism

Altruism is the deliberate pursuit of the interests or welfare of others or the public interest....
: Selfless Service to all humanity
Restraint
Restraint

Restraint may refer to:* Physical restraint, the practice of rendering people helpless or keeping them in captivity by means such as handcuffs, ropes, straps, etc....
and Moderation
Moderation

Moderation is the process of eliminating or lessening extremes. It is used to ensure Assimilation throughout the medium on which it is being conducted....
: This is having restraint and moderation in all things. Sexual relations, eating, and other pleasurable activities should be kept in moderation. Some orthodox followers also believe in sex only in marriage, and being chaste. It depends on the sect and belief system, some people believe this means celibacy... While others believe in walking the golden path of moderation, i.e. Not to far to the side of forceful control and total abandon of human pleasures, but also not too far to the side of total indulgence and total abandon for moderation.
Honesty
Honesty

Honesty is the human quality of communicating and acting truthfully, in accordance with a sense of fairness and sincerity. This includes all varieties of communication, both verbal and non-verbal....
: One is require to be honest with themselves, honest to their family, friends, and all of humanity.
Cleanliness
Cleanliness

Cleanliness is the absence of dirt, including dust, stains, bad odour and garbage. Purposes of cleanliness include health, beauty, absence of offensive odor, avoidance of shame, and to avoid the spreading of dirt and contaminants to oneself and others....
: Outer cleaniness is to be cultivated for good health and hygiene, inner cleaniness is cultivated through devotion to god, selflessness, non-violence and all the other virtues; which is maintained by refraining from intoxicants.
Protection
Protection

Protection may refer to:*Protection *Protection *Protection *Protection *Protection *Protection, Kansas ...
and reverence for the Earth.
Universality
Universalism

Universalism refers to theological religion, theology and philosophy concepts with universal application or applicability. It is a term used to identify particular doctrines as considering of all people in their formation....
: Showing tolerance and respect for everyone, everything and the way of the Universe.
Peace
Peace

Peace is a term that most commonly refers to an absence of aggression, violence or hostility, but which also represents a larger concept wherein there are healthy or newly-healed interpersonal relationship or international relations, safety in matters of social or economic welfare, the acknowledgment of equality and fairness in political re...
: One must cultivate a peaceful manner in order to benefit themselves and those around them.
Non-Violence/Ahimsa: This means not killing, or being violent in any way to any life form or sentient being. This is why those who practice this Dharma are vegetarians because they see the slaughter of animals for the purpose of food as violent, when there are less violent ways to maintain a healthy diet.
Reverence
Reverence

Reverence is to show extreme honor and respect for something or someone.Reverence may also refer to:*Reverence , the first album by the band Faithless...
for elders and teachers: This is virtue is very important to learn respect and reverence for those who have wisdom and those who selflessly teach in love. The Guru or spiritual teacher is one of the highest principals in many Vedic based spiritualities, and is likened to that of God.

The Buddhist tradition

Buddhist practice as outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path

Noble Eightfold Path

The Noble Eightfold Path is one of the principal Dharma of Gautama Buddha, who described it as the way leading to the cessation of suffering and the achievement of self-awakening....
can be regarded as a progressive list of virtues.

Right View - Realizing the Four Noble Truths
Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths are one of the most fundamental Buddhism teachings. In broad terms, these truths relate to suffering's nature, origin, cessation and the path leading to the cessation....
Right Intention - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation
Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way
Right Action - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm
Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly
Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve
Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness
Right Concentration - Wholesome one-pointedness of mind

Buddhism's four brahmavihara
Brahmavihara

The four Brahmaviharas are a series of virtues and Buddhism meditation practices designed to cultivate those virtues. Brahmavihara is a term in Pali and Sanskrit meaning ?Brahma abidings?, or "Sublime attitudes." They are also known as the Four Immeasurables ....
("Divine States") can be more properly regarded as virtues in the European sense. They are:

Metta
Metta

Metta or maitri has been translated as "loving-kindness," "friendliness," "benevolence," "amity," "friendship," "good will," "kindness," "love," "sympathy," and "active interest in others." It is one of the ten paramita of the Theravada Schools of Buddhism, and the first of the four Brahmavihara....
/Maitri: loving-kindness towards all; the hope that a person will be well; loving kindness is "the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy."
Karuna
Karuna

Karua is generally translated as "compassion" or "pity". It is part of the spiritual path of both Buddhism and Jainism....
: compassion; the hope that a person's sufferings will diminish; compassion is the "wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering."
Mudita
Mudita

Mudita is a Buddhist word meaning rejoicing in others' joy. Mudita is sometimes considered to be the opposite of schadenfreude.The term mudita is usually translated as "sympathetic" or "altruistic" joy, the pleasure that comes from delighting in other people's well-being rather than begrudging it....
: altruistic joy in the accomplishments of a person, oneself or other; sympathetic joy, "is the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and virtues of all sentient beings."
Upekkha/Upeksha
Upeksa

, is the Buddhism concept of equanimity. The Tibetan equivalent is ?????????? btang snyoms. This is a purifying mental state cultivated through meditation on the Buddhist path to praj?a and bodhi ....
: equanimity, or learning to accept both loss and gain, praise and blame, success and failure with detachment, equally, for oneself and for others; equanimity means "not to distinguish between friend, enemy or stranger, but regard every sentient being as equal. It is a clear-minded tranquil state of mind - not being overpowered by delusions, mental dullness or agitation."

There are also the Paramitas ("perfections").

In Theravada

Theravada

Theravada...
Buddhism

Buddhism

Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices considered by most to be a religionand is based on the teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as "The Buddha" , who was born in what is today Nepal....
's canonical

Pali Canon

The Pali Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhism tradition, as preserved in the Pali. It is the only completely surviving Early Buddhist schools canon, and one of the first to be written down....
Buddhavamsa

Buddhavamsa

The Buddhavamsa is a Buddhist scripture, part of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism. It is included there in the Sutta Pitaka's Khuddaka Nikaya....
the Ten Perfections (dasa paramiyo) are (original terms in Pali):

Dana
Dana

Dana may refer to:...
parami : generosity, giving of oneself
Sila
Sila

Sila or sila is usually rendered into English as "virtue"; other translations include "good conduct," "morality" "moral discipline." and "precept." It is an action that is an intentional effort....
parami : virtue, morality, proper conduct
Nekkhamma
Nekkhamma

Nekkhamma is a Pali word generally translated as "renunciation" while also conveying more specifically "giving up the world and leading a holy life" or "freedom from lust, craving and desires." In Buddhism's Noble Eightfold Path, nekkhamma is the first practice associated with "Right Intention." In the Theravada list of ten Paramita...
parami : renunciation
Pañña
Panna

Panna can refer to:* Aam panna, an Indian drink made from mangoes* Panna, India, a city in the state of Madhya Pradesh* Panna , a genus of fish in the family Sciaenidae...
parami : transcendental wisdom, insight
Viriya (also spelt viriya) parami : energy, diligence, vigour, effort
Khanti parami : patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance
Sacca
Sacca

Sacca is a Pali word meaning "real" or "true." In early Buddhism literature, sacca is often found in the context of the "Four Noble Truths," a crystallization of Buddhist wisdom....
parami : truthfulness, honesty
(adhitthana) parami : determination, resolution
Metta
Metta

Metta or maitri has been translated as "loving-kindness," "friendliness," "benevolence," "amity," "friendship," "good will," "kindness," "love," "sympathy," and "active interest in others." It is one of the ten paramita of the Theravada Schools of Buddhism, and the first of the four Brahmavihara....
parami : loving-kindness
Upekkha (also spelt upekha) parami : equanimity, serenity

In Mahayana

Mahayana

Mahayana is one of the two main existing schools of Buddhism and a term for classification of Buddhist philosophy and practice. It was History of Buddhism in India....
Buddhism, the Lotus Sutra

Lotus Sutra

The Lotus Sutra or Sutra on the White Sacred lotus of the Sublime Dharma is one of the most popular and influential Mahayana sutras in Asia and the basis on which the Tien Tai and Nichiren Buddhism sects of Buddhism were established....
(Saddharmapundarika), lists the Six Perfections as (original terms in Sanskrit):

Dana
Dana

Dana may refer to:...
paramita: generosity, giving of oneself (in Chinese, ?????)
Sila
Sila

Sila or sila is usually rendered into English as "virtue"; other translations include "good conduct," "morality" "moral discipline." and "precept." It is an action that is an intentional effort....
paramita : virtue, morality, discipline, proper conduct
Kshanti

Kshanti or or khanti has been translated as patience, forbearance and forgiveness. It is one of the practices of perfection of both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism....
(kshanti) paramita : patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance
Virya
Virya

Virya is a Sanskrit word which can be translated into English as "effort," "vigor," "diligence," "zeal, and "energy."In Buddhism, virya is one of the five controlling faculties , one of the five powers , one of the six or ten paramitas, one of the seven factors of enlightenment and is identical with right effort of the Noble Eightfold...
paramita : energy, diligence, vigour, effort
Dhyana
Dhyana

Dhyana or jhana in Pali refers to a stage of meditation, which is a subset of samadhi. It is a key concept in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism....
paramita : one-pointed concentration, contemplation
Prajña
Prajña

Praj?a or pa??a has been translated as "wisdom," "understanding," "discernment," "cognitive acuity," or "know-how." In some sects of Buddhism, it especially refers to the wisdom that is based on the direct realization of the Four Noble Truths, anicca, interdependent origination, anatta, shunyata, etc....
paramita : wisdom, insight

In the Ten Stages (Dasabhumika) Sutra, four more Paramitas are listed:

7. Upaya
Upaya

Upaya is a term in Mahayana Buddhism which comes from the word upavi and refers to something which goes or brings you up to something . The term is often used with kaushalya ; upaya-kaushalya means roughly "skill in means"....
paramita: skillful means

8. (pranidhana) paramita: vow, resolution, aspiration, determination

9. Bala paramita: spiritual power

10. Jñana
Jnana

J?ana or g?ana is the Sanskrit term for knowledge or philosophy.In Buddhism, it refers to pure awareness that is free of conceptual encumbrances, and is contrasted with vijnana, which is a moment of 'divided knowing'....
paramita: knowledge

Virtue in Chinese philosophy

"Virtue", translated from Chinese de

De (Chinese)

De is a key concept in Chinese philosophy, usually translated "inherent character; inner power; integrity" in Taoism, "moral character; virtue; morality" in Confucianism and other contexts, and "quality; virtue" or "merit; virtuous deeds" in Chinese Buddhism....
, is also an important concept in Chinese philosophy

Chinese philosophy

Chinese philosophy is philosophy written in the China Chinese culture of thought. Chinese philosophy has a history of several thousand years; its origins are often traced back to the I Ching , an ancient compendium of divination, which uses a system of 64 hexagrams to guide action....
, particularly Daoism. De originally meant normative "virtue" in the sense of "personal character; inner strength; integrity", but semantically changed to moral "virtue; kindness; morality". Note the semantic parallel for English virtue, with an archaic meaning of "inner potency; divine power" (as in "by virtue of") and a modern one of "moral excellence; goodness".

Confucian moral manifestations of "virtue" include ren
Confucianism

Confucianism is a China Ethics and Philosophy developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . It focuses on human morality and right action....
("humanity

Human nature

Human nature is the concept that there are a set of characteristics, including ways of thinking, feeling and acting, that all 'normal' human beings have in common....
"), xiao
Xiao

Xiao may refer to:* Xi?o, ?filial piety", or "being good to parents", a virtue* Xiao , a Chinese end-blown flute* Xiao , a rank used for field officers in the Chinese military...
("filial piety

Filial piety

In Confucianism ideals, filial piety is one of the virtues to be held above all else: a respect for the parents and ancestors. The Confucian classic Xiao Jing or Classic of Xi?o, thought to be written around 470 B.C.E., has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of xi?o / "filial piety"....
"), and zhong
Zhong

Zhong can refer to* Zhong * Zhong County, a county of Chongqing, China* Bianzhong, a Chinese musical instrument similar to a bell* Gaiwan, a 3-piece tea brewing vessel, also know as a gaiwan....
("loyalty

Loyalty

Loyalty is faithfulness or a devotion to a person or cause....
") In Confucianism

Confucianism

Confucianism is a China Ethics and Philosophy developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . It focuses on human morality and right action....
the notion of ren

Confucianism

Confucianism is a China Ethics and Philosophy developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . It focuses on human morality and right action....
according to Simon Leys means "humanity" and "goodness". Originally ren

Confucianism

Confucianism is a China Ethics and Philosophy developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . It focuses on human morality and right action....
had the archaic meaning in the Confucian Book of Poems of "virility", then progressively took on shades of ethical meaning. (On the origins and transformations of this concept see Lin Yu-sheng: "The evolution of the pre-Confucian meaning of jen and the Confucian concept of moral autonomy," Monumenta Serica, vol31, 1974-75.)

The Daoist concept of De, however, is more subtle, pertaining to the "virtue" or ability that an individual realizes by following the Dao

Tao

Tao is a concept found in Taoism, Confucianism, and more generally in ancient Chinese philosophy. While the character itself translates as 'way', 'path', or 'route', or sometimes more loosely as 'doctrine' or 'principle', it is used philosophically to signify the fundamental or true nature of the world....
("the Way"). One important normative value in much of Chinese thinking is that one's social status should result from the amount of virtue that one demonstrates rather than from one's birth. In the Analects, Confucius

Confucius

This articles talks about a Chinese thinker and social philosopher. For a food company in China with its brand name "Master Kong", please refer to Tingyi Holding Corporation....
explains de: "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it."

Chinese Martial Morality

Morality of deed

Humility
Humility

Humility, or being humble, is the defining characteristic of an unpretentious and modesty person, someone who does not think that he or she is better or more important than others....
(Qian Xu; ??)
Loyalty
Loyalty

Loyalty is faithfulness or a devotion to a person or cause....
(Zhong Cheng; ??)
Respect
Respect

Respect is esteem for, or a sense of the worth or excellence of, a person, a personal quality, ability, or a manifestation of a personal quality or ability....
(Zun Jing; ??)
Righteousness
Righteousness

Righteousness is an important Theology concept in Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. It is an attribute that implies that a person's actions are justified, and can have the connotation that the person has been "judged" or "reckoned" as leading a life that is pleasing to God....
(Zheng Yi; ??)
Trust (Xin Yong; ??)

Morality of mind

Courage
Courage

Courage, also known as bravery, will, intrepidity, and fortitude, is the ability to confront fear, pain, Risk, uncertainty, or intimidation....
(Yong Gan; ??)
Endurance
Endurance

Endurance is the ability for humans to exert themselves for long period of time. Usually used in aerobic exercise or anaerobic exercise. The definition of 'long' varies according to the type of exertion - minutes for high intensity anaerobic exercise, hours or days for low intensity....
(Ren Nai; ??)
Patience
Patience

Patience is the state of endurance under difficult circumstances, which can mean persevering in the face of delay or provocation without becoming annoyed or upset; or exhibiting forbearance when under strain, especially when faced with longer-term difficulties....
(Heng Xin; ??)
Perseverance
Perseverance

Perseverance is a term for human endurance and autonomy which may refer to:*Perseverance , an album by metalcore band Hatebreed*Perseverance , an album by rapper Percee P...
(Yi Li; ??)
Will
Will

Will may refer to:* Will **Shall and will, comparison of the two verbs* Will , a legal document expressing the desires of the author with regard to the disposition of property after the author's death....
(Yi Zhi; ??)

Samurai values

In Hagakure

Hagakure

Hagakure , or is a practical and spiritual guide for a warrior, drawn from a collection of commentaries by the samurai, Yamamoto Tsunetomo, former retainer to Nabeshima Mitsushige, the third ruler of what is now the Saga prefecture in Japan....
, the quintessential book of the samurai

Samurai

is the term for the military nobility of Pre-industrial society Japan. According to translator William Scott Wilson: "In Chinese, the character ? was originally a verb meaning to wait upon or accompany a person in the upper ranks of society, and this is also true of the original term in Japanese, saburau....
, Yamamoto Tsunetomo encapsulates his views on 'virtue' in the four vows he makes daily:

Never to be outdone in the way of the samurai or Bushido
Bushido

, meaning "Way of the Warrior", is a Japanese code of conduct and a way of the samurai life, loosely analogous to the concept of chivalry. It originates from the samurai moral code and stresses frugality, loyalty, martial arts mastery, and honour until death....
To be of good use to the master.
To be filial to my parents.
To manifest great compassion, and act for the sake of Man.

Tsunetomo goes on to say:

If one dedicates these four vows to the gods and Buddhas every morning, he will have the strength of two men and never slip backward. One must edge forward like the inchworm, bit by bit. The gods and Buddhas, too, first started with a vow.

Nietzsche on virtue

Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche

Friedrich Nietzsche

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche was a 19th century philosophy Germans philosophy and classical philology. He wrote critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy, and science, using a distinctive German language style and displaying a fondness for metaphor and aphorism....
often took a more cynical view on virtue. A few of his key thoughts:

"One virtue is more of a virtue than two, because it is more of a knot for one's destiny to cling to."
"Virtue itself is offensive."
"When virtue has slept, it will arise all the more vigorous."
"Genuine honesty, assuming that this is our virtue and we cannot get rid of it, we free spirits – well then, we will want to work on it with all the love and malice at our disposal and not get tired of ‘perfecting’ ourselves in our virtue, the only one we have left: may its glory come to rest like a gilded, blue evening glow of mockery over this aging culture and its dull and dismal seriousness!" (Beyond Good and Evil
Beyond Good and Evil

Beyond Good and Evil , subtitled "Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future" , is a book by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, first published in 1886....
, §227)

Virtues according to Benjamin Franklin
These are the virtues that Benjamin Franklin used to develop what he called 'moral perfection'. He had a checklist in a notebook to measure each day how he lived up to his virtues.

They became known through Benjamin Franklin's autobiography and inspired many people all around the world. Authors and speakers in the self-help movement report being influenced by him, for example Anthony Robbins who based a part of his 'Date with Destiny' seminar on Franklin's concept.

1. Temperance. Eat not to Dullness Drink not to Elevation.

2. Silence. Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself. Avoid trifling Conversation.

3. Order. Let all your Things have their Places. Let each Part of your Business have its Time.

4. Resolution. Resolve to perform what you ought. Perform without fail what you resolve.

5. Frugality. Make no Expense but to do good to others or yourself: i.e. Waste nothing.

6. Industry. Lose no Time. Be always employ'd in something useful. Cut off all unnecessary Actions.

7. Sincerity. Use no hurtful Deceit. Think innocently and justly; and, if you speak, speak accordingly.

8. Justice. Wrong none, by doing Injuries or omitting the Benefits that are your Duty.

9. Moderation. Avoid Extremes. Forbear resenting Injuries so much as you think they deserve.

10. Cleanliness. Tolerate no Uncleanness in Body, Clothes or Habitation.

11. Tranquillity. Be not disturbed at Trifles, or at Accidents common or unavoidable.

12. Chastity. Rarely use Venery but for Health or Offspring; Never to Dullness, Weakness, or the Injury of your own or another's Peace or Reputation.

13. Humility. Imitate Jesus and Socrates.

The virtue of selfishness
Ayn Rand
Ayn Rand

Ayn Rand , was a Russian-American novelist, philosopher, playwright, and screenwriter. She is known for her best-selling novels and for developing a philosophical system called Objectivism ....
talks about a rational egoism
Rational egoism

In ethics, rational egoism is the principle that an action is rational if and only if it maximizes one's self-interest. The view is a Norm form of egoism....
and contends that the word "selfishness" denotes virtuous qualities of character since she adduces selfishness is defined as "concern with one's own interests", as explained in her philosophical system, Objectivism
Objectivism

The terms Objectivism and Objectivist can refer to:*Objectivity_#Objectivism, an alternate name in analytic philosophy for philosophical realism, the belief that reality is mind-independent...
, and in the Objectivist ethics
Objectivist ethics

The Objectivist ethics is a subset of the Objectivist philosophy formulated by Ayn Rand. Rand defined "ethics" as "a code of values to guide man's choices and actions—the choices and actions that determine the purpose and the course of his life." She sometimes referred to the Objectivist ethics in particular as "selfishness," as reflect...
, a subset of the Objectivist philosophy.

Virtue and vice
The opposite of a virtue is a vice
Vice

Vice is a practice or habit considered immoral, depraved, and/or degrading in the associated society. In more minor usage, vice can refer to a fault, a defect, an infirmity or merely a bad habit....
. One way of organizing the vices is as the corruption of the virtues.

As Aristotle
Aristotle

Aristotle was a Greeks philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, Poetics , theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology and zoology....
noted, however, the virtues can have several opposites. Virtues can be considered the mean between two extremes, as the Latin maxim dictates in medio stat virtus -in the centre lies virtue. For instance, both cowardice and rashness are opposites of courage; contrary to prudence are both over-caution and insufficient caution. A more "modern" virtue, tolerance, can be considered the mean between the two extremes of narrow-mindedness on the one hand and soft-headedness on the other. Vices can therefore be identified as the opposites of virtues, but with the caveat that each virtue could have many different opposites, all distinct from each other.

Virtue in modern psychology

Christopher Peterson

Christopher Peterson, is a psychology professor at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan and is the chair of clinical psychology area....
and Martin Seligman

Martin Seligman

Martin E. P. Seligman is an American psychologist who also writer Self-help. A world-renowned authority on depression and abnormal psychology, he is well known for his work on the theory of "learned helplessness", and according to The Daily Pennsylvanian is considered the father of positive psychology....
, two leading researchers in positive psychology

Positive psychology

Positive psychology is a recent branch of psychology that "studies the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive"....
, recognizing the deficiency inherent in psychology

Psychology

Psychology is an academic and applied science discipline involving the science study of human mental functions and behavior. Occasionally it also relies on symbolic hermeneutics and critical theory, although these traditions are less pronounced than in other social sciences such as sociology....
's tendency to focus on dysfunction rather than on what makes a healthy and stable personality, set out to develop a list of "Character Strengths and Virtues" After three years of study, six broad areas of virtue were identified, having "a surprising amount of similarity across cultures and strongly indicat[ing] a historical and cross-cultural convergence." These six categories of virtue are courage, justice, humanity, temperance, transcendence, and wisdom.

External links

(quotations)

Virtue

Virtues and values

Four classic Western virtues

Aristotle's golden mean

Prudence and virtue

Roman virtues

Abrahamic religions

The Jewish tradition

The Christian tradition

The Muslim tradition

Hindu virtues

The Buddhist tradition

Virtue in Chinese philosophy

Chinese Martial Morality

Samurai values

Nietzsche on virtue

Virtues according to Benjamin Franklin

The virtue of selfishness

Virtue and vice

Virtue in modern psychology

See also

External links