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Anglo-Iraqi War
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The Anglo-Iraqi War was a conflict between the United Kingdom and the nationalist government of Iraq during World War II. The conflict lasted from 2 May to 31 May 1941. The conflict is also referred to as the Rashid Ali Rebellion. The campaign resulted in British re-occupation of Iraq and further fuelled nationalist resentment of the British-supported Iraqi monarchy.
Background
The Kingdom of Iraq (also referred to as Mesopotamia) was governed by the United Kingdom under a League of Nations mandate; the British Mandate of Mesopotamia, until 1932 when it became nominally independent.
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Encyclopedia
The Anglo-Iraqi War was a conflict between the United Kingdom and the nationalist government of Iraq during World War II. The conflict lasted from 2 May to 31 May 1941. The conflict is also referred to as the Rashid Ali Rebellion. The campaign resulted in British re-occupation of Iraq and further fuelled nationalist resentment of the British-supported Iraqi monarchy.
Background
The Kingdom of Iraq (also referred to as Mesopotamia) was governed by the United Kingdom under a League of Nations mandate; the British Mandate of Mesopotamia, until 1932 when it became nominally independent. Before granting independence, the United Kingdom concluded the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930. This treaty had several conditions, which included permission to establish military bases for British use and provide all facilities for the unrestricted movement of British forces through the country upon request to the Iraqi government. The conditions of the treaty were imposed by the United Kingdom to ensure continued control of Iraq's oil resources. Many Iraqis resented these conditions and felt that their country and its monarchy were still under the effective control of the British Government.
However following 1937 no British troops were left in Iraq and the Iraqi government had become solely responsible for the internal security of the country. In accordance with the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, the Royal Air Force (RAF) had been allowed to retain two bases; RAF Shaibah, near Basra, and one at Habbaniya. These bases had a dual role: protecting Britain's oil interests and maintaining a link in the air route between Egypt and India. In addition RAF Habbaniya was also a training base and was protected by a small detachment of RAF ground forces and locally raised Iraqi troops.
With the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 the Iraqi Government broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. However, the United Kingdom wanted the Iraqi Government to take a further step and declare war upon Germany. In March 1940 the nationalist and anti-British Rashid Ali replaced Nuri as-Said. Ali made covert contacts with German representatives in the Middle East, though he was not yet an openly pro-Axis supporter. In June 1940 when the Italians joined the war, on the side of Germany, the Iraqi government did not break off diplomatic relations, as they had done so with Germany.
In January 1941 there was a political crisis within Iraq and the threat of civil war was looming. Rashid Ali resigned as Prime Minister of Iraq, on 31 January, and was replaced by Taha al-Hashimi. Public opinion started to change in Iraq as the Italians suffered a series of setbacks in the African and Mediterranean theatre.
Coup d'état
On 31 March the regent of Iraq, Amir Abdul Illah, learnt of a plot to arrest him and he fled Baghdad for RAF Habbaniya. From Habbaniya he was flown to Basra and given refuge on the . On 3 April Rashid Ali, along with four top level Army and Air Force officers; known as the "Golden Square", seized power via a coup d'état and Ali proclaimed himself Chief of the National Defence Government. On 3 April Ali once again became Prime Minister but did not move to overthrow the monarchy, he did however restrict British rights under the 1930 treaty.
Allied response
Following the coup the British Chiefs of Staff, with the vocal support of the Commander-in-Chief, India Claude Auchinleck, were in favour of armed intervention. However the three Commander-in-chiefs, of the British armed forces in the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean area, already heavily committed with fighting in Libya and with the Battle of Greece, suggested the only forces they would be able to use against Iraq was a single battalion of infantry, based within Palestine, and the aircraft already based within Iraq. The Government of India had a long standing commitment to prepare one infantry division in case it should be needed to protect the Anglo-Iranian oilfields and in July 1940 the leading brigade of this division, the 5th Indian Infantry Division, was ordered to be dispatched to Iraq. However in August the division was placed under the command of Middle East Command and was diverted to Sudan. Since then British India Command had been investigating the move of troops by air from India to RAF Shaibah when the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, asked what force could be quickly sent from India to Iraq. The response from India was that the majority of one brigade group, that was due to set sail for Malaya on 10 April, could be diverted to Basra and the rest of the group dispatched ten days later. In addition 390 British infantrymen could be flown from India into RAF Shaibah. It was also stated that when shipping became available this force could quickly be built up to a division in strength. On 10 April this offer was accepted by London and the move of these forces was codenamed Operation Sabine. On the same day General Archibald Wavell, Commander-in-Chief of Middle East Command, informed London that he could no longer spare the one battalion in Palestine and urged for firm diplomatic action, and possibly a demonstration of air strength, to be taken rather than military intervention.
Starting in early April preparations in case of hostilities were made at Habbaniya: aircraft were modified to allow them to carry bombs, while light bombers such as the Hawker Audax were modified to carry larger bombs. On 13 April the Royal Navy force of four ships in the Persian Gulf were reinforced by two cruisers and the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes. On 16 April the Iraqi Government was informed that the British were going to invoke the Anglo-Iraq treaty to move troops through the country to Palestine. Rashid Ali raised no objection and the next day the 1st Battalion King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster) was flown into RAF Shaiabh; by the end of the month 300 of their number had been flown from RAF Shaibah to RAF Habbaniya to reinforce the base.
On 18 April the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, the personnel of the Royal Artillery's 3rd Field Regiment; but without their guns, and the headquarters of the 10th Indian Infantry Division landed at Basra; covered by the infantry of the King’s Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster). Major-General William Fraser, the commanding officer of the 10th Indian Infantry Division, then assumed control over all land forces based within Iraq. The following day seven aircraft were flown into RAF Habbaniya to bolster the air force there. A further three ships landed at Basra, bringing ancillary troops on 29 April. The same day the British Ambassador, Sir Kinahan Cornwallis, advised that all British women and children should leave Baghdad; 230 civillians were escorted by road to Habbaniya and during the following days were gradually air lifted to Shaibah. A further 350 civilians took refuge in the British Embassy and 150 British civilians in the American Legation.
Following the landing of these troops, Rashid Ali requested that they be moved quickly through the country and that no more should arrive until the previous force had left. Sir Kinahan Cornwallis referred the issue to London who replied that they had no interest in moving the troops out of the country and wanted to establish them within Iraq. Cornwallis was also informed not to inform Rashid Ali who, as he had taken control of the country via a coup d'etat, had no right to be informed about British troop movements. On 30 April the 10th Indian Infantry Division's second brigade, 21st Infantry Brigade, disembarked in Iraq without incident. When Ali was informed that ships containing British forces had arrived on 30 April he refused permission for troops to disembark from them and began organising for an armed demonstration at RAF Habbaniya.
Iraqi moves and escalation to war
The Iraqi Army was composed of four infantry divisions of which, the 1st and 3rd Divisions, where stationed near Baghdad. The Iraqi 2nd Division was stationed in Kirkuk, and the 4th Division was in Al Diwaniyah, on the main rail line from Baghdad to Basra.
At 0300 on 30 April RAF Habbaniya was warned, by the British Embassy, that Iraqi forces had left their bases, at Baghdad, and were heading west. The Iraqi force was composed of between 6,000 – 9,000 Iraqi troops with up to 30 artillery pieces. Within a few hours of RAF Habbaniya being warned, Iraqi forces occupied the plateau to the south of the base. Prior to dawn reconnaissance aircraft were launched and reported that at least two battalions, with artillery, had taken up position on the plateau. At 0600 an Iraqi envoy presented a message to the Air Officer Commanding, Air Vice-Marshal H. G. Smart, stating that the plateau had been occupied for a training exercise. The envoy also informed the base commander that all flying should cease immediately and demanded that no movements, either ground or air, take place from the base. The Air Officer Commanding replied that any interference with the normal training carried out at the base would be treated as an act of war. The British Ambassador, located at the embassy in Baghdad and in contact with the base via wireless, fully supported this action. The reconnaissance aircraft, already in the air, continued to relay information to the base; they reported that the Iraqi positions on the plateau were being steadily reinforced, they also reported that Iraqi troops had occupied the town of Falluja.
At 1130 hours the Iraqi envoy again made contact with the base commander and accused the British of violating the Anglo-Iraqi treaty. Air Vice-Marshal Smart replied that this was a political matter and he would have to refer the accusation to the Ambassador. Meanwhile Iraqi forces had now occupied vital bridges over the Tigris and Euphrates rivers as well as reinforcing their garrison at Ramadi; thus effectively cutting off RAF Habbaniya except from the air. In response to the Iraqi moves the 10th Indian Infantry Division occupied Basra airport, the city's docks and the power station.
Air Vice-Marshal Smart controlling a base with a population of around 9,000 civilians that was indefensible with the force of roughly 2,500 men currently available, including air crew and Assyrian Levies, whose loyalty had yet to be proven, and with the possibility that the Iraqi rebels were waiting for dark before attacking; decided to accept the tactical risks and stick to Middle East Command's policy of avoiding aggravation in Iraq by, for the moment, not launching a pre-emptive strike.
Further exchanges of messages took place between the British and Iraqi forces but none were able to defuse the situation. In response the British requested reinforcements and the Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Sir Arthur Longmore, ordered 18 Vickers Wellington bombers to RAF Shaibah. The British Ambassador signalled the Foreign Office that he regarded the Iraqi actions as an act of war, which required an immediate air response. He also informed them that he intended to demand the withdrawal of the Iraqi forces and permission to launch air strikes to restore control, even if the Iraqi troops overlooking Habbaniya did withdraw it would only postpone aerial attacks. On 1 May the Ambassador received a response giving him full authority to take any steps needed to ensure the withdrawal of the Iraqi armed forces. Churchill also sent a personnel reply, stating: "If you have to strike, strike hard. Use all necessary force." Were contact to break down between the Embassy and Habbaniya, the Air Officer Commanding was given permission to act on his own authority.
Still in contact with the Embassy and with the Ambassadors approval, Air Vice-Marshal Smart decided to launch air strikes against the plateau the following morning without issuing an ultimatum; as with foreknowledge the Iraqi force might start to shell the airbase and halt any attempt to launch aircraft.
Resolution
Air Vice-Marshal Smart's tactics, to defend the Habbaniya, was to mount continuous bombing and strafing attacks with as many aircraft as possible. At 0500 on 2 May 33 aircraft from Habbaniya, out of the 56 operational aircraft based there, and eight Wellington bombers, from Shaibah, began their attack Within minutes the Iraqi's replied by shelling the base, damaging some planes on the ground. The Iraqi air force also joined in the fray over Habbaniya. RAF attacks were also made against Iraqi air fields near Baghdad, which resulted in 22 aircraft being destroyed on the ground; further attacks were made against the railway and Iraqi positions near Shaibah, with the loss of two planes. Throughout the day the pilots, from Habbaniya, flew 193 sorties and claimed direct hits on Iraqi transports, armoured cars and artillery pieces; however five aircraft had been destroyed and several others had been put out of service. On the base 13 people had lost their lives and a further 29 wounded, including nine civilians.
By the end of the day the Iraqi force, outside of Habbaniya, had grew to roughly a brigade and there had been reports that elements of the Iraqi army was advancing on the town of Rutbah.
On 3 May the bombing continued; troop and gun positions on the plateau were targeted as well the supply line to Baghdad. The Iraqi air force base at Rashid was
attacked and an Iraqi Savoia SM 79 was intercepted and shot down heading for Habbaniya. The following day further air attacks were carried out on troop positions and the Iraqi air force. A bombing raid was conducted by eight Wellington bombers on Rashid, which was briefly engaged by Iraqi fighters but no losses were suffered. Bristol Blenheims, escorted by Hurricanes, also conducted strafing attacks against airfields at Baghdad, Rashid and Mosul.
Colonel Ouvry Lindfield Roberts, the senior staff officer (GSO1) of 10th Indian Division, was flown in to command the Habbaniya ground forces. Two World War I howitzers that had been decorating the entrance of the officers' mess were put in working order by some British gunners.
Further aerial attacks were conducted against the plateau on 5 May and following nightfall Colonel Roberts ordered a sortie by the King's Own supported by the Assyrian Levies, some armoured cars, and the old howitzers. After a hard fight the Iraqi force withdrew from the plateau. Meanwhile Iraqi reinforcements were approaching. They met the retreating force on the Fallujah road some five miles (8 km) east of Habbaniya. Just at that moment, every remaining available aircraft from RAF Habbaniya arrived to attack the reinforcing column. The two Iraqi columns were paralysed and within two hours over 400 Iraqi prisoners were taken and more than 1,000 casualties inflicted. On the morning of 7 May British reconnaissance found the plateau vacated.
Meanwhile, forced into action by London, in early May Wavell put together in Palestine a force to cross the desert and relieve Habbaniya. The force was commanded by Major-General John Clark and was called Habforce, comprising British 4th Cavalry Brigade, a battalion of The Essex Regiment, the Arab Legion Mechanised Regiment, a field artillery battery and a troop of anti-tank guns. Operations in Iraq also passed in early May from under the control of Auckinlech's India Command to Wavell's Middle East Command, while on 7 May Lieutenant-General Edward Quinan had arrived from India to take overall command of the land forces in Iraq. He was clear that his immediate task was to secure Basra as a base and he could not contemplate any move northward from Basra for three months on account of the flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates On 16 May William Slim was promoted to major-general to succeed Fraser (who had gone sick) as commander Indian 10th Infantry Division.
German involvement
The Iraqi Air Force (IAF) was on paper better equipped than the local RAF strength. But by 10 May, bombing by aircraft from Habbaniya disabled the IAF as a fighting force.
However, the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) now intervened. At the direction of German Colonel General Hans Jeschonnek, the Luftwaffe sent Sonderkommando Junck under the command of Oberst Werner Junck to Iraq. Junck's unit flew 15 Heinkel 111s and 14 Messerschmitt 110s into Mosul via Vichy French airbases in Syria, arriving from 10 May to 12 May, then commenced regular aerial attacks on Habbaniya. Plans were drawn up to supply ground warfare equipment and also troops, but the German high command was hesitant and required the permission of Turkey for passage. In the end, the Luftwaffe found conditions in Iraq intolerable, as spare parts were not to be had and even the quality of aircraft fuel was far below the Luftwaffe's requirements. With each passing day a reduced number of aircraft remained servicable and, ultimately, all Luftwaffe personnel were evacuated on the last remaining Heinkel He 111. Only one German aircraft was lost in action, due to Iraqi friendly fire.
British counterattack
On 18 May Kingcol (named after its commander, Brigadier James Kingstone), the flying column of Habforce, arrived at Habbaniya from the British Mandate of Palestine, too late to intervene at Habbaniya but in time to participate in the thrust from the base towards Falujah and thence Baghdad to force an early Iraqi capitulation.
On 18 May 1941, Colonel Ouvry Roberts, commanding a force of the King's Own Royal Regiment, RAF Armoured Cars, RAF Assyrian Levies, and the reinforcements from Kingcol, using improvised cable-drawn ferries crossed the river and then overcame the other water obstacles created by the flooding, and moved on Fallujah. After nearly a whole day of fighting, Fallujah was taken by the evening of 19 May. Kingcol then pressed on to Baghdad.
By the time of the Fallujah battle, British aircraft were operating unopposed against the Iraqi army. The British managed this despite the presence of twin engine fighters and medium bombers from the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) and by a squadron of CR.42 biplane fighters from the Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica). The German and Italian aircraft were painted in Iraqi markings (recalling the aircraft of the Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War).
Iraqi collapse
The British forces pressed on to Baghdad, where the government of Rashid Ali collapsed. Rashid Ali and his supporters fled to Persia and then on to Germany. On 31 May 1941, an armistice was signed and the monarchy and a pro-British government was put back in place.
Aftermath
British forces remained in Iraq until 26 October 1947 and the country remained effectively under British control. The British considered the occupation of Iraq necessary to ensure that access to its strategic oil resources be maintained.
After the Anglo-Iraq war the British continued to build up forces in Iraq and elements of Iraqforce based in Iraq were used to attack Syria in the Syria-Lebanon campaign, which took place in June and July 1941 and also Iran in the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran, which took place in August to September 1941. Forward defences against a possible German invasion from the north through the Caucuses were created in 1942 and the strength of Paiforce (Persia and Iraq Command), Iraqforce's successor, peaked at the equivalent of over 10 divisions before the Russians halted the German threat at the Battle of Stalingrad. After 1942, Iraq and Iran were used to transit war material to the Soviet Union and the British military presence became mainly lines of communication troops.
While Rashid Ali and his supporters were in alliance with the Nazi regime in Germany, the war demonstrated that Iraq's independence was at best conditional on British approval of the government's actions. Rashid Ali and the Mufti of Jerusalem fled to Persia, then to Turkey, then to Italy, and finally to Berlin, Germany, where Ali was welcomed by Hitler as head of the Iraqi government-in-exile. In propaganda broadcasts from Berlin, the Mufti continued to call on Arabs to rise up against the British and aid German and Italian forces. He also helped recruit Muslim volunteers in the Balkans for the Waffen SS.
See also
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