Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (15 December AD 37–9 June AD 68), born
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called
Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and last
Roman emperorThe Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period . The Romans had no single term for the office: Latin titles such as imperator , augustus, caesar and princeps were all associated with it...
of the
Julio-Claudian dynastyThe Julio-Claudian dynasty normally refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula , Claudius, and Nero, or the family to which they belonged; they ruled the Roman Empire from its formation, in the second half of the first century BC, until AD 68, when the last of the line,...
. Nero was adopted by his great uncle
ClaudiusTiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus was the fourth Roman Emperor, a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from 24 January AD 41 to his death in AD 54...
to become heir to the throne. As Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, he succeeded to the throne on 13 October 54, following Claudius's death.
Nero ruled from 54 to 68, focusing much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theaters and promoted athletic games. His reign included a successful war and negotiated peace with the
Parthian EmpireThe Parthian Empire , was a major Iranian political and cultural power in the ancient Near East, and a counterweight to the Roman Empire in the region....
(58–63), the suppression of the British revolt (60–61) and improving relations with Greece. The First Roman-Jewish War (66–70) started during his reign. In 68 a military coup drove Nero from the throne. Facing assassination, he committed suicide on 9 June 68.
Nero's rule is often associated with tyranny and extravagance. He is known for a number of executions, including those of his mother and adoptive brother, as the emperor who "fiddled while
Rome burnedThe Great Fire of Rome was a large fire which struck ancient Rome in 64 AD. According to the historian Tacitus, the fire started on the night of 18 July, among the shops clustered around the Circus Maximus. As many Romans lived in wood houses without masonry, the fire spread quickly through these...
", and as an early persecutor of Christians. This view is based upon the main surviving sources for Nero's reign—
TacitusPublius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
,
SuetoniusGaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar until Domitian, entitled De Vita Caesarum...
and Cassius Dio. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some sources, though, including those mentioned above, portray him as an emperor who was popular with the common Roman people, especially in the East. The study of Nero is problematic as some modern historians question the reliability of ancient sources when reporting on Nero's tyrannical acts.
Family
Nero was born with the name Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December, AD 37, in Antium, near Rome. He was the only son of 12, by Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and
Agrippina the YoungerJulia Agrippina , also known as Agrippina the Younger and Agrippina Minor was a Roman empress...
, sister of emperor
CaligulaGaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus , more commonly known by his cognomen Caligula , was the third Roman Emperor, reigning from 16 March 37 until his assassination on 24 January 41...
.
Lucius' father was the grandson of
Gnaeus Domitius AhenobarbusGnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus was a general and politician of ancient Rome in the 1st century BC.-Life:Ahenobarbus was captured with his father, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, at Corfinium in 49 BC, and was present at the battle of Pharsalia in 48 BC, but did not take any further part in the war...
and
Aemilia LepidaAemilia Lepida is the name of Roman women belonging to the gens Aemilia. All but the first Aemilia Lepida lived in the imperial era. The name was given to daughters of men belonging to the Lepidus branch of the gens Aemilia. The first Aemilia Lepida to be mentioned by Roman historians was the...
through their son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus was a grandson to
Mark AntonyMarcus Antonius , known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and General. He was an important supporter and the loyal friend of Gaius Julius Caesar as a military commander and administrator, being Caesar's second cousin, once removed, by his mother Julia Antonia...
and
Octavia MinorOctavia Minor , also known as Octavia the Younger or simply Octavia, was the sister of the first Roman Emperor, Augustus , half sister of Octavia Major, and fourth wife of Mark Antony....
through their daughter
Antonia MajorAntonia Major , also known as Antonia the Elder, was a daughter to Mark Antony and Octavia Minor and niece to Augustus, Rome’s first Emperor....
. With Octavia, he was the grandnephew of Caesar Augustus. Nero's father had been employed as a
praetorPraetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, either before it was mustered or more typically in the field, or an elected magistrate assigned duties that varied depending on the historical period. The...
and was a member of Caligula's staff when the future-emperor traveled to the East. Nero's father was described by Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat who was charged by emperor
TiberiusTiberius Julius Caesar Augustus, born Tiberius Claudius Nero , was the second Roman Emperor, from the death of Augustus in AD 14 until his own death in 37. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla...
with treason, adultery, and incest. Tiberius died, allowing him to escape these charges. Gnaeus died of
edemaEdema or oedema , formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy, is an abnormal accumulation of fluid beneath the skin, or in one or more cavities of the body...
(or "dropsy") in 39 AD when Nero was three.
Lucius' mother was Agrippina the Younger, who was great-granddaughter to Caesar
AugustusGaius Julius Caesar Augustus was the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.
[These are the contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian after 45 BC...]
and his wife
ScriboniaScribonia was the second wife of Roman Emperor Augustus and the mother of his only natural child, Julia Caesaris. She was the grandmother of Gaius Caesar, Julia the Younger, Lucius Caesar, Agrippina the Elder and Agrippa Postumus, great-grandmother to Emperor Caligula and Empress Agrippina the...
through their daughter
Julia the ElderJulia the Elder , known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia was the daughter and only natural child of Augustus. Augustus subsequently adopted several male members of his close family as sons...
and her husband
Marcus Vipsanius AgrippaMarcus Vipsanius Agrippa was a Roman statesman and general. He was a close friend, son-in-law, lieutenant and defense minister to Octavian, the future emperor Caesar Augustus...
. Agrippina's father,
GermanicusGermanicus Julius Caesar was a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire. He was born in Lugdunum, Gaul . At birth he was named either Nero Claudius Drusus after his father or Tiberius Claudius Nero after his uncle...
, was grandson to Augustus's wife,
LiviaLivia Drusilla, after 14 AD called Julia Augusta was the wife of Augustus and one of the most powerful women in the Roman Empire, being Augustus' faithful advisor...
, on one side and to
Mark AntonyMarcus Antonius , known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and General. He was an important supporter and the loyal friend of Gaius Julius Caesar as a military commander and administrator, being Caesar's second cousin, once removed, by his mother Julia Antonia...
and Octavia on the other. Germanicus' mother
Antonia MinorAntonia Minor , also known as Antonia the Younger or simply Antonia was a daughter of Roman politician Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, niece of emperor Augustus, and mother of future emperor Claudius.Antonia is one of the most prominent Roman women. She is celebrated for her virtue and beauty...
, was a daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Octavia was Augustus' second elder sister. Germanicus was also the adoptive son of
TiberiusTiberius Julius Caesar Augustus, born Tiberius Claudius Nero , was the second Roman Emperor, from the death of Augustus in AD 14 until his own death in 37. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla...
. A number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of murdering her third husband, emperor Claudius.
- See Roman Emperors family tree
This is a family tree of the Roman Emperors, showing only the relationships between the emperors.- 27BC-AD192 :The emperors from Augustus to Commodus can be organised into one large family tree with one non-related emperor...
.
Physical appearance
In the book "The Lives of the Twelve Caesars" the Roman historian
SuetoniusGaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar until Domitian, entitled De Vita Caesarum...
describes Nero as "about the average height, his body marked with spots and
malodorousBody odor often abbreviated as B.O., or bromhidrosis is the smell of bacteria growing on the body...
, his hair light blond, his features regular rather than attractive, his eyes blue and somewhat weak, his neck over thick, his belly prominent, and his legs very slender."
Rise to power
Nero was not expected ever to become emperor because his maternal uncle,
CaligulaGaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus , more commonly known by his cognomen Caligula , was the third Roman Emperor, reigning from 16 March 37 until his assassination on 24 January 41...
, had begun his reign at the age of 25 with ample time to produce his own heir. Lucius' mother, Agrippina, lost favor with Caligula and was exiled in 39 after her husband's death. Caligula seized Lucius's inheritance and sent him to be raised by his less wealthy aunt,
Domitia LepidaDomitia Lepida , Domitia Lepida Minor or simply known as Lepida , was the younger daughter of Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Antonia Major. Her elder siblings were Domitia and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus...
.
Caligula, his wife
Caesonia-Life:Milonia Caesonia was born between the 2nd and 4th of June in an unknown year.Coming from modest origins, Caesonia was a daughter of Vistilia. Her younger half-brother was the Roman Consul and General Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo. Her niece, Domitia Longina, married the future Roman Emperor...
and their infant daughter
Julia DrusillaFor the identically named daughter of Germanicus, see Drusilla .Julia Drusilla was the only child and daughter of Roman Emperor Gaius and his fourth and last wife Caesonia.Named after her late aunt and her father's favorite sister, Drusilla, Julia was born not long after Caligula married...
were murdered in 41. These events led
ClaudiusTiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus was the fourth Roman Emperor, a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from 24 January AD 41 to his death in AD 54...
, Caligula's uncle, to become emperor. Claudius allowed Agrippina to return from exile.
Claudius had married twice before marrying
MessalinaValeria Messalina, sometimes spelled Messallina, was a Roman Empress as the third wife of Emperor Claudius. A powerful and influential woman with a reputation for promiscuity, she conspired against her husband and was executed when the plot was discovered.-Family and early life:Messalina was the...
. His previous marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who died at a young age. He had two children with Messalina -
Claudia OctaviaClaudia Octavia was a Roman Empress, stepsister and first wife to Roman Emperor Nero.-Family:...
(b. 40) and
BritannicusTiberius Claudius Caesar Britannicus was the son of the Roman emperor Claudius and his third wife Valeria Messalina. He became the heir-designate of the empire at his birth, less than a month into his father's reign. He was still a young boy at the time of his mother's downfall and Claudius'...
(b. 41). Messalina was executed by Claudius in 48.
In 49, Claudius married a fourth time, to Agrippina. To aid Claudius politically, Lucius was officially adopted in 50 and renamed
Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus (see adoption in Rome). Nero was older than his stepbrother, Britannicus, and became heir to the throne.
Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of 14. He was appointed
proconsul-Ancient Rome:In the Roman Republic, a proconsul was a promagistrate who, after serving as consul, spent a year as a governor of a province...
, entered and first addressed the
SenateThe Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. According to the Greek historian Polybius, our principal source on the Constitution of the Roman Republic, the Roman Senate was the predominant branch of government...
, made joint public appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage. In 53, he married his stepsister
Claudia OctaviaClaudia Octavia was a Roman Empress, stepsister and first wife to Roman Emperor Nero.-Family:...
.
Early rule
ClaudiusTiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus was the fourth Roman Emperor, a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from 24 January AD 41 to his death in AD 54...
died in 54 and Nero was established as emperor. Though accounts vary greatly, many ancient historians state
AgrippinaJulia Agrippina , also known as Agrippina the Younger and Agrippina Minor was a Roman empress...
poisoned Claudius. It is not known how much Nero knew or was involved in the death of Claudius.
Nero became emperor at 16, the youngest emperor up until that time. Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced by his mother
AgrippinaJulia Agrippina , also known as Agrippina the Younger and Agrippina Minor was a Roman empress...
, his tutor
Lucius Annaeus SenecaLucius Annaeus Seneca was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. He was tutor and later advisor to emperor Nero...
, and the Praetorian Prefect
Sextus Afranius BurrusSextus Afranius Burrus , Praetorian prefect, was advisor to Roman emperor Nero and, together with Seneca the Younger, very powerful in the early years of Nero's reign....
, especially in the first year. Other tutors were less often mentioned, such as
Alexander of AegaeAlexander of Aegae was a peripatetic philosopher who flourished in Rome in the first century, and was a disciple of the celebrated mathematician Sosigenes of Alexandria. He was tutor to the emperor Nero. He wrote commentaries on the Categories and the De Caelo of Aristotle...
.
Very early in Nero's rule, problems arose from competition for influence between Agrippina and Nero's two main advisers, Seneca and Burrus.
In 54, Agrippina tried to sit down next to Nero while he met with an Armenian envoy, but Seneca stopped her and prevented a scandalous scene. Nero's personal friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to beware of his mother. Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage to
OctaviaClaudia Octavia was a Roman Empress, stepsister and first wife to Roman Emperor Nero.-Family:...
and entered an affair with
Claudia ActeClaudia Acte was a freedwoman of ancient Rome who became a mistress of the emperor Nero. She came from Asia Minor and might have become a slave of the Emperor Claudius, following his expansion of the Roman Empire into Lycia and Pamphylia; or she might have been purchased later, by Octavia,...
, a former slave. In 55, Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that her son dismiss Acte. Nero, with the support of Seneca, resisted the intervention of his mother in his personal affairs.
With Agrippina's influence over her son severed, she reportedly began pushing for Britannicus, Nero's stepbrother, to become emperor. Nearly fifteen-year-old Britannicus, heir-designate prior to Nero's adoption, was still legally a minor, but was approaching legal adulthood. According to Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support, Britannicus, being the blood son of Claudius, would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the state over Nero. However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on 12 February, 55, the very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set. Nero claimed that Britannicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient historians all claim Britannicus' death came from Nero's poisoning him. After the death of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia and Nero ordered her out of the imperial residence.
Matricide and consolidation of power
Over time, Nero became progressively more powerful, freeing himself of his advisers and eliminating rivals to the throne. In 55, he removed
Marcus Antonius PallasMarcus Antonius Pallas was a prominent Greek freedman and secretary during the reigns of the Roman Emperors Claudius and Nero. His younger brother was Marcus Antonius Felix, a procurator of Iudaea Province...
, an ally of Agrippina, from his position in the treasury. Pallas, along with Burrus, was accused of conspiring against the emperor to bring
Faustus SullaFaustus Cornelius Sulla Felix was one of the lesser known figures of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of ancient Rome. His grandmother was Antonia Major, the niece of Emperor Augustus by her husband Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus . His mother was Domitia Lepida, a great niece of Emperor Augustus and...
to the throne.
SenecaLucius Annaeus Seneca was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. He was tutor and later advisor to emperor Nero...
was accused of having relations with Agrippina and embezzlement. Seneca was successfully able to have himself, Pallas and Burrus acquitted. According to Cassius Dio, at this time, Seneca and Burrus reduced their role in governing from careful management to mere moderation of Nero.
In 58, Nero became romantically involved with
Poppaea SabinaPoppaea Sabina was a Roman Empress and second wife of the Roman Emperor Nero. The historians of antiquity describe her as a beautiful woman who used intrigues to become empress.-Ancestry and Early Life:...
, the wife of his friend and future emperor
OthoFor other uses, see Otho .Marcus Salvius Otho , also called Marcus Salvius Otho Caesar Augustus, was Roman Emperor from 15 January to 16 April 69, the second emperor of the Year of the four emperors....
. Reportedly because a marriage to Poppaea and a divorce from Octavia did not seem politically feasible with Agrippina alive, Nero ordered the murder of his mother in 59. A number of modern historians find this an unlikely motive as Nero did not marry Poppaea until 62. Additionally, according to
SuetoniusGaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar until Domitian, entitled De Vita Caesarum...
, Poppaea did not divorce her husband until after Agrippina's death, making it unlikely that the already married Poppaea would be pressing Nero for marriage. Some modern historians theorize that Nero's execution of Agrippina was prompted by her plotting to set
Rubellius PlautusGaius Rubellius Plautus was a Roman noble and a political rival of Emperor Nero. Through his mother Julia, he was a relative to the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He was the grandson of Drusus , and the great-grandson of Tiberius and his brother Drusus...
on the throne. According to
SuetoniusGaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar until Domitian, entitled De Vita Caesarum...
, Nero tried to kill his mother through a planned shipwreck, but when she survived, he had her executed and framed it as a suicide. The incident is also recorded by Tacitus.
In 62 Nero's adviser, Burrus, died. Additionally, Seneca was again faced with embezzlement charges. Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire from public affairs. Nero divorced and banished
OctaviaClaudia Octavia was a Roman Empress, stepsister and first wife to Roman Emperor Nero.-Family:...
on grounds of infertility, leaving him free to marry the pregnant Poppaea. After public protests, Nero was forced to allow Octavia to return from exile, but she was executed shortly after her return. Nero also was reported to have kicked Poppaea to death in 65 before she could have his second child. However, modern historians, noting Suetonius, Tacitus and Cassius Dio's possible bias against Nero and the likelihood that they did not have eyewitness accounts of private events, postulate that Poppaea may have died because of complications of miscarriage or childbirth.
Accusations of treason against Nero and the Senate first appeared in 62. The Senate ruled that Antistius, a praetor, should be put to death for speaking ill of Nero at a party. Later, Nero ordered the exile of Fabricius Veiento who slandered the Senate in a book. Tacitus writes that the roots of the conspiracy led by
Gaius Calpurnius PisoGaius Calpurnius Piso was a Roman senator in the 1st century. He was the focal figure in the Pisonian Conspiracy of 65 A.D., the most famous and wide-ranging plot against the throne of Emperor Nero.-Character and early life:...
began in this year. To consolidate power, Nero executed a number of people in 62 and 63 including his rivals
PallasMarcus Antonius Pallas was a prominent Greek freedman and secretary during the reigns of the Roman Emperors Claudius and Nero. His younger brother was Marcus Antonius Felix, a procurator of Iudaea Province...
,
Rubellius PlautusGaius Rubellius Plautus was a Roman noble and a political rival of Emperor Nero. Through his mother Julia, he was a relative to the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He was the grandson of Drusus , and the great-grandson of Tiberius and his brother Drusus...
and
Faustus SullaFaustus Cornelius Sulla Felix was one of the lesser known figures of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of ancient Rome. His grandmother was Antonia Major, the niece of Emperor Augustus by her husband Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus . His mother was Domitia Lepida, a great niece of Emperor Augustus and...
. According to Suetonius, Nero "showed neither discrimination nor moderation in putting to death whomsoever he pleased" during this period.
Nero's consolidation of power also included a slow usurping of authority from the Senate. In 54, Nero promised to give the Senate powers equivalent to those under Republican rule. By 65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the
Pisonian conspiracyThe conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso in AD 65 represented one of the major turning points in the reign of the Roman emperor Nero . The plot signified the growing discontent among the upper social strata of the Roman state with regards to Nero's increasingly despotic leadership, and as a result...
.
Administrative policies
Over the course of his reign, Nero often made rulings that pleased the lower class. Nero was criticised as being obsessed with being popular.
Nero began his reign in 54 by promising the Senate more autonomy. In this first year, he forbade others to refer to him with regard to enactments, for which he was praised by the Senate. Nero was known for spending his time visiting brothels and taverns during this period.
In 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was
consulA consul served in the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic and Empire.During the time of ancient Rome as a republic, the consuls were the highest civil and military magistrates, serving as the heads of government for the Republic. An election occurred every year for new consul...
four times between 55 and 60. During this period, some ancient historians speak fairly well of Nero and contrast it with his later rule.
Under Nero, restrictions were put on the amount of bail and fines. Also, fees for lawyers were limited. There was a discussion in the Senate on the misconduct of the freedmen class, and a strong demand was made that patrons should have the right of revoking freedom. Nero supported the freedmen and ruled that patrons had no such right. The Senate tried to pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to all slaves within a household. Nero vetoed the measure. After tax collectors were accused of being too harsh to the poor, Nero transferred collection authority to lower commissioners. Nero banned any magistrate or procurator from exhibiting public entertainment for fear that the venue was being used as a method to sway the populace. Additionally, there were many impeachments and removals of government officials along with arrests for extortion and corruption. When further complaints arose that the poor were being overly taxed, Nero attempted to repeal all indirect taxes. The Senate convinced him this action would bankrupt the public treasury. As a compromise, taxes were cut from 4.5% to 2.5%. Additionally, secret government tax records were ordered to become public. To lower the cost of food imports, merchant ships were declared tax-exempt.
In imitation of the Greeks, Nero built a number of gymnasiums and theatres. Enormous gladiatorial shows were also held. Nero also established the
quinquennial NeroniaThe quinquennial Neronia was a massive Greek-style festival created by Nero. The festival was in three parts. The first was music, oratory and poetry, the second was gymnastics, and the third was riding...
. The festival included games, poetry and theater. Historians indicate that there was a belief that theatre led to immorality. Others considered that to have performers dressed in Greek clothing was old fashioned. Some questioned the large public expenditure on entertainment.
In 64,
Rome burnedThe Great Fire of Rome was a large fire which struck ancient Rome in 64 AD. According to the historian Tacitus, the fire started on the night of 18 July, among the shops clustered around the Circus Maximus. As many Romans lived in wood houses without masonry, the fire spread quickly through these...
. Nero enacted a public relief effort as well as significant reconstruction. A number of other major construction projects occurred in Nero's late reign. Nero had the marshes of Ostia filled with rubble from the fire. He erected the large
Domus AureaThe Domus Aurea was a large landscaped portico villa, designed to take advantage of artificially created landscapes built in the heart of Ancient Rome by the Roman emperor Nero after the Great fire of Rome, which devastated Rome in 64 AD, had cleared away the aristocratic dwellings on the slopes...
. In 67, Nero attempted to have a canal dug at the
Isthmus of CorinthThe Isthmus of Corinth is the narrow land bridge which connects the Peloponnese peninsula with the mainland of Greece, near the city of Corinth. The word "isthmus" comes from the Ancient Greek word for "neck" and refers to the narrowness of the land. To the west of the Isthmus is the Gulf of...
. Ancient historians state that these projects and others exacerbated the drain on the State's budget.
The economic policy of Nero is a point of debate among scholars. According to ancient historians, Nero's construction projects were overly extravagant and the large number of expenditures under Nero left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined." Modern historians, though, note that the period was riddled with deflation and that it is likely that Nero's spending came in the form of public works projects and charity intended to ease economic troubles.
Great Fire of Rome
The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of 18 July to 19 July, AD 64. The fire started at the southeastern end of the Circus Maximus in shops selling flammable goods.
The extent of the fire is uncertain. According to
TacitusPublius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
, who was nine at the time of the fire, it spread quickly and burned for over five days. It completely destroyed four of fourteen Roman districts and severely damaged seven. The only other historian who lived through the period and mentioned the fire is
Pliny the ElderGaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was an author, naturalist, and natural philosopher as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
, who wrote about it in passing. Other historians who lived through the period (including
JosephusJosephus , also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu and, after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus, was a first-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and royal ancestry who survived and recorded the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70...
,
Dio ChrysostomDio Chrysostom , Dion of Prusa or Dio Cocceianus was a Greek orator, writer, philosopher and historian of the Roman Empire in the first century. Eighty of his Discourses are extant, as well as a few Letters, a mildly entertaining essay In Praise of Hair, and other fragments...
,
PlutarchPlutarch, born Plutarchos then, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. AD 46 – 120, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
, and
EpictetusEpictetus was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was probably born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia , and lived in Rome until his exile to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece, where he lived most of his life and died. His teachings were noted down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses...
) make no mention of it.
It is uncertain who or what actually caused the fire — whether accident or
arsonArson is the crime of deliberately and maliciously setting fire to structures or wildland areas. It may be distinguished from other causes such as spontaneous combustion and natural wildfires caused by lightning for example. The study of the causes is the subject of fire investigation...
.
SuetoniusGaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar until Domitian, entitled De Vita Caesarum...
and Cassius Dio favor Nero as the
arsonArson is the crime of deliberately and maliciously setting fire to structures or wildland areas. It may be distinguished from other causes such as spontaneous combustion and natural wildfires caused by lightning for example. The study of the causes is the subject of fire investigation...
ist, so he could build a palatial complex. Tacitus mentions that Christians confessed to the crime, but it is not known whether these confessions were induced by torture. However, fires started accidentally were common in ancient Rome. In fact, Rome suffered another large fire in 69 and in 80.
It was said by Suetonius and Cassius Dio that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while the city burned. Popular legend claims that Nero played the
fiddleThe term fiddle may refer to any bowed string musical instrument, including the violin. It is also a colloquial term for the instrument used by players in all genres, including classical music...
at the time of the fire, an anachronism based merely on the concept of the
lyreThe lyre is a stringed musical instrument well known for its use in classical antiquity and later. The recitations of the Ancient Greeks were accompanied by lyre playing. The lyre of Classical Antiquity was ordinarily played by being strummed with a plectrum, like a guitar or a zither, rather than...
, a stringed instrument associated with Nero and his performances. (There were no fiddles in 1st-century Rome.) Tacitus's account, however, has Nero in Antium at the time of the fire. Tacitus also said that Nero playing his lyre and singing while the city burned was only rumor.
According to Tacitus, upon hearing news of the fire, Nero returned back to Rome to organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his own funds. After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors. In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban development plan. Houses after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by porticos on wide roads. Nero also built a new palace complex known as the
Domus AureaThe Domus Aurea was a large landscaped portico villa, designed to take advantage of artificially created landscapes built in the heart of Ancient Rome by the Roman emperor Nero after the Great fire of Rome, which devastated Rome in 64 AD, had cleared away the aristocratic dwellings on the slopes...
in an area cleared by the fire. This included lush artificial landscapes and a 30 meter statue of himself, the
Colossus of NeroThe Colossus of Nero was an enormous bronze statue that the Emperor Nero had erected in his image in the vestibule of the Domus Aurea, his palatial residence on the Palatine Hill...
. The size of this complex is debated (from 100 to 300 acres). To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, tributes were imposed on the provinces of the empire.
According to Tacitus, the population searched for a scapegoat and rumors held Nero responsible. To deflect blame, Nero targeted Christians. He ordered Christians to be thrown to dogs, while others were crucified and burned.
Tacitus described the event:
Public performances
Nero enjoyed driving a one-horse chariot, singing to the harp and poetry. He even composed songs that were performed by other entertainers throughout the empire. At first, Nero only performed for a private audience.
In 64, Nero began singing in public in
NeapolisNaples in Italy, is the capital of the region of Campania and of the province of Naples. The city is known for its rich history, art, culture, architecture, music and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,800 years old...
in order to improve his popularity. He also sang at the second
quinquennial NeroniaThe quinquennial Neronia was a massive Greek-style festival created by Nero. The festival was in three parts. The first was music, oratory and poetry, the second was gymnastics, and the third was riding...
in 65. It was said that Nero craved the attention, but historians also write that Nero was encouraged to sing and perform in public by the Senate, his inner circle and the people. Ancient historians strongly criticize his choice to perform, calling it shameful.
Nero was convinced to participate in the
Olympic GamesThe Olympic Games were a series of athletic competitions held for representatives of various city-states of Ancient Greece. Records indicate that they began in 776 BC in Olympia, Greece. They were celebrated until 393 AD. The Games were usually held every four years, or olympiad, as...
of 67 in order to improve relations with Greece and display Roman dominance. As a competitor, Nero raced a ten-horse chariot and nearly died after being thrown from it. He also performed as an actor and a singer. Though Nero faltered in his racing (in one case, dropping out entirely before the end) and acting competitions, he won these crowns nevertheless and paraded them when he returned to Rome. The victories are attributed to Nero bribing the judges and his status as emperor.
War and peace with Parthia
Shortly after Nero's accession to the throne in 55, the Roman
vassalA vassal in the terminology that both preceded and accompanied the feudalism of medieval Europe, is one who enters into mutual obligations with a monarch, usually of military support and mutual protection, in exchange for certain guarantees, which came to include the terrain held as a fief. By...
kingdom of ArmeniaThe Kingdom of Armenia was an independent kingdom from 190 BC to AD 387 and a client state of the Roman and Persian empires until 428, stretching from the Caspian to the Mediterranean seas.- History :...
overthrew their prince
RhadamistusRhadamistus was an Iberian prince who reigned in Armenia from 51 to 53 and 54 to 55 CE. Considered to be an usurper and tyrant, he was overthrown in a rebellion supported by Parthia.- Life :...
and he was replaced with the
ParthiaParthia is a region of north-eastern Iran, best known for having been the political and cultural base of the Arsacid dynasts, after which the Arsacid Empire is then also known as the 'Parthian Empire'....
n prince
TiridatesTiridates I was King of Armenia beginning in AD 53 and the founder of the Arshakuni Dynasty, the Armenian line of the Arsacid Dynasty. The dates of his birth and death are unknown. His early reign was marked by a brief interruption towards the end of the year 54 and a much longer one from 58...
. This was seen as a Parthian invasion of Roman territory. There was concern in Rome over how the young emperor would handle the situation. Nero reacted by immediately sending the military to the region under the command of
Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo-Descent:Corbulo was born in Italy into a senatorial family. His father had the same name and his mother was named Vistilia, who came from a family who held the praetorship.-Under Caligula:...
. The Parthians temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to Rome.
The peace did not last and full-scale war broke out in 58. The Parthian king
Vologases IVologases I of Parthia ruled the Parthian Empire from about 51 to 78. Son of Vonones II by a Greek concubine, he succeeded his father in 51 AD. He gave the kingdom of Media Atropatene to his brother Pacorus II, and occupied Armenia for another brother, Tiridates...
refused to remove his brother Tiridates from Armenia. The Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the Armenian kingdom. Commander Corbulo responded and repelled most of the Parthian army that same year. Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of Armenia.
Nero was acclaimed in public for this initial victory.
TigranesJulius Tigranes, also known as Tigranes VI was among one of the Kings of Armenia who lived in the 1st century. Tigranes was a prince of Persian, Greek, Jewish, Nabataean and Edomite origin....
, a Cappadocian noble raised in Rome, was installed by Nero as the new ruler of Armenia. Corbulo was appointed governor of Syria as a reward.
In 62, Tigranes invaded the Parthian province of
AdiabeneAdiabene was an ancient Assyrian semi-independent kingdom in Mesopotamia, with its capital at Arbela . Its rulers converted to Judaism in the 1st Century....
. Again, Rome and Parthia were at war and this continued until 63. Parthia began building up for a strike against the Roman province of Syria. Corbulo tried to convince Nero to continue the war, but Nero opted for a peace deal instead. There was anxiety in Rome about eastern grain supplies and a budget deficit.
The result was a deal where Tiridates again became the Armenian king, but was crowned in Rome by emperor Nero. In the future, the king of Armenia was to be a Parthian prince, but his appointment required approval from the Romans. Tiridates was forced to come to Rome and partake in ceremonies meant to display Roman dominance.
This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory for Nero politically. Nero became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and with the Parthians as well. The peace between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years until emperor
TrajanMarcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from A. D. 98 until his death in A. D. 117...
of Rome invaded Armenia in 114.
Other major power struggles and rebellions
The war with Parthia was not Nero's only major war but he was both criticized and praised for an aversion to battle. Like many emperors, Nero faced a number of rebellions and power struggles within the empire.
British Revolt of 60–61 (Boudica's Uprising)
In 60, a major rebellion broke out in the province of
BritanniaBritannia was the term used by the Romans to refer to the Roman province covering much of the island of Great Britain. The area beyond the Antonine Wall belonging to the Picts in the north was known as Caledonia. The name itself derives from Pretannia, Diodorus's rendering of the indigenous name...
. While the governor Gaius Suetonius Paullinus and his troops were busy capturing the island of Mona (Anglesey) from the druids, the tribes of the south-east staged a revolt led by queen
BoudicaBoudica , formerly known as Boadicea and known in Welsh as "Buddug") was a queen of the Brittonic Iceni tribe of what is now known as East Anglia in England, who led an uprising of the tribes against the occupying forces of the Roman Empire.Boudica's husband, Prasutagus, an Icenian king who had...
of the
IceniThe Iceni or Eceni were a tribe who inhabited an area of Britain corresponding roughly to the modern-day county of Norfolk between the 1st century BC and 1st century AD...
. Boudica and her troops destroyed three cities before the army of Paullinus was able to return, be reinforced and put down the rebellion in 61. Fearing Paullinus himself would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced him with the more passive
Publius Petronius TurpilianusPublius Petronius Turpilianus was a Roman politician and general.He was consul in AD 61, but in the second half of that year he laid down that office and was appointed governor of Britain, replacing Gaius Suetonius Paulinus who had been removed from office in the wake of the rebellion of Boudica...
.
The Pisonian Conspiracy of 65
In 65,
Gaius Calpurnius PisoGaius Calpurnius Piso was a Roman senator in the 1st century. He was the focal figure in the Pisonian Conspiracy of 65 A.D., the most famous and wide-ranging plot against the throne of Emperor Nero.-Character and early life:...
, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard. According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and restore the
RepublicThe Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, c...
. The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary,
EpaphroditosEpaphroditos or Epaphroditus was a freedman and secretary of the Roman Emperor Nero. He was later executed by Domitian for failing to prevent Nero's suicide.-Name:...
. As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed including
LucanMarcus Annaeus Lucanus , better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman poet, born in Corduba , in the Hispania Baetica. Despite his short life, he is regarded as one of the outstanding figures of the Silver Latin period...
, the poet. Nero's previous advisor,
SenecaLucius Annaeus Seneca was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. He was tutor and later advisor to emperor Nero...
was ordered to commit suicide after admitting he discussed the plot with the conspirators.
The First Jewish War of 66–70
In 66, there was a
Jewish revoltThe first Jewish-Roman War , sometimes called The Great Revolt , was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews of Iudaea Province against the Roman Empire .It began in the year 66 initially because of Greek and Jewish religious tensions...
in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension. In 67, Nero dispatched
VespasianTitus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 69 AD until his death in 79 AD...
to restore order. This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death. This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem.
The Revolt of Vindex and Galba and the Death of Nero
In March 68,
Gaius Julius VindexGaius Iulius Vindex, of a noble Gaulish family of Aquitania given senatorial status under Claudius, was a Roman governor in the province of Gallia Lugdunensis. In either late 67 or early 68, rebelled against the tax policy of the Emperor Nero...
, the governor of
Gallia LugdunensisGallia Lugdunensis was a province of the Roman Empire in what is now the modern country of France, part of the Celtic territory of Gaul. It is named after its capital Lugdunum , possibly Roman Europe's major city west of Italy, and a major imperial mint...
, rebelled against Nero's tax policies.
Lucius Verginius RufusLucius Verginius Rufus , was a Roman patriot and soldier, three times consul , born near Comum, the birthplace of the two Plinys....
, the governor of
Germania SuperiorGermania Superior , so called for the reason that it lay upstream of Germania Inferior, was a province of the Roman Empire. It comprised the area of western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions and south-western Germany...
, was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion. In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called upon
Servius Sulpicius GalbaServius Sulpicius Galba , also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar Augustus, was Roman Emperor for seven months, from 8 June 68 until his murder...
, the governor of
Hispania TarraconensisHispania Tarraconensis was one of three Roman provinces in Hispania. It encompassed much of the Mediterranean coast of Spain along with the central plateau and the north coast, and part of northern Portugal. Southern Spain, the region now called Andalucia, was the province of Hispania Baetica...
, to join the rebellion and further, to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero. At the Battle of Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex and the latter committed suicide. However after putting down this one rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germany and the continued opposition of Galba in Spain did not bode well for Nero.
While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a public enemy. The prefect of the
Praetorian GuardThe Praetorian Guard was a force of bodyguards used by Roman Emperors. Before being appropriated for the use of the Emperors' personal guards, the title was used for the guards of Roman generals, at least since the rise to prominence of the Scipio family around 275 BC...
,
Gaius Nymphidius SabinusGaius Nymphidius Sabinus, or Nymphidius Sabinus, was a prefect of the Roman imperial bodyguard, known as the Praetorian Guard, during the rule of emperor Nero from 65 until his death in 68. He shared this office together with Gaius Ophonius Tigellinus, replacing his previous colleague Faenius Rufus...
, also abandoned his allegiance to the emperor and came out in support for Galba.
In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of
OstiaOstia may refer to:*Ostia , a municipio of Rome on the Tyrrhenian Sea coast.*Ostia Antica, a township and port of ancient Rome*Ostia Antica , a district of the commune of Rome...
and from there to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces. However he abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line from Vergil's
AeneidThe Aeneid is a Latin epic poem written by Virgil in the late 1st century BC that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who traveled to Italy, where he became the ancestor of the Romans. It is written in dactylic hexameter...
: "Is it so dreadful a thing than to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to
ParthiaParthia is a region of north-eastern Iran, best known for having been the political and cultural base of the Arsacid dynasts, after which the Arsacid Empire is then also known as the 'Parthian Empire'....
, throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or to appeal to the people and beg them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.
Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, none replied. Upon going to their chambers personally, all were abandoned. Upon calling for a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself into the
TiberThe Tiber is the third-longest river in Italy, rising in the Apennine mountains in Emilia-Romagna and flowing through Umbria and Lazio to the Tyrrhenian Sea. It drains a basin estimated at...
.
Returning again, Nero sought for some place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman offered his villa, located 4 miles outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal servants reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him. As it was being prepared, he said again and again "What an artist dies in me!". At this time a courier arrived with a report that the Senate had declared Nero a public enemy and that it was their intention to execute him by beating him to death. At this news Nero prepared himself for
suicideForced suicide is a method of execution where the victim is coerced into committing suicide to avoid facing an alternative option they perceive as much worse, such as suffering torture or having friends or family members imprisoned or tortured...
. Losing his nerve, he first begged for one of his companions to set an example by first killing himself. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. After quoting a line from
HomerHomer is a legendary ancient Greek epic poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey...
's
IliadThe Iliad is an epic poem recounting significant events during a portion of the final year of the Trojan War — the Greek siege of the city of Ilion — hence the title...
("Hark, now strikes on my ear the trampling of swift-footed coursers!") Nero drove a dagger into his throat. In this he was aided by his private secretary,
EpaphroditosEpaphroditos or Epaphroditus was a freedman and secretary of the Roman Emperor Nero. He was later executed by Domitian for failing to prevent Nero's suicide.-Name:...
. When one of the horsemen entered, upon his seeing Nero all but dead he attempted to stanch the bleeding. With the words "Too late! This is fidelity!", Nero died on 9 June 68. This was the anniversary of the death of Octavia. Nero was buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the
Villa BorgheseVilla Borghese may refer to:*The Villa Borghese Pinciana , the villa built by the architect Flaminio Ponzio, developing sketches by Scipione Borghese, who used it as a villa suburbana, a party villa, at the edge of Rome, and to house his art collection.**The Galleria Borghese which now occupies the...
(
Pincian HillThe Pincian Hill is a hill in the northeast quadrant of the historical center of Rome. The hill lies to the north of the Quirinal, overlooking the Campus Martius...
) area of Rome.
With his death, the
Julio-Claudian dynastyThe Julio-Claudian dynasty normally refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula , Claudius, and Nero, or the family to which they belonged; they ruled the Roman Empire from its formation, in the second half of the first century BC, until AD 68, when the last of the line,...
came to an end. Chaos ensued in the
Year of the Four EmperorsThe Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69, in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession. These four emperors were Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian....
.
After death
According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero. Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by Senators, nobility and the upper-class. The lower-class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news. Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero, but were bribed to overthrow him.
Eastern sources, namely Philostratus II and
Apollonius of TyanaApollonius of Tyana was a Greek Neopythagorean philosopher and teacher. He hailed from the town of Tyana in the Roman province of Cappadocia in Asia Minor. A contemporary of Jesus of Nazareth, the life and wandering mission of Apollonius is often compared to his.After his lifetime, Apollonius'...
, mention that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of
HellasRoman Greece is the period of Greek history following the Roman victory over the Corinthians at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC until the reestablishment of the city of Byzantium and the naming of the city by the Emperor Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire...
with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character" and that he "held our liberties in his hand and respected them."
Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their nostalgia."
Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as "outburst of private zeal". Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over fifty such images survive. This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously (see
damnatio memoriaeDamnatio memoriae is the Latin phrase literally meaning "damnation of memory" in the sense of removal from remembrance. It was a form of dishonor that could be passed by the Roman Senate upon traitors or others who brought discredit to the Roman State....
). Champlin, however, doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death.
The legend of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death.
Augustine of HippoAugustine of Hippo , Bishop of Hippo Regius, also known as St. Augustine or St. Austin, was an Algerian Berber philosopher and theologian....
wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422
The civil war during the
Year of the Four EmperorsThe Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69, in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession. These four emperors were Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian....
was described by ancient historians as a troubling period. According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could.
GalbaServius Sulpicius Galba , also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar Augustus, was Roman Emperor for seven months, from 8 June 68 until his murder...
began his short reign with the execution of many allies of Nero and possible future enemies. One notable enemy included
Nymphidius SabinusGaius Nymphidius Sabinus, or Nymphidius Sabinus, was a prefect of the Roman imperial bodyguard, known as the Praetorian Guard, during the rule of emperor Nero from 65 until his death in 68. He shared this office together with Gaius Ophonius Tigellinus, replacing his previous colleague Faenius Rufus...
, who claimed to be the son of emperor
CaligulaGaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus , more commonly known by his cognomen Caligula , was the third Roman Emperor, reigning from 16 March 37 until his assassination on 24 January 41...
.
OthoFor other uses, see Otho .Marcus Salvius Otho , also called Marcus Salvius Otho Caesar Augustus, was Roman Emperor from 15 January to 16 April 69, the second emperor of the Year of the four emperors....
overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero's and resembled him somewhat in temperament. It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself. Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.
VitelliusAulus Vitellius Germanicus, born Aulus Vitellius and commonly known as Vitellius , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 16 April 69 to 22 December of the same year...
overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.
After Nero's suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return. This belief came to be known as the
Nero Redivivus LegendNero Redivivus Legend is a popular belief during the last half of the first century that Nero would return after his death in 68 AD. The legend was a common belief as late as the fifth century. The belief was either the result or cause of several pretenders who posed as Nero leading...
.
At least three Nero imposters emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius. After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed. Sometime during the reign of
TitusTitus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus , was a Roman Emperor who briefly reigned from 79 until his death in 81...
(79-81) there was another impostor who appeared in Asia and also sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but he, too, was killed. Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of
DomitianTitus Flavius Domitianus , known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death...
, there was a third pretender. Supported by the Parthians, they hardly could be persuaded to give him up and the matter almost came to war.
Historiography
The history of Nero’s reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories at one time did exist and were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of Nero. The original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events. Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians. A few of the contemporary historians are known by name.
Fabius RusticusFabius Rusticus was a Roman historian who was quoted on several occasions by Tacitus. Tacitus couples his name with that of Livy and describes him as "the most graphic among ancient and modern historians." Tacitus also said that he embellished matters with his eloquence...
,
Cluvius RufusCluvius Rufus was a Roman senator, governor and historian who was mentioned on several occasions by Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Plutarch. During the reign of Caligula, Cluvius Rufus was described by Josephus as a senator of "consular dignity". He was involved in the conspiracy to assassinate...
and
Pliny the ElderGaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was an author, naturalist, and natural philosopher as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
all wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost. There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or on what deeds Nero was praised.
The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from
TacitusPublius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
,
SuetoniusGaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar until Domitian, entitled De Vita Caesarum...
and Cassius Dio, who were all of the Patrician class. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero’s death. These sources contradict on a number of events in Nero’s life including the death of
ClaudiusTiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus was the fourth Roman Emperor, a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from 24 January AD 41 to his death in AD 54...
, the death of
AgrippinaJulia Agrippina , also known as Agrippina the Younger and Agrippina Minor was a Roman empress...
and the Roman fire of 64, but they are consistent in their condemnation of Nero.
A handful of other sources also add a limited and varying perspective on Nero. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some sources, though, portray him as a competent emperor who was popular with the Roman people, especially in the east.
Cassius Dio
Cassius Dio (
c. 155- 229) was the son of
Cassius ApronianusCassius Apronianus or Apronianus was a Roman who lived in the 2nd century. He was a member of Cassius , one of the oldest families in Ancient Rome....
, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under
CommodusLucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 . The name given here was his official name at his accession to sole rule; see Changes of name for earlier and later forms...
and governor of Smyrna after the death of
Septimius SeverusLucius Septimius Severus was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 April, 193 until his death in 211. Severus was the first emperor of the troubled Severan dynasty, the last imperial dynasty of the Roman principate before the Crisis of the Third Century...
; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, as also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.
Books 61–63 of Dio's
Roman History describe the reign of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered by
John XiphilinusJoannes Xiphilinus, epitomator of Dio Cassius, lived at Constantinople during the latter half of the 11th century AD. He was a monk and the nephew of Patriarch John VIII of Constantinople, a well-known preacher ....
, an 11th century monk.
Dio Chrysostom
Dio ChrysostomDio Chrysostom , Dion of Prusa or Dio Cocceianus was a Greek orator, writer, philosopher and historian of the Roman Empire in the first century. Eighty of his Discourses are extant, as well as a few Letters, a mildly entertaining essay In Praise of Hair, and other fragments...
(
c. 40– 120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared:
Epictetus
EpictetusEpictetus was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was probably born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia , and lived in Rome until his exile to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece, where he lived most of his life and died. His teachings were noted down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses...
(
c. 55- 135) was the slave to Nero's scribe
EpaphroditosEpaphroditos or Epaphroditus was a freedman and secretary of the Roman Emperor Nero. He was later executed by Domitian for failing to prevent Nero's suicide.-Name:...
. He makes a few passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry and unhappy man.
Josephus
The historian
JosephusJosephus , also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu and, after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus, was a first-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and royal ancestry who survived and recorded the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70...
(
c. 37- 100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said:
Lucan
Though more of a poet than historian,
LucanusMarcus Annaeus Lucanus , better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman poet, born in Corduba , in the Hispania Baetica. Despite his short life, he is regarded as one of the outstanding figures of the Silver Latin period...
(
c. 39- 65) has one of the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of peace and prosperity under Nero in contrast to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was later involved in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero and was executed.
Philostratus
PhilostratusPhilostratus, was the name of four Greek sophists of the Roman imperial period:# "Philostratus I": Very minor author, known only for a dialogue Nero, possibly written by Philostratus II....
II "the Athenian" (
c. 172- 250) spoke of Nero in the
Life of Apollonius TyanaLife of Apollonius of Tyana is a book written in Ancient Greece by Philostratus . It tells the story of Apollonius of Tyana , a Pythagorean philosopher and teacher.-Contents:...
(Books 4–5). Though he has a generally a bad or dim view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception of Nero in the East.
Pliny the Elder
The history of Nero by
Pliny the ElderGaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was an author, naturalist, and natural philosopher as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
(
c. 24- 79) did not survive. Still, there are several references to Nero in Pliny's
Natural Histories. Pliny has one of the worst opinions of Nero and calls him an "enemy of mankind."
Plutarch
PlutarchPlutarch, born Plutarchos then, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. AD 46 – 120, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
(
c. 46- 127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of Galba and the Life of Otho. Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that replace him are not described as better.
Seneca the Younger
It is not surprising that
SenecaLucius Annaeus Seneca was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. He was tutor and later advisor to emperor Nero...
(
c. 4 BC- 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very well of Nero.
Suetonius
SuetoniusGaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar until Domitian, entitled De Vita Caesarum...
(
c. 69- 130) was a member of the equestrian order, and he was the head of the department of the imperial correspondence. While in this position, Suetonius started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational aspects.
Tacitus
The
Annals by
TacitusPublius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
(
c. 56- 117) is the most detailed and comprehensive history on the rule of Nero, despite being incomplete after the year 66. Tacitus described the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also thought that existing writing on them was unbalanced:
Tacitus was the son of a
procuratorA promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office. A legal innovation of the Roman Republic, the promagistracy was invented in order to provide Rome with governors of overseas territories instead of having to elect...
, who married into the elite family of Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realizing that this bias may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true.
Jewish tradition
At the end of 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea. According to a Jewish tradition in the
TalmudThe Talmud is a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs, and history. It is a central text of mainstream Judaism....
(tractate Gitin 56a-b), Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day. The child responded "I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel" (
Ez.According to religious texts, Ezekiel was a priest in the Bible who prophesied for 22 years sometime in the 6th century BC in the form of visions while exiled in Babylon, as recorded in...
25,14). Nero became terrified, believing that God wanted the
Temple in JerusalemThe Temple in Jerusalem or Holy Temple , refers to a series of structures located on the Temple Mount in the old city of Jerusalem. Historically, two temples were built at this location, and a future Temple features in Jewish eschatology. According to classical Jewish belief, the Temple acts as...
to be destroyed, but would punish the one to carry it out. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His House and to lay the blame on me," whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to avoid such retribution.
VespasianTitus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 69 AD until his death in 79 AD...
was then dispatched to put down the rebellion. The Talmud adds that the sage Reb Meir Baal HaNess, a prominent supporter of the
Bar KokhbaShimon bar Kokhba was the Jewish leader who led what is known as the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE, establishing an independent Jewish state of Israel which he ruled for three years as Nasi...
rebellionThe Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire was the third major rebellion by the Jews of Iudaea Province and the last of the Jewish-Roman Wars....
against Roman rule, was a descendant of Nero. Roman sources nowhere report Nero's alleged conversion to Judaism, a religion considered by the Romans as extremely barbaric and immoral. It seems unlikely that such sources - almost universally hostile towards the emperor - would have passed up the opportunity to denigrate Nero even further by mentioning this alleged conversion. Neither is there any record of Nero having any offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded child,
Claudia AugustaClaudia Augusta was the only daughter of the Roman Emperor Nero by his second wife Roman Empress Poppaea Sabina. She was born in Antium on 21 January 63....
, died aged 4 months. The legend recorded in the Talmud thus cannot be relied upon as a historical source for facts on Nero's life.
Christian tradition
Early
ChristianA Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic, religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who Christians believe was the Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible, and the Son of God.The term "Christian" is also used adjectivally to...
tradition often holds Nero as the first persecutor of Christians and as the killer of Apostles
PeterSimon Peter , Pétros “Rock”, Kephas in Hellenized Aramaic) was a leader of the early Christian Church, who features prominently in the New Testament Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. Peter was the son of John, and was from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee...
and Paul. There was also a belief among some early Christians that Nero was the
AntichristThe Antichrist, according to Christianity, is one who fulfills Biblical prophecies concerning an adversary of Christ while resembling him in a deceptive manner. "Antichrist" is the English translation of the original Koine Greek ἀντίχριστος, pronounced än-tē'-khrē-stos. It is made up of two root...
.
First Persecutor
The non-Christian historian
TacitusPublius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
describes Nero extensively torturing and executing Christians after the fire of 64.
SuetoniusGaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies of twelve successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar until Domitian, entitled De Vita Caesarum...
also mentions Nero punishing Christians, though he does so as a praise and does not connect it with the fire.
The Christian writer
TertullianQuintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, was a prolific and controversial early Christian Berber author, and the first to write Christian Latin literature. He also was a notable early Christian apologist and a polemicist against heresy...
(
c. 155- 230) was the first to call Nero the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote "Examine your records. There you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine".
LactantiusLucius Caelius Firmianus Lactantius was an early Christian author .-Biography:Lactantius, a Latin-speaking native of North Africa, was a pupil of Arnobius and taught rhetoric in various cities of the Eastern Roman Empire, ending in Constantinople...
(
c. 240- 320) also said Nero "first persecuted the servants of God". as does
Sulpicius SeverusSulpicius Severus was a Christian writer and native of Aquitania. He is known for his chronicle of sacred history, as well as his biography of Saint Martin of Tours.-Life:...
. However, Suetonius gives that "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he [the emperor
ClaudiusTiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus was the fourth Roman Emperor, a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from 24 January AD 41 to his death in AD 54...
] expelled them from Rome" ("
Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit"). These expelled "Jews" may have been early Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the Bible explicit, calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at the time, "Jews."
Killer of Peter and Paul
The first text to suggest that Nero killed an apostle is the apocryphal
Ascension of IsaiahThe book Ascension of Isaiah is one of the Pseudepigrapha, dating probably the second half of the 2nd century AD and compiled by an unknown Christian scholar.-Content:The content is two-and-a-half fold:...
, a Christian writing from the 2nd century. It says
the slayer of his mother, who himself this king, will persecute the plant which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one will be delivered into his hands.
The
BishopA bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, in the Assyrian Church of the East, in the Independent Catholic Churches, and in the...
Eusebius of Caesarea (
c. 275- 339) was the first to write that Paul was beheaded in Rome during the reign of Nero. He states that Nero's persecution led to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not give any specific orders. Several other accounts have Paul surviving his two years in Rome and traveling to
HispaniaHispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula . When Rome was a republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior...
.
Peter is first said to have been crucified upside down in Rome during Nero's reign (but not by Nero) in the apocryphal
Acts of PeterThe Acts of Peter is one of the earliest of the apocryphal acts of the apostles. The majority of the text has survived only in the Latin translation of the Vercelli manuscript. It is mainly notable for a description of a miracle contest between Saint Peter and Simon Magus, and as the first record...
(
c. 200). The account ends with Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command not to persecute any more Christians.
By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul.
The Antichrist
The
Ascension of IsaiahThe book Ascension of Isaiah is one of the Pseudepigrapha, dating probably the second half of the 2nd century AD and compiled by an unknown Christian scholar.-Content:The content is two-and-a-half fold:...
is the first text to suggest that Nero was the
AntichristThe Antichrist, according to Christianity, is one who fulfills Biblical prophecies concerning an adversary of Christ while resembling him in a deceptive manner. "Antichrist" is the English translation of the original Koine Greek ἀντίχριστος, pronounced än-tē'-khrē-stos. It is made up of two root...
. It claims a
lawless king, the slayer of his mother,...will come and there will come with him all the powers of this world, and they will hearken unto him in all that he desires.
The
Sibylline Oracles* This article is about the Sibylline Oracles. For the books, see Sibylline Books.The Sibylline Oracles are a collection of oracular utterances written in Greek hexameters ascribed to the Sibyls, prophetesses who uttered divine revelations in a frenzied state. Twelve books of Sibylline Oracles...
, Book 5 and 8, written in the 2nd century, speaks of Nero returning and bringing destruction. Within Christian communities, these writings, along with others, fueled the belief that Nero would return as the Antichrist. In 310,
LactantiusLucius Caelius Firmianus Lactantius was an early Christian author .-Biography:Lactantius, a Latin-speaking native of North Africa, was a pupil of Arnobius and taught rhetoric in various cities of the Eastern Roman Empire, ending in Constantinople...
wrote that Nero
suddenly disappeared, and even the burial-place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen. This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that, having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses.
In 422,
Augustine of HippoAugustine of Hippo , Bishop of Hippo Regius, also known as St. Augustine or St. Austin, was an Algerian Berber philosopher and theologian....
wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Though he rejects the theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed that Nero was the Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote,
so that in saying, "For the mystery of iniquity doth already work," he alluded to Nero, whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist.
Most scholars, such as Delbert Hillers (
Johns Hopkins UniversityThe Johns Hopkins University, commonly referred to as Johns Hopkins, JHU, or simply Hopkins, is a private research university located in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. Johns Hopkins also maintains full-time campuses elsewhere in Maryland, Washington, D.C., Italy, China, and Singapore...
) of the
American Schools of Oriental ResearchThe American Schools of Oriental Research, founded in 1900, supports and encourages the study of the peoples and cultures of the Near East, from the earliest times to the present. It is apolitical and has no religious affiliation...
and the editors of the Oxford & Harper Collins study Bibles, contend that the number
666The Number of the Beast is a concept from the Book of Revelation of the New Testament of the Christian Bible, relating to the figure of "The Beast". The number is 666 in most manuscripts of the New Testament, and in modern translations and critical editions of the Greek text...
in the
Book of RevelationThe Book of Revelation, also called the Revelation of St. John, the Apocalypse of John, and the Revelation of Jesus Christ, is the last book of the New Testament. It may be shortened to Revelation but never Revelations...
is a code for Nero, a view that is also supported in Roman Catholic Biblical commentaries. When treated as Hebrew numbers, the letters of Nero's name add up either to 616 or 666, representing the two devil numbers given in ancient versions of Revelation and the two ways of spelling his name in Hebrew (NERO and NERON).
The concept of Nero as the Antichrist is often a central belief of
PreteristPreterism is a variant of Christian eschatology which holds that most or all of the biblical prophecies concerning the Last Days or End Times refer to events which already happened in the first century after Christ's birth. Because of its claims that Israel was supplanted by the Christian church...
eschatologyEschatology is a part of theology and philosophy concerned with what are believed to be the final events in the history of the world, or the ultimate destiny of humanity, commonly referred to as the end of the world...
.
Nero in medieval and Renaissance literature
Usually as a stock exemplar of vice or a bad ruler
- In the Golden Legend
The Golden Legend is a collection of fanciful hagiographies by Jacobus de Voragine that became a late medieval bestseller...
, and its apocryphal account of his forcing Seneca the YoungerLucius Annaeus Seneca was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. He was tutor and later advisor to emperor Nero...
's suicide, where they meet face to face on this occasion.
- In Geoffrey Chaucer
Geoffrey Chaucer was an English author, poet, philosopher, bureaucrat, courtier and diplomat. Although he wrote many works, he is best remembered for his unfinished frame narrative The Canterbury Tales...
's Canterbury Tales, The Monk's Prologue and TaleThe Monk's Tale is one of The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer.The tale is a collection of seventeen short stories, exempla, on the theme of tragedy...
.
- Giovanni Boccaccio
Giovanni Boccaccio was an Italian author and poet, a friend, student, and correspondent of Petrarch, an important Renaissance humanist and the author of a number of notable works including the Decameron, On Famous Women, and his poetry in the Italian vernacular...
's Concerning the Falls of Illustrious Men.
- Matthew Gwinn wrote a play Nero in March 1603.
Nero in music
Nero is the main (or at least an important character) of some musical works, as the operas:
- Claudio Monteverdi
Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi , was an Italian composer, gambist, and singer.Monteverdi's work, often regarded as revolutionary, marked the transition from the Renaissance style of music to that of the Baroque period...
's L'incoronazione di PoppeaL'incoronazione di Poppea is an opera seria in three acts by Claudio Monteverdi to an Italian libretto by Giovanni Francesco Busenello, based on historical incidents described in the Annals of Tacitus...
(1642),
- George Frideric Handel
George Frideric Handel was a German-English Baroque composer, who is famous for his operas, oratorios, and concerti grossi. His life and music may justly be described as "cosmopolitan": he was born in Germany, trained in Italy, and spent most of his life in England...
's AgrippinaAgrippina is an opera seria in three acts by George Frideric Handel, from a libretto by Cardinal Vincenzo Grimani. Composed for the 1709–10 Venice Carnevale season, the opera tells the story of Agrippina, the mother of Nero, as she plots the downfall of the Roman Emperor Claudius and the...
(1709),
- Anton Rubinstein
Anton Grigorevich Rubinstein was a Russian pianist, composer and conductor. As a pianist he was regarded as a rival of Franz Liszt, and he ranks amongst the great keyboard virtuosos...
's Nero (1879),
- Arrigo Boito
Arrigo Boito , aka Enrico Giuseppe Giovanni Boito, pseudonym Tobia Gorrio, was an Italian poet, journalist, novelist and composer, best known today for his opera libretti and his own opera, Mefistofele.-Biography:...
's NeroneNerone is an opera in four acts composed by Arrigo Boito, to a libretto in Italian written by the composer. The work is a series of scenes from Imperial Rome at the time of Emperor Nero depicting tensions between the Imperial religion and Christianity, and ends with the Great Fire of Rome.Boito...
(1924),
- Pietro Mascagni
Pietro Mascagni was an Italian composer most noted for his operas. His 1890 masterpiece, Cavalleria rusticana, caused one of the greatest sensations in opera history and singlehandedly ushered in the Verismo movement in Italian dramatic music...
's Nerone (1935).
He is also an inspiration for:
- Moondog
Moondog was the pseudonym of Louis Thomas Hardin , a blind American composer, musician, cosmologist, poet, and inventor of several musical instruments...
's song, Nero's Expedition of the Nile (1971).
- Alesana
Alesana is a post-hardcore band from Raleigh, North Carolina, formed in 2004.They have released one EP, appeared on 7 compilations, released 2 full length albums, and have one CD that is being produced while the band is on tour....
's song, "Nero's Decay" off of their debut album On Frail Wings of Vanity and WaxOn Frail Wings of Vanity and Wax is the debut full length album by post-hardcore band Alesana. It was originally released on June 6, 2006 by Tragic Hero Records, but later it was re-released on March 20, 2007 by Fearless Records. It holds many analogies to Greek Mythology and the Medieval ages...
(2006).
- Satyricon
Satyricon is a Latin work of fiction in a mixture of prose and poetry. It is believed to have been written by Gaius Petronius, though the manuscript tradition identifies the author as a certain Titus Petronius...
's album, The Age of NeroThe Age of Nero is the seventh studio album by Norwegian black metal band Satyricon released on November 3, 2008 via Roadrunner Records. The release was backed by a full European headlining tour opening in Stavanger, Norway on November 12 and ending in Hamburg, Germany on December 20. Most of the...
(2008).
- Alesana
Alesana is a post-hardcore band from Raleigh, North Carolina, formed in 2004.They have released one EP, appeared on 7 compilations, released 2 full length albums, and have one CD that is being produced while the band is on tour....
's song Nero's Decay, off the album On Frail Wings of Vanity and WaxOn Frail Wings of Vanity and Wax is the debut full length album by post-hardcore band Alesana. It was originally released on June 6, 2006 by Tragic Hero Records, but later it was re-released on March 20, 2007 by Fearless Records. It holds many analogies to Greek Mythology and the Medieval ages...
(2007).
He is referenced in:
- Bob Dylan
Bob Dylan is an American singer-songwriter, musician, poet and painter who has been a major figure in popular music for five decades. Much of his most celebrated work dates from the 1960s when he was, at first, an informal chronicler and then an apparently reluctant figurehead of social unrest...
's song Desolation Row"Desolation Row" is the closing track of Bob Dylan's sixth studio album, Highway 61 Revisited. It is noted for its length and surreal lyrics. It was recorded on August 4, 1965, in Columbia's Studio A in New York City. The two takes spliced for the album were the second and third time Dylan had...
, the final track from Highway 61 RevisitedHighway 61 Revisited is singer-songwriter Bob Dylan's sixth studio album, released in August 1965 by Columbia Records. It is Dylan's first album to be recorded entirely with a full rock band, after he experimented with the approach on half of Bringing It All Back Home...
, "Praise be to Nero's Neptune." (1965).
- U2
U2 are a rock band that formed in Dublin, Ireland. The band consists of Bono , The Edge , Adam Clayton , and Larry Mullen, Jr...
's song Mercy, an unreleased track from the How to Dismantle an Atomic BombHow to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb is the eleventh studio album by Irish rock band U2, released in November 2004. Much like their previous album, All That You Can't Leave Behind, How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb was commercially successful and critically acclaimed and maintains a more traditional rock...
recording sessions, "You wanted violins... and you got Nero." (2004)
Nero in IT
- Nero Burning ROM
Nero is a popular software suite for Microsoft Windows and Linux by Nero AG, formerly Ahead Software. The principal component of the software bundle is Nero Burning ROM.- Products included in the suite :The following applications are included in Nero 9 :...
is a popular optical disc authoring programOptical disc authoring software is computer software for authoring optical discs including CD-ROMs and DVDs. They are also known by synonyms such as CD burning application or DVD authoring software...
; it is a pun mixing the legend of Nero playing his lyre as Rome burnedThe Great Fire of Rome was a large fire which struck ancient Rome in 64 AD. According to the historian Tacitus, the fire started on the night of 18 July, among the shops clustered around the Circus Maximus. As many Romans lived in wood houses without masonry, the fire spread quickly through these...
and the colloquial term for optical disc authoring ("burning"). The pun is more obvious in the original GermanGerman is a West Germanic language, thus related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. It is one of the world's major languages and the most widely spoken first language in the European Union. Around the world, German is spoken by approximately 105 million native speakers and also by...
as the German nameBelow is list of German language exonyms for former German places and places in non-German-speaking areas of the world :-Links to more extensive lists:Belgium* List of German exonyms for places in BelgiumCroatia...
for RomeRome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated municipality , with over 2.7 million residents in , while the population of the urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 3.46 million. The metropolitan area of Rome is estimated by OECD to have a population of 3.7 million...
is Rom (a literal English translation would be Nero Burning ROMe). The program logo is an image of the Roman ColosseumThe Colosseum or Roman Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre , is an elliptical amphitheatre in the center of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire...
in flames; this is dramatic but inaccurate, as the Great Fire of RomeThe Great Fire of Rome was a large fire which struck ancient Rome in 64 AD. According to the historian Tacitus, the fire started on the night of 18 July, among the shops clustered around the Circus Maximus. As many Romans lived in wood houses without masonry, the fire spread quickly through these...
took place in 64 AD, while construction of the ColosseumThe Colosseum or Roman Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre , is an elliptical amphitheatre in the center of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire...
only started a few years later, between 70 and 72 AD.
Ancestry
Primary sources
- Tacitus, Histories, I-IV (c. 105)
- Tacitus, Annals, XIII–XVI (c. 117)
- Josephus, War of the Jews, Books II-VI (c. 94)
- Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book XX (c. 94)
- Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 61–63 (c. 229)
- Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Galba (c. 110)
- Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius Tyana, Books 4–5, (c. 220)
- Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, the Life of Nero (c. 121)
Secondary material
- Benario, Herbert W. Nero at De Imperatoribus Romanis.
- Champlin, Edward. Nero. Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0-674-01822-2).
- Donahue, John, (68-69 A.D.)" at De Imperatoribus Romanis.
- Grant, Michael. Nero. New York: Dorset Press, 1989 (ISBN 0-88029-311-X).
- Griffin, Miriam T. Nero: The End of a Dynasty. New Heaven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1985 (hardcover, ISBN 0-300-03285-4); London; New York: Routledge, 1987 (paperback, ISBN 0-7134-4465-7).
- Holland, Richard. Nero: The Man Behind the Myth. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2000 (paperback ISBN 0-7509-2876-X).
- Warmington, Brian Herbert. Nero: Reality and Legend. London: Chatto & Windus, 1969 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7011-1438-X); New York: W.W Norton & Company, 1970 (paperback, ISBN 0-393-00542-9); New York: Vintage, 1981 (paperback, ISBN 0-7011-1454-1).
- Nero Nero: The Actor-Emperor
- Nero entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
- Nero basic data & select quotes posted by Romans On Line
- Nero Caesar biographical sketch archived in Bible History Online
- THE LIFE AND TIMES OF NERO By CARLO MARIA FRANZERO (BTM format).
- Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus entry in the Illustrated History of the Roman Empire.