Western Desert Campaign
Encyclopedia
The Western Desert Campaign, also known as the Desert War, was the initial stage of the North African Campaign
during the Second World War
. The campaign was heavily influenced by the availability of supplies and transport. The ability of the Allied forces
, operating from besieged Malta, to interdict Axis
convoys was critical. Allied interdictions denied the German commander, Erwin Rommel
, the fuel and the reinforcements he desperately needed at critical moments. In early 1942, the U.S. Army Air Force
supplied a small contingent of bombers in support of the campaign, referring to it as the Egypt-Libya Campaign
.
From the start, the Western Desert Campaign was a continuous back-and-forth struggle. In September 1940, the first offensive, the invasion of Egypt
, was initiated by the Italian
forces in Libya
against British and Commonwealth
forces stationed in neutral Egypt
. The Italian offensive was halted and, in December 1940, the British made a counterattack. What started as a five-day raid turned into Operation Compass
, resulting in massive losses for the Italian forces. The Italians' Axis partner, Germany
, provided a contingent of ground forces (Heer) and air forces (Luftwaffe
) to prevent a total collapse, and Germany became the dominant partner.
Axis forces would twice launch more large-scale assaults against the Allies. Each time the Axis forces pushed the Allied forces back to Egypt, but both times the Allies retaliated and regained the ground lost. On the second (and final) Axis push, the Allies were driven far into Egypt; however, the Allies recovered at El Alamein
and then managed to drive the Axis forces west and completely out of Libya. The Axis forces were driven back until they reached Tunisia
, when the "Western Desert Campaign" effectively ended and the 8th Army and Rommel′s forces became involved in the "Tunisia Campaign
" which had begun in November 1942.
The British
had forces in Egypt since 1882
. But the forces were much reduced as a result of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty
signed with the Kingdom of Egypt
in 1936. The relatively modest British and Commonwealth
forces in Egypt were there primarily to protect the Suez Canal
. The canal was vital to Britain's communications with her Far East
ern and Indian Ocean
territories.
However, since 1938, the British forces in Egypt had included "Mobile Force (Egypt)
". Commanded by Major General
Percy Hobart
, this was one of only two British armoured training formations. On the outbreak of war, this force was renamed "Armoured Division (Egypt)" and ultimately became the 7th Armoured Division
. The 7th Armoured Division was later to become informally known as the "Desert Rats". The 7th Armoured Division served as the principal force defending the Egyptian border with Libya
at the start of the war.
In June 1939, Lieutenant-General Henry Maitland "Jumbo" Wilson
arrived in Cairo
, Egypt as General Officer Commanding
(GOC) British Troops in Egypt and was placed in command of the British and Commonwealth forces defending Egypt. At the end of July, Lieutenant-General Archibald Wavell
was appointed to the rank of local general and sent to Cairo to be General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) of the newly created Middle East Command
with responsibility for the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre; this command had operational control of all ground forces in Egypt, the Sudan, Palestine, Transjordan, and Cyprus. However, as the war progressed its authority was extended to include British led ground forces in east and north Africa, Aden, Iraq and the shores of the Persian Gulf, and Greece. On 17 June 1940, the troops Wilson had facing Libya under Major-General Richard O'Connor
and his 6th Infantry Division
headquarters were redesignated Western Desert Force
. O'Connor was given the local rank of lieutenant-general in October as his command was reinforced and expanded.
Libya had been an Italian colony
since the Italian Royal Army (Regio Esercito) defeated the Ottoman Imperial Army
in 1912 during the Italo-Turkish War
. Bracketed by French North Africa and Egypt, the Italians prepared for conflicts on both sides.
At the outbreak of the Second World War, Italy had two armies in Libya: The 5th Army and the 10th
. Both armies were commanded overall by the Commander-in-Chief
of Italian North Africa
and Governor-General
of Italian Libya
, the charismatic Marshal of the Air Force
(Maresciallo dell'Aria
) Italo Balbo
. The 5th Army in Tripolitania
was commanded directly by General
Italo Gariboldi
. The 5th Army had nine infantry divisions. The 10th Army in Cyrenaica
was commanded directly by General
Mario Berti
. The 10th Army had five infantry divisions. In late June 1940, the principal force on the border with Egypt was the Tenth Army. In all respects the Italian land forces and air forces
(Regia Aeronautica
) available in Libya greatly outnumbered the British forces in Egypt. The British, however, had an advantage in better quality.
According to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
, the approximately 215,000 Italians in Libya faced approximately 50,000 British in Egypt. The British estimated that the Italians had six "metropolitan" infantry divisions and two "militia" infantry divisions in Tripolitania, two "metropolitan" infantry divisions and two "militia" infantry divisions in Cyrenaica, and three "frontier" divisions. To counter this force, the British had the 7th Armoured Division, two-thirds of the 4th Indian Infantry Division, one-third of the New Zealand Division, 14 British battalions, and two regiments of Royal Artillery.
, two motor battalions of the 60th Rifles and the Rifle Brigade, and two regiments of motorized Royal Horse Artillery
.
On 11 June 1940, the day after Italy declared war
on the Allies
, the Italian forces stationed in Libya and the British and Commonwealth forces stationed in Egypt began a series of raids on each other. Among the more notable raids was a raid by the 11th Hussars within 24 hours of Italy′s declaration of war. The armoured cars crossed the border into Libya and captured Italian prisoners who apparently did not know that war had been declared. On 12 June, another 63 Italians were taken prisoner during a raid.
On 14 June, the 11th Hussars, the 7th Hussars, and one company of the 60th Rifles captured Fort Capuzzo
and Fort Maddalena and another 220 prisoners were taken. On 16 June, a deep raid into Italian territory resulted in the destruction of 12 Italian tanks. In addition, a convoy was intercepted on the Tobruk
-Bardia
highway, part of the Via Balbia
, and an Italian general was captured.
After 25 June, France had signed an armistice with Italy
and Italian divisions and materials from the 5th Army in Tripolitania could be dispersed to reinforce and strengthen the 10th Army in Cyrenaica. In time, the 10th Army had 10 divisions and the 5th Army had four. By mid-July, the Italians were able to reinforce the forces on the Egyptian frontier to a strength of two full infantry divisions and elements of two more.
On 28 June, Marshal Balbo was killed in a friendly fire
incident while landing at Tobruk
. His aircraft was shot down by Italian anti-aircraft fire soon after a British air raid. Balbo was replaced as Commander-in-Chief and as Governor-General by Marshal Rodolfo Graziani
.
On 5 August, a large but inconclusive action took place between Sidi Azeiz and Fort Capuzzo. Thirty Italian M11/39 medium tanks made contact with the 8th Hussars in an effort to re-establish themselves in the area. General Wavell concluded that he was in no position to deny the Italians.
Wear and tear on the armoured vehicles of the 7th Armoured Division was mounting to crisis proportions and workshops were back-logged. With an average of only one half of his tank strength available for action and realising that his one effective force was being worn out to no strategic purpose, Wavell curtailed further extensive operations and handed over the defence of the frontier to the 7th Support Group
under Brigadier
William Gott
and the 11th Hussars under Lieutenant-Colonel John Combe
. These units would provide a screen of outposts to give warning of any Italian approach.
By 13 August, in terms of performance during the initial hostilities, the balance sheet was tilted in favour of the British. They dominated both the desert and the Italians. Early set-backs had left the Italians in a demoralised state and no where did they feel safe. They were not safe deep within the static defences of their own territory. And, with the possible exception of a few units like the Auto-Saharan Company
(La Compania Auto-Avio-Sahariana), the Italians were not safe in the open desert where they were generally out of their element. In two months of desert warfare
, the Italians had lost approximately 3,000 men against British losses of little more than 100.
Throughout the rest of August and the early days of September, an uneasy calm settled upon the desert. The calm was broken only by sharp contact between patrols and sporadic air fighting as both sides sought knowledge of the other side′s intention. While a formidable spy network
in Egypt kept the Italians informed, the British chose other ways to obtain information on the Italians. The Long Range Desert Group
was formed under Major
Ralph A. Bagnold
and soon Italian movements far behind the lines were being reported by sky-wave radio links.
Benito Mussolini
, anxious to link Italian North Africa
(Africa Settentrionale Italiana) with Italian East Africa
(Africa Orientale Italiana) and hoping to capture the Suez Canal
and the Arabian oilfields, ordered the invasion of Egypt on 8 August.
On 9 September 1940, Italian forces under the overall command of Marshal Rodolfo Graziani
invaded Egypt from their base in Cyrenaica
. Sollum, Halfaya Pass
, and Sidi Barrani
were taken by the invading Italians. But, on 16 September, Graziani halted the advance. He cited supply problems. Despite Mussolini urging Graziani to continue, the Italians dug in around Sidi Barrani and established several fortified camps (represented on the adjacent map as small red circles).
Graziani stopped 80 mi (128.7 km) west of the British defensive positions at Mersa Matruh. He planned to return to the offensive after his troops had been resupplied. With Mussolini urging Graziani on, an Italian advance to Mersa Matruh was scheduled to start mid-December.
Egypt broke off relations with Germany and Italy. On 19 October, Italian aircraft bombed Ma'adi, a heavily European suburb of Cairo
.
On 9 December 1940, the Western Desert Force
(including portions of the Indian 4th Division and the British 7th Armoured Division
) launched Operation Compass
, the British counterattack
. The Italians were caught completely off-guard. By 10 December, the British and Indian forces had taken more than 20,000 Italian prisoners. The following day, the British and Indian forces attacked Sollum. They were supported by ships of the Mediterranean Fleet. Sidi Barrani fell on the same day.
To O'Connor′s shock, Wavell then replaced the experienced 4th Indian (who were immediately rushed to Port Sudan — see East African Campaign
) with the newly arrived Australian 6th Division
. The Australians then pressed on to capture Bardia and Tobruk
, capturing 67,000 prisoners, over 500 guns, while losing 180 dead. In early February, the Italians were in headlong retreat along the coast, pursued by the Australians.
O'Connor ordered the 7th Armoured to advance overland through Mechili
to Beda Fomm
and cut off the Italian line of retreat. Major General
Michael O'Moore Creagh
sent Combe Force
—an ad hoc flying column
—racing ahead of his tanks. Combe Force reached Beda Fomm just ahead of the Italians, and established a roadblock. After a hard and narrowly won battle on 6 February, the Italians surrendered 25,000 men, 200 artillery guns, 100 tanks and 1,500 vehicles.
This swift campaign by the British captured 130,000 Italians at a cost of 2,000 casualties. All through this operation, the Italians believed they were heavily outnumbered, when the reverse was the case. Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden
, paraphrasing Churchill
, quipped "Never has so much been surrendered by so many to so few." The remaining Italian forces retreated to El Agheila
by 9 February 1941.
During the course of this battle, the Western Desert Force was renamed as XIII Corps
.
as part of Operation Lustre
. While Wavell was reducing his forces in North Africa, German dictator Adolf Hitler
responded to the Italian disaster by ordering Operation Sonnenblume
("Sunflower"). This was the deployment of the newly formed German "Afrika Korps
" (Deutsches Afrikakorps
) as reinforcements to the Italians to prevent total collapse. The German corps included fresh troops with better equipment and a charismatic commander, General
Erwin Rommel
.
When Rommel arrived in North Africa, his orders were to assume a defensive posture and hold the front line. Finding that the British defences were thin, he quickly defeated the Allied forces at El Agheila on 24 March. He then launched an offensive which, by 15 April, had pushed the British back to the border at Sollum, recapturing all of Libya except for Tobruk, then under the command of the Australian Leslie Morshead
which was encircled and besieged
. During this drive, the new field commander for HQ Cyrenaica Command
(the new designation of XIII Corps)—Lieutenant General Philip Neame
—and O'Connor himself—who had been recalled to assist—were captured as was Major-General Michael Gambier-Parry
, commander of the newly arrived British 2nd Armoured Division. With Neame and O'Connor gone, British and Commonwealth forces were once more brought under the reactivated Western Desert Force HQ. In command was Lieutenant-General Noel Beresford-Peirse
, who had returned to Cairo from commanding the Indian 4th Infantry Division in the East African Campaign
.
Rommel′s first offensive was generally successful and his forces destroyed the 2nd Armoured Division. Several attempts to seize the isolated positions at Tobruk failed and the front lines stabilised at the Egyptian border.
The German and Italian siege of the British and Commonwealth forces in Tobruk was a lengthy confrontation and continued for 240 days.
The Western Desert Force launched Operation Brevity
in May 1941. This was an inconclusive attempt to secure more ground to launch the main effort to relieve Tobruk. Operation Battleaxe
was launched in June. After the failure of Battleaxe, Wavell was replaced by Claude Auchinleck
as Commander-in-Chief Middle East and the British forces were reinforced with XXX Corps.
The overall Allied field command now became British 8th Army, formed from units from many countries, including 9th Division and 18th Brigade from the Australian Army
and the Indian Army
, but also including divisions of South Africans, New Zealand
ers, a brigade of Free French under Marie-Pierre Koenig and the Polish Independent Carpathian Rifle Brigade
.
The 8th Army—under the command of Lieutenant-General Alan Cunningham
—launched Operation Crusader
on 18 November 1941. Although the Africa Korps achieved several tactical successes (which caused a disagreement between the British army commanders and led to Auchinleck replacing Cunningham with Major-General Neil Ritchie
), it was in the end forced to retreat and all the territory gained by Rommel in March and April was recaptured, with the exception of garrisons at Bardia and Sollum. Most significantly the Axis siege of Tobruk was relieved. The front line was again set at El Agheila.
After the Japanese
attacked Pearl Harbor
on 7 December 1941, the Australian forces were withdrawn from the Western Desert to the Pacific theater, while the 7th Armoured Division was withdrawn and 7th Armoured Brigade was transferred to Burma.
The relatively inexperienced British 1st Armoured Division
, which formed the principal defence around El Agheila, were spread out rather than concentrating its armour, as more experienced units had learned from earlier campaigns. Rommel′s Afrika Korps attacked on the 21 January scattering the British 1st Armoured Division's units. The 2nd Armoured Brigade was also committed piecemeal and easily defeated by Rommel′s more concentrated forces. Both units were forced back across the Cyrenaica
line into eastern Libya, along with the 201st Guards Motor Brigade, in the process giving up both Msus and Benghazi to the German forces.
From February-May 1942, the front line settled down at the Gazala
line, just west of Tobruk, with both armies preparing an offensive.
Rommel managed to get his offensive off first in June 1942. After a lengthy armoured battle, known as "the Cauldron", he defeated the Allies in the Battle of Gazala
and captured Tobruk
. Auchinleck fired Ritchie and took personal command of 8th Army, halting Rommel at the Alamein Line only seventy miles from Alexandria in the First Battle of El Alamein
.
Churchill had, despite the circumstances, become disenchanted with Auchinleck. He was replaced by General Harold Alexander as Commander-in-Chief Middle East Command and Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery, who became Commander of the 8th Army. In this way, the new army commander was free of responsibilities stretching from Cyprus to the Sudan and eastward to Syria. Alexander was also an effective buffer against political interventions from London.
Montgomery won a comprehensive defensive victory at the Battle of Alam el Halfa in August 1942 and then built up the Allied forces before returning to the offensive in the Second Battle of El Alamein
in October–November. It is notable that he had resources far in excess in quantity and quality to those of his predecessors. Second Alamein proved a decisive victory. In spite of a brilliant rearguard action by Rommel, the Allies retook Egypt and then advanced across Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, capturing Tripoli
in February 1943 and entering Tunisia in March.
An attempt to encircle the Axis forces at Marsa Matruh
was frustrated by rain and they escaped by 7 November. The coast road had been cut, but the Halfaya Pass
was easily captured and Egypt was cleared. Tobruk was retaken on 13 November, again Rommel′s forces escaped the trap, and Benghazi on 20 November. These two port towns were essential to the resupply of the campaign and an opportunity to outflank Rommel at Agedabia
was cautiously declined, in case of counter-attack.
The Germans and Italians retired to a prepared defence line at El Agheila
. Axis supplies and reinforcements were now directed into Tunisia at Rommel′s expense: he was left with no capacity to counter-attack and was critically short of petrol. Hitler
ordered that the El Agheila line should be held at all costs, whereas Rommel′s view was for a fighting retreat to Tunisia and a strong defensive position at the Gabès
Gap. Permission was granted for a withdrawal to Buerat, 50 mi (80.5 km) east of Sirte
. An attempt to outflank El Agheila between 14 and 16 December once again failed to encircle the enemy — Rommel had exercised his authority to withdraw and his line of retreat was adequately defended.
At this stage, the front was over 400 mi (643.7 km) from the nearest usable port at Tobruk and the difficulties of supply now hampered Montgomery′s ability to deploy his full strength. Allied pressure continued as the Axis forces reached Buerat. This line was not strongly defended, however, and the pursuit continued. Tripoli
was captured on 23 January 1943. The port was brought into use and, by mid-February 1943, nearly 3000 ST (2,721.6 t) of stores were landed daily.
Rommel′s retreat continued, despite Italian dissent. On 4 February, Allied units entered Tunisia. Soon after, Rommel was recalled to Germany, on health grounds.
Montgomery has been criticised for his perceived failure to trap the Axis armies, bring them to a decisive battle and destroy them in Libya. His tactics have been seen as too cautious and too slow. The counter arguments point out the defensive skills of German forces generally and the Afrika Korps in particular, and Montgomery's need not to relapse into the "see-saw" warfare of previous north African campaigns. Warfare in the desert has been described as a "quarter-master's nightmare", given the conditions of desert warfare and the difficulties of supply. Montgomery is renowned for fighting "balanced campaigns" and husbanding his resources: no attack until his troops were prepared and properly supplied. The 8th Army′s morale greatly improved under his command.
, between the recently landed Anglo-American forces of the British 1st Army to the west and the 8th Army
pursuing from the east.
North African campaign
During the Second World War, the North African Campaign took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts and in Morocco and Algeria and Tunisia .The campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many of whom had...
during the Second World War
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. The campaign was heavily influenced by the availability of supplies and transport. The ability of the Allied forces
Allies of World War II
The Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . Former Axis states contributing to the Allied victory are not considered Allied states...
, operating from besieged Malta, to interdict Axis
Axis Powers
The Axis powers , also known as the Axis alliance, Axis nations, Axis countries, or just the Axis, was an alignment of great powers during the mid-20th century that fought World War II against the Allies. It began in 1936 with treaties of friendship between Germany and Italy and between Germany and...
convoys was critical. Allied interdictions denied the German commander, Erwin Rommel
Erwin Rommel
Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel , popularly known as the Desert Fox , was a German Field Marshal of World War II. He won the respect of both his own troops and the enemies he fought....
, the fuel and the reinforcements he desperately needed at critical moments. In early 1942, the U.S. Army Air Force
United States Army Air Forces
The United States Army Air Forces was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II, and the direct predecessor of the United States Air Force....
supplied a small contingent of bombers in support of the campaign, referring to it as the Egypt-Libya Campaign
Egypt-Libya Campaign
The Egypt–Libya Campaign is the name used by the United States military for the US contribution to the Allied Western Desert Campaign, during World War II. From 1942, U.S. forces assisted the British Commonwealth in fighting Axis forces in Egypt and Libya. The U.S...
.
From the start, the Western Desert Campaign was a continuous back-and-forth struggle. In September 1940, the first offensive, the invasion of Egypt
Italian invasion of Egypt
The Italian Invasion of Egypt was an Italian offensive action against British, Commonwealth and Free French forces during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. Initially, the goal of the offensive was to seize the Suez Canal. To accomplish this, Italian forces from Libya would have...
, was initiated by the Italian
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...
forces in Libya
Italian Libya
Italian Libya was a unified colony of Italian North Africa established in 1934 in what represents present-day Libya...
against British and Commonwealth
Commonwealth of Nations
The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...
forces stationed in neutral Egypt
Kingdom of Egypt
The Kingdom of Egypt was the first modern Egyptian state, lasting from 1922 to 1953. The Kingdom was created in 1922 when the British government unilaterally ended its protectorate over Egypt, in place since 1914. Sultan Fuad I became the first king of the new state...
. The Italian offensive was halted and, in December 1940, the British made a counterattack. What started as a five-day raid turned into Operation Compass
Operation Compass
Operation Compass was the first major Allied military operation of the Western Desert Campaign during World War II. British and Commonwealth forces attacked Italian forces in western Egypt and eastern Libya in December 1940 to February 1941. The attack was a complete success...
, resulting in massive losses for the Italian forces. The Italians' Axis partner, Germany
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
, provided a contingent of ground forces (Heer) and air forces (Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe is a generic German term for an air force. It is also the official name for two of the four historic German air forces, the Wehrmacht air arm founded in 1935 and disbanded in 1946; and the current Bundeswehr air arm founded in 1956....
) to prevent a total collapse, and Germany became the dominant partner.
Axis forces would twice launch more large-scale assaults against the Allies. Each time the Axis forces pushed the Allied forces back to Egypt, but both times the Allies retaliated and regained the ground lost. On the second (and final) Axis push, the Allies were driven far into Egypt; however, the Allies recovered at El Alamein
Second Battle of El Alamein
The Second Battle of El Alamein marked a major turning point in the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. The battle took place over 20 days from 23 October – 11 November 1942. The First Battle of El Alamein had stalled the Axis advance. Thereafter, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery...
and then managed to drive the Axis forces west and completely out of Libya. The Axis forces were driven back until they reached Tunisia
Tunisia
Tunisia , officially the Tunisian RepublicThe long name of Tunisia in other languages used in the country is: , is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area...
, when the "Western Desert Campaign" effectively ended and the 8th Army and Rommel′s forces became involved in the "Tunisia Campaign
Tunisia Campaign
The Tunisia Campaign was a series of battles that took place in Tunisia during the North African Campaign of the Second World War, between Axis and Allied forces. The Allies consisted of British Imperial Forces, including Polish and Greek contingents, with American and French corps...
" which had begun in November 1942.
Pre-War
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
had forces in Egypt since 1882
History of Modern Egypt
The definition of modern history has varied in accordance to different definitions of Modernity. Some scholars date it as far back as 1517 with the Ottomans’ defeat of the Mamlūks in 1516–17...
. But the forces were much reduced as a result of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty
Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936
The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 was a treaty signed between the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Egypt; it is officially known as The Treaty of Alliance Between His Majesty, in Respect of the United Kingdom, and His Majesty, the King of Egypt...
signed with the Kingdom of Egypt
Kingdom of Egypt
The Kingdom of Egypt was the first modern Egyptian state, lasting from 1922 to 1953. The Kingdom was created in 1922 when the British government unilaterally ended its protectorate over Egypt, in place since 1914. Sultan Fuad I became the first king of the new state...
in 1936. The relatively modest British and Commonwealth
Commonwealth of Nations
The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...
forces in Egypt were there primarily to protect the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
. The canal was vital to Britain's communications with her Far East
Far East
The Far East is an English term mostly describing East Asia and Southeast Asia, with South Asia sometimes also included for economic and cultural reasons.The term came into use in European geopolitical discourse in the 19th century,...
ern and Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula ; on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and...
territories.
British 7th Armoured Division
The 7th Armoured Division was a British armoured division which saw service during the Second World War where its exploits made it famous as the Desert Rats....
". Commanded by Major General
Major General
Major general or major-general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. A major general is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of lieutenant general and senior to the ranks of brigadier and brigadier general...
Percy Hobart
Percy Hobart
Major-General Sir Percy Cleghorn Stanley Hobart KBE CB DSO MC , also known as "Hobo", was a British military engineer, noted for his command of the 79th Armoured Division during World War II...
, this was one of only two British armoured training formations. On the outbreak of war, this force was renamed "Armoured Division (Egypt)" and ultimately became the 7th Armoured Division
British 7th Armoured Division
The 7th Armoured Division was a British armoured division which saw service during the Second World War where its exploits made it famous as the Desert Rats....
. The 7th Armoured Division was later to become informally known as the "Desert Rats". The 7th Armoured Division served as the principal force defending the Egyptian border with Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
at the start of the war.
In June 1939, Lieutenant-General Henry Maitland "Jumbo" Wilson
Henry Maitland Wilson, 1st Baron Wilson
Field Marshal Henry Maitland Wilson, 1st Baron Wilson, GCB, GBE, DSO , also known as "Jumbo" Wilson, saw active service in the Second Boer War and First World War, and became a senior British general in the Middle East and Mediterranean during the Second World War...
arrived in Cairo
Cairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
, Egypt as General Officer Commanding
General Officer Commanding
General Officer Commanding is the usual title given in the armies of Commonwealth nations to a general officer who holds a command appointment. Thus, a general might be the GOC II Corps or GOC 7th Armoured Division...
(GOC) British Troops in Egypt and was placed in command of the British and Commonwealth forces defending Egypt. At the end of July, Lieutenant-General Archibald Wavell
Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell
Field Marshal Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell GCB, GCSI, GCIE, CMG, MC, PC was a British field marshal and the commander of British Army forces in the Middle East during the Second World War. He led British forces to victory over the Italians, only to be defeated by the German army...
was appointed to the rank of local general and sent to Cairo to be General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) of the newly created Middle East Command
Middle East Command
The Middle East Command was a British Army Command established prior to the Second World War in Egypt. Its primary role was to command British land forces and co-ordinate with the relevant naval and air commands to defend British interests in the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean region.The...
with responsibility for the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre; this command had operational control of all ground forces in Egypt, the Sudan, Palestine, Transjordan, and Cyprus. However, as the war progressed its authority was extended to include British led ground forces in east and north Africa, Aden, Iraq and the shores of the Persian Gulf, and Greece. On 17 June 1940, the troops Wilson had facing Libya under Major-General Richard O'Connor
Richard O'Connor
General Sir Richard Nugent O'Connor KT, GCB, DSO & Bar, MC, ADC was a British Army general who commanded the Western Desert Force in the early years of World War II...
and his 6th Infantry Division
British 6th Infantry Division
The 6th Infantry Division was first established by Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington for service in the Peninsula War as part of the Anglo-Portuguese Army and was active for most of the period since, including the First World War and the Second World War...
headquarters were redesignated Western Desert Force
Western Desert Force
The Western Desert Force, during World War II, was a British Commonwealth army formation stationed in Egypt.On 17 June 1940, the headquarters of the British 6th Infantry Division was designated as the Western Desert Force. The unit consisted of the 7th Armoured Division and the Indian 4th Infantry...
. O'Connor was given the local rank of lieutenant-general in October as his command was reinforced and expanded.
Libya had been an Italian colony
Italian Libya
Italian Libya was a unified colony of Italian North Africa established in 1934 in what represents present-day Libya...
since the Italian Royal Army (Regio Esercito) defeated the Ottoman Imperial Army
Military of the Ottoman Empire
The history of military of the Ottoman Empire can be divided in five main periods. The foundation era covers the years between 1300 and 1453 , the classical period covers the years between 1451 and 1606 , the reformation period covers the years between 1606 and 1826 ,...
in 1912 during the Italo-Turkish War
Italo-Turkish War
The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Italy from September 29, 1911 to October 18, 1912.As a result of this conflict, Italy was awarded the Ottoman provinces of Tripolitania, Fezzan, and...
. Bracketed by French North Africa and Egypt, the Italians prepared for conflicts on both sides.
At the outbreak of the Second World War, Italy had two armies in Libya: The 5th Army and the 10th
Italian Tenth Army
The Italian Tenth Army was one of two Italian armies in Italian North Africa during World War II. The Tenth Army in Cyrenaica faced the British in the neutral Kingdom of Egypt...
. Both armies were commanded overall by the Commander-in-Chief
Commander-in-Chief
A commander-in-chief is the commander of a nation's military forces or significant element of those forces. In the latter case, the force element may be defined as those forces within a particular region or those forces which are associated by function. As a practical term it refers to the military...
of Italian North Africa
Italian North Africa
Italian North Africa was the aggregate of territories and colonies controlled by Italy in North Africa from 1911 until World War II...
and Governor-General
Governor-General
A Governor-General, is a vice-regal person of a monarch in an independent realm or a major colonial circonscription. Depending on the political arrangement of the territory, a Governor General can be a governor of high rank, or a principal governor ranking above "ordinary" governors.- Current uses...
of Italian Libya
Italian Libya
Italian Libya was a unified colony of Italian North Africa established in 1934 in what represents present-day Libya...
, the charismatic Marshal of the Air Force
Marshal of the Air Force
Marshal of the Air Force is the English term for the most senior rank in a number of air forces. The ranks described by this term can properly be considered marshal ranks....
(Maresciallo dell'Aria
Marshal of the Air Force
Marshal of the Air Force is the English term for the most senior rank in a number of air forces. The ranks described by this term can properly be considered marshal ranks....
) Italo Balbo
Italo Balbo
Italo Balbo was an Italian Blackshirt leader who served as Italy's Marshal of the Air Force , Governor-General of Libya, Commander-in-Chief of Italian North Africa , and the "heir apparent" to Italian dictator Benito Mussolini.After serving in...
. The 5th Army in Tripolitania
Tripolitania
Tripolitania or Tripolitana is a historic region and former province of Libya.Tripolitania was a separate Italian colony from 1927 to 1934...
was commanded directly by General
General
A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....
Italo Gariboldi
Italo Gariboldi
Italo Gariboldi was a senior officer in the Italian Royal Army before and during World War II. He was also a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross...
. The 5th Army had nine infantry divisions. The 10th Army in Cyrenaica
Cyrenaica
Cyrenaica is the eastern coastal region of Libya.Also known as Pentapolis in antiquity, it was part of the Creta et Cyrenaica province during the Roman period, later divided in Libia Pentapolis and Libia Sicca...
was commanded directly by General
General
A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....
Mario Berti
Mario Berti
Mario Berti was an Italian officer during World War I and General in the Spanish Civil War and World War II.-Personal life.:Mario Berti was born in La Spezia, which is located in modern day Liguria. He was born into an upper-middle class family...
. The 10th Army had five infantry divisions. In late June 1940, the principal force on the border with Egypt was the Tenth Army. In all respects the Italian land forces and air forces
Regia Aeronautica
The Italian Royal Air Force was the name of the air force of the Kingdom of Italy. It was established as a service independent of the Royal Italian Army from 1923 until 1946...
(Regia Aeronautica
Regia Aeronautica
The Italian Royal Air Force was the name of the air force of the Kingdom of Italy. It was established as a service independent of the Royal Italian Army from 1923 until 1946...
) available in Libya greatly outnumbered the British forces in Egypt. The British, however, had an advantage in better quality.
According to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, was a predominantly Conservative British politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century and served as Prime Minister twice...
, the approximately 215,000 Italians in Libya faced approximately 50,000 British in Egypt. The British estimated that the Italians had six "metropolitan" infantry divisions and two "militia" infantry divisions in Tripolitania, two "metropolitan" infantry divisions and two "militia" infantry divisions in Cyrenaica, and three "frontier" divisions. To counter this force, the British had the 7th Armoured Division, two-thirds of the 4th Indian Infantry Division, one-third of the New Zealand Division, 14 British battalions, and two regiments of Royal Artillery.
Raids
The initial "covering force" fielded by the British along the Egyptian frontier was small but effective. It included light tanks of the 7th Hussars, armoured cars of the 11th Hussars11th Hussars
The 11th Hussars was a cavalry regiment of the British Army.-History:The regiment was founded in 1715 as Colonel Philip Honeywood's Regiment of Dragoons and was known by the name of its Colonel until 1751 when it became the 11th Regiment of Dragoons...
, two motor battalions of the 60th Rifles and the Rifle Brigade, and two regiments of motorized Royal Horse Artillery
Royal Horse Artillery
The regiments of the Royal Horse Artillery , dating from 1793, are part of the Royal Regiment of Artillery of the British Army...
.
Declaration of war
A declaration of war is a formal act by which one nation goes to war against another. The declaration is a performative speech act by an authorized party of a national government in order to create a state of war between two or more states.The legality of who is competent to declare war varies...
on the Allies
Allies
In everyday English usage, allies are people, groups, or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out between them...
, the Italian forces stationed in Libya and the British and Commonwealth forces stationed in Egypt began a series of raids on each other. Among the more notable raids was a raid by the 11th Hussars within 24 hours of Italy′s declaration of war. The armoured cars crossed the border into Libya and captured Italian prisoners who apparently did not know that war had been declared. On 12 June, another 63 Italians were taken prisoner during a raid.
On 14 June, the 11th Hussars, the 7th Hussars, and one company of the 60th Rifles captured Fort Capuzzo
Fort Capuzzo
Fort Capuzzo was a fort in the Italiancolony of Libya, near the Libyan-Egyptian border. It is famous for its role during the World War II.Within a week of Italy's 10 June 1940 declaration of war upon Britain, the British Army's 11th Hussars captured Fort Capuzzo...
and Fort Maddalena and another 220 prisoners were taken. On 16 June, a deep raid into Italian territory resulted in the destruction of 12 Italian tanks. In addition, a convoy was intercepted on the Tobruk
Tobruk
Tobruk or Tubruq is a city, seaport, and peninsula on Libya's eastern Mediterranean coast, near the border with Egypt. It is the capital of the Butnan District and has a population of 120,000 ....
-Bardia
Bardia
Bardia is a geographic region in the Democratic Republic of Nepal.Bardia comprises a portion of the Terai, or lowland hills and valleys of southern Nepal. The Terai is over 1,000 feet in elevation, and extends all along the Indian border...
highway, part of the Via Balbia
Via Balbia
The Libyan Coastal Highway is a highway that is the only major road that runs along the entire east-west length of the Libyan Mediterranean coastline...
, and an Italian general was captured.
After 25 June, France had signed an armistice with Italy
Italian invasion of France
The Italian invasion of France in June 1940 was a small-scale invasion that started near the end of the Battle of France during World War II. The goal of the Italian offensive was to take control of the Alps mountain range and the region around Nice, and to win the colonies in North Africa...
and Italian divisions and materials from the 5th Army in Tripolitania could be dispersed to reinforce and strengthen the 10th Army in Cyrenaica. In time, the 10th Army had 10 divisions and the 5th Army had four. By mid-July, the Italians were able to reinforce the forces on the Egyptian frontier to a strength of two full infantry divisions and elements of two more.
On 28 June, Marshal Balbo was killed in a friendly fire
Friendly fire
Friendly fire is inadvertent firing towards one's own or otherwise friendly forces while attempting to engage enemy forces, particularly where this results in injury or death. A death resulting from a negligent discharge is not considered friendly fire...
incident while landing at Tobruk
Tobruk
Tobruk or Tubruq is a city, seaport, and peninsula on Libya's eastern Mediterranean coast, near the border with Egypt. It is the capital of the Butnan District and has a population of 120,000 ....
. His aircraft was shot down by Italian anti-aircraft fire soon after a British air raid. Balbo was replaced as Commander-in-Chief and as Governor-General by Marshal Rodolfo Graziani
Rodolfo Graziani
Rodolfo Graziani, 1st Marquis of Neghelli , was an officer in the Italian Regio Esercito who led military expeditions in Africa before and during World War II.-Rise to prominence:...
.
Wear and tear on the armoured vehicles of the 7th Armoured Division was mounting to crisis proportions and workshops were back-logged. With an average of only one half of his tank strength available for action and realising that his one effective force was being worn out to no strategic purpose, Wavell curtailed further extensive operations and handed over the defence of the frontier to the 7th Support Group
7th Support Group (United Kingdom)
.The 7th Support Group was a brigade size formation within the British 7th Armoured Division.-History:The 7th Support Group provided whatever support the division's armoured brigades needed for the operation in hand...
under Brigadier
Brigadier
Brigadier is a senior military rank, the meaning of which is somewhat different in different military services. The brigadier rank is generally superior to the rank of colonel, and subordinate to major general....
William Gott
William Gott
Lieutenant-General William Henry Ewart Gott CB, CBE, DSO and bar, MC , nicknamed "Strafer", was a British Army officer during both the First and Second World Wars, reaching the rank of lieutenant-general when serving in the British Eighth Army.-Military career:Educated at Harrow School he was...
and the 11th Hussars under Lieutenant-Colonel John Combe
John Frederick Boyce Combe
Major-General John Frederick Boyce Combe CB DSO & Bar was a British Army officer before and during World War II. He was twice awarded the DSO for his service in the Western Desert Campaign before being captured in April 1941 and spending nearly two and a half years as a prisoner of war in Italy...
. These units would provide a screen of outposts to give warning of any Italian approach.
By 13 August, in terms of performance during the initial hostilities, the balance sheet was tilted in favour of the British. They dominated both the desert and the Italians. Early set-backs had left the Italians in a demoralised state and no where did they feel safe. They were not safe deep within the static defences of their own territory. And, with the possible exception of a few units like the Auto-Saharan Company
Auto-Saharan Company
The Auto-Saharan Companies were Italian military units specialised in long range patrols of the Sahara Desert. The units operated from the late 1930s to the Italian surrender in 1943.-History:...
(La Compania Auto-Avio-Sahariana), the Italians were not safe in the open desert where they were generally out of their element. In two months of desert warfare
Desert warfare
Desert warfare is combat in deserts. In desert warfare the elements can sometimes be more dangerous than the actual enemy. The desert terrain is the second most inhospitable to troops following a cold environment...
, the Italians had lost approximately 3,000 men against British losses of little more than 100.
Throughout the rest of August and the early days of September, an uneasy calm settled upon the desert. The calm was broken only by sharp contact between patrols and sporadic air fighting as both sides sought knowledge of the other side′s intention. While a formidable spy network
Servizio Informazioni Militari
The Italian Military Intelligence Service was the military intelligence organization for the Royal Army of the Kingdom of Italy from 1900 until 1946, and of the Republic of Italy until 1949...
in Egypt kept the Italians informed, the British chose other ways to obtain information on the Italians. The Long Range Desert Group
Long Range Desert Group
The Long Range Desert Group was a reconnaissance and raiding unit of the British Army during the Second World War. The commander of the German Afrika Corps, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, admitted that the LRDG "caused us more damage than any other British unit of equal strength".Originally called...
was formed under Major
Major
Major is a rank of commissioned officer, with corresponding ranks existing in almost every military in the world.When used unhyphenated, in conjunction with no other indicator of rank, the term refers to the rank just senior to that of an Army captain and just below the rank of lieutenant colonel. ...
Ralph A. Bagnold
Ralph Alger Bagnold
Brigadier Ralph Alger Bagnold, FRS OBE, was the founder and first commander of the British Army's Long Range Desert Group during World War II. He is also generally considered to have been a pioneer of desert exploration, an acclaim earned for his activities during the 1930s...
and soon Italian movements far behind the lines were being reported by sky-wave radio links.
Italian offensive
Benito Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism....
, anxious to link Italian North Africa
Italian North Africa
Italian North Africa was the aggregate of territories and colonies controlled by Italy in North Africa from 1911 until World War II...
(Africa Settentrionale Italiana) with Italian East Africa
Italian East Africa
Italian East Africa was an Italian colonial administrative subdivision established in 1936, resulting from the merger of the Ethiopian Empire with the old colonies of Italian Somaliland and Italian Eritrea. In August 1940, British Somaliland was conquered and annexed to Italian East Africa...
(Africa Orientale Italiana) and hoping to capture the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
and the Arabian oilfields, ordered the invasion of Egypt on 8 August.
On 9 September 1940, Italian forces under the overall command of Marshal Rodolfo Graziani
Rodolfo Graziani
Rodolfo Graziani, 1st Marquis of Neghelli , was an officer in the Italian Regio Esercito who led military expeditions in Africa before and during World War II.-Rise to prominence:...
invaded Egypt from their base in Cyrenaica
Cyrenaica
Cyrenaica is the eastern coastal region of Libya.Also known as Pentapolis in antiquity, it was part of the Creta et Cyrenaica province during the Roman period, later divided in Libia Pentapolis and Libia Sicca...
. Sollum, Halfaya Pass
Halfaya Pass
Halfaya Pass is located in Egypt, near the border with Libya. A high escarpment extends south eastwards from the Egyptian-Libyan border at the coast at as-Salum , with the scarp slope facing into Egypt...
, and Sidi Barrani
Sidi Barrani
Sidi Barrani is a town in Egypt, near the Mediterranean Sea, about east of the border with Libya, and around from Tobruk, Libya.Probably named after Sidi Mohammed el Barrani, a Senussi fighter in the early 1900s, the village is mainly a Bedouin community...
were taken by the invading Italians. But, on 16 September, Graziani halted the advance. He cited supply problems. Despite Mussolini urging Graziani to continue, the Italians dug in around Sidi Barrani and established several fortified camps (represented on the adjacent map as small red circles).
Graziani stopped 80 mi (128.7 km) west of the British defensive positions at Mersa Matruh. He planned to return to the offensive after his troops had been resupplied. With Mussolini urging Graziani on, an Italian advance to Mersa Matruh was scheduled to start mid-December.
Egypt broke off relations with Germany and Italy. On 19 October, Italian aircraft bombed Ma'adi, a heavily European suburb of Cairo
Cairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
.
British offensive
Western Desert Force
The Western Desert Force, during World War II, was a British Commonwealth army formation stationed in Egypt.On 17 June 1940, the headquarters of the British 6th Infantry Division was designated as the Western Desert Force. The unit consisted of the 7th Armoured Division and the Indian 4th Infantry...
(including portions of the Indian 4th Division and the British 7th Armoured Division
British 7th Armoured Division
The 7th Armoured Division was a British armoured division which saw service during the Second World War where its exploits made it famous as the Desert Rats....
) launched Operation Compass
Operation Compass
Operation Compass was the first major Allied military operation of the Western Desert Campaign during World War II. British and Commonwealth forces attacked Italian forces in western Egypt and eastern Libya in December 1940 to February 1941. The attack was a complete success...
, the British counterattack
Counterattack
A counterattack is a tactic used in response against an attack. The term originates in military strategy. The general objective is to negate or thwart the advantage gained by the enemy in attack and the specific objectives are usually to regain lost ground or to destroy attacking enemy units.It is...
. The Italians were caught completely off-guard. By 10 December, the British and Indian forces had taken more than 20,000 Italian prisoners. The following day, the British and Indian forces attacked Sollum. They were supported by ships of the Mediterranean Fleet. Sidi Barrani fell on the same day.
To O'Connor′s shock, Wavell then replaced the experienced 4th Indian (who were immediately rushed to Port Sudan — see East African Campaign
East African Campaign (World War II)
The East African Campaign was a series of battles fought in East Africa during World War II by the British Empire, the British Commonwealth of Nations and several allies against the forces of Italy from June 1940 to November 1941....
) with the newly arrived Australian 6th Division
Australian 6th Division
The 6th Division of the Australian Army was a unit in the Second Australian Imperial Force during World War II. It served in the North African campaign, the Greek campaign and the New Guinea campaign, including the crucial battles of the Kokoda Track, among others...
. The Australians then pressed on to capture Bardia and Tobruk
Tobruk
Tobruk or Tubruq is a city, seaport, and peninsula on Libya's eastern Mediterranean coast, near the border with Egypt. It is the capital of the Butnan District and has a population of 120,000 ....
, capturing 67,000 prisoners, over 500 guns, while losing 180 dead. In early February, the Italians were in headlong retreat along the coast, pursued by the Australians.
O'Connor ordered the 7th Armoured to advance overland through Mechili
Mechili
Mechili is a small village in Cyrenaica, Libya and the former site of a turkish fort. It’s nearly east of Benghazi, and west of Timimi.-Geography:Because of its location in the desert, Mechili suffered in the past from isolation...
to Beda Fomm
Beda Fomm
Beda Fomm is a small coastal town in southwestern Cyrenaica, Libya located between the much larger port city Benghazi to its north and the larger town of El Agheila further to the southwest...
and cut off the Italian line of retreat. Major General
Major General
Major general or major-general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. A major general is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of lieutenant general and senior to the ranks of brigadier and brigadier general...
Michael O'Moore Creagh
Michael O'Moore Creagh
Major-General Sir Michael O'Moore Creagh KBE MC, was a British soldier who served in both the First and Second World Wars. He commanded the 7th Armoured Division, the Desert Rats, between 1939 and 1941.-Early life:...
sent Combe Force
Combe Force
Combe Force, or Combeforce, was an ad hoc flying column formed by the British Army for a specific purpose during the latter stages of Operation Compass. Combe Force was formed to cut across the open desert of Cyrenaica and cut off the retreating Italian Army which was traveling along the coastal...
—an ad hoc flying column
Flying column
A flying column is a small, independent, military land unit capable of rapid mobility and usually composed of all arms. It is often an ad hoc unit, formed during the course of operations....
—racing ahead of his tanks. Combe Force reached Beda Fomm just ahead of the Italians, and established a roadblock. After a hard and narrowly won battle on 6 February, the Italians surrendered 25,000 men, 200 artillery guns, 100 tanks and 1,500 vehicles.
This swift campaign by the British captured 130,000 Italians at a cost of 2,000 casualties. All through this operation, the Italians believed they were heavily outnumbered, when the reverse was the case. Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden
Anthony Eden
Robert Anthony Eden, 1st Earl of Avon, KG, MC, PC was a British Conservative politician, who was Prime Minister from 1955 to 1957...
, paraphrasing Churchill
Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, was a predominantly Conservative British politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century and served as Prime Minister twice...
, quipped "Never has so much been surrendered by so many to so few." The remaining Italian forces retreated to El Agheila
El Agheila
El Agheila is a coastal city at the bottom of the Gulf of Sidra in far western Cyrenaica, Libya. In 1988 it was placed in Ajdabiya District; between 1995 and 2001 the district name is not known; however, it was again placed into Ajdabiya District in 2001...
by 9 February 1941.
During the course of this battle, the Western Desert Force was renamed as XIII Corps
XIII Corps (United Kingdom)
XIII Corps was a British infantry corps during World War I and World War II.-World War I:XIII Corps was formed in France on 15 November 1915 under Lieutenant-General Walter Congreve to be part of Fourth Army. It was first seriously engaged during the Battle of the Somme in 1916. On the First day on...
.
Rommel's first offensive
In early 1941, after the decisive British and Commonwealth victory in Cyrenaica, the military position was soon reversed. Wavell ordered a significant portion of O'Connor′s XIII Corps to support GreeceBattle of Greece
The Battle of Greece is the common name for the invasion and conquest of Greece by Nazi Germany in April 1941. Greece was supported by British Commonwealth forces, while the Germans' Axis allies Italy and Bulgaria played secondary roles...
as part of Operation Lustre
Operation Lustre
Operation Lustre was an action during World War II, involving the dispatch of British, Australian, New Zealand and Polish troops from Egypt to Greece in March and April 1941, in response to the failed Italian invasion and the looming threat of German intervention, revealed through Ultra.It was seen...
. While Wavell was reducing his forces in North Africa, German dictator Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
responded to the Italian disaster by ordering Operation Sonnenblume
Operation Sonnenblume
Operation Sonnenblume was the deployment of German troops to North Africa in February 1941, during the Second World War...
("Sunflower"). This was the deployment of the newly formed German "Afrika Korps
Afrika Korps
The German Africa Corps , or the Afrika Korps as it was popularly called, was the German expeditionary force in Libya and Tunisia during the North African Campaign of World War II...
" (Deutsches Afrikakorps
Afrika Korps
The German Africa Corps , or the Afrika Korps as it was popularly called, was the German expeditionary force in Libya and Tunisia during the North African Campaign of World War II...
) as reinforcements to the Italians to prevent total collapse. The German corps included fresh troops with better equipment and a charismatic commander, General
General
A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....
Erwin Rommel
Erwin Rommel
Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel , popularly known as the Desert Fox , was a German Field Marshal of World War II. He won the respect of both his own troops and the enemies he fought....
.
Leslie Morshead
Lieutenant General Sir Leslie James Morshead KCB, KBE, CMG, DSO, ED was an Australian soldier, teacher, businessman, and farmer, with a distinguished military career that spanned both world wars...
which was encircled and besieged
Siege of Tobruk
The siege of Tobruk was a confrontation that lasted 240 days between Axis and Allied forces in North Africa during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War...
. During this drive, the new field commander for HQ Cyrenaica Command
XIII Corps (United Kingdom)
XIII Corps was a British infantry corps during World War I and World War II.-World War I:XIII Corps was formed in France on 15 November 1915 under Lieutenant-General Walter Congreve to be part of Fourth Army. It was first seriously engaged during the Battle of the Somme in 1916. On the First day on...
(the new designation of XIII Corps)—Lieutenant General Philip Neame
Philip Neame
Lieutenant General Sir Philip Neame VC, KBE, CB, DSO, KStJ was a British Army officer and recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces...
—and O'Connor himself—who had been recalled to assist—were captured as was Major-General Michael Gambier-Parry
Michael Gambier-Parry
Major General Michael Denman Gambier-Parry MC DL was a British Army officer who commanded 2nd Armoured Division.- Early life and family :...
, commander of the newly arrived British 2nd Armoured Division. With Neame and O'Connor gone, British and Commonwealth forces were once more brought under the reactivated Western Desert Force HQ. In command was Lieutenant-General Noel Beresford-Peirse
Noel Beresford-Peirse
Lieutenant-General Sir Noel Monson de la Poer Beresford-Peirse KBE, CB, DSO was a British Army officer.-Family background:...
, who had returned to Cairo from commanding the Indian 4th Infantry Division in the East African Campaign
East African Campaign (World War II)
The East African Campaign was a series of battles fought in East Africa during World War II by the British Empire, the British Commonwealth of Nations and several allies against the forces of Italy from June 1940 to November 1941....
.
Rommel′s first offensive was generally successful and his forces destroyed the 2nd Armoured Division. Several attempts to seize the isolated positions at Tobruk failed and the front lines stabilised at the Egyptian border.
The siege of Tobruk
The Western Desert Force launched Operation Brevity
Operation Brevity
Operation Brevity was a limited offensive conducted in mid-May 1941, during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. Conceived by the commander-in-chief of the British Middle East Command, General Archibald Wavell, Brevity was intended to be a rapid blow against weak Axis front-line...
in May 1941. This was an inconclusive attempt to secure more ground to launch the main effort to relieve Tobruk. Operation Battleaxe
Operation Battleaxe
Operation Battleaxe was a British Army operation during the Second World War in June 1941 with the goal of clearing eastern Cyrenaica of German and Italian forces; one of the main benefits of this would have been the lifting of the Siege of Tobruk....
was launched in June. After the failure of Battleaxe, Wavell was replaced by Claude Auchinleck
Claude Auchinleck
Field Marshal Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, GCB, GCIE, CSI, DSO, OBE , nicknamed "The Auk", was a British army commander during World War II. He was a career soldier who spent much of his military career in India, where he developed a love of the country and a lasting affinity for the soldiers...
as Commander-in-Chief Middle East and the British forces were reinforced with XXX Corps.
The overall Allied field command now became British 8th Army, formed from units from many countries, including 9th Division and 18th Brigade from the Australian Army
Australian Army
The Australian Army is Australia's military land force. It is part of the Australian Defence Force along with the Royal Australian Navy and the Royal Australian Air Force. While the Chief of Defence commands the Australian Defence Force , the Army is commanded by the Chief of Army...
and the Indian Army
Indian Army
The Indian Army is the land based branch and the largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. With about 1,100,000 soldiers in active service and about 1,150,000 reserve troops, the Indian Army is the world's largest standing volunteer army...
, but also including divisions of South Africans, New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
ers, a brigade of Free French under Marie-Pierre Koenig and the Polish Independent Carpathian Rifle Brigade
Polish Independent Carpathian Rifle Brigade
Polish Independent Carpathian Brigade was a Polish military unit formed in 1940 in French Syria composed of the Polish soldiers exiled after the Invasion of Poland in 1939 as part of the Polish Army in France...
.
Operation Crusader
Alan Gordon Cunningham
General Sir Alan Gordon Cunningham GCMG, KCB, DSO, MC was a British Army officer, noted for victories over Italian forces in the East African Campaign during the Second World War. Later he was the seventh and last High Commissioner of Palestine...
—launched Operation Crusader
Operation Crusader
Operation Crusader was a military operation by the British Eighth Army between 18 November–30 December 1941. The operation successfully relieved the 1941 Siege of Tobruk....
on 18 November 1941. Although the Africa Korps achieved several tactical successes (which caused a disagreement between the British army commanders and led to Auchinleck replacing Cunningham with Major-General Neil Ritchie
Neil Ritchie
General Sir Neil Methuen Ritchie GBE, KCB, DSO, MC, KStJ was a senior British army officer during the Second World War.-Military career:...
), it was in the end forced to retreat and all the territory gained by Rommel in March and April was recaptured, with the exception of garrisons at Bardia and Sollum. Most significantly the Axis siege of Tobruk was relieved. The front line was again set at El Agheila.
Rommel's second offensive
Imperial Japanese Navy
The Imperial Japanese Navy was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1869 until 1947, when it was dissolved following Japan's constitutional renunciation of the use of force as a means of settling international disputes...
attacked Pearl Harbor
Attack on Pearl Harbor
The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of December 7, 1941...
on 7 December 1941, the Australian forces were withdrawn from the Western Desert to the Pacific theater, while the 7th Armoured Division was withdrawn and 7th Armoured Brigade was transferred to Burma.
The relatively inexperienced British 1st Armoured Division
British 1st Armoured Division
The 1st Armoured Division is an armoured division of the British Army. Originally formed in November 1937 as the Mobile Division, it saw extensive service during the Second World War, was disbanded afterward, was reconstituted in 1976, and remains in service today...
, which formed the principal defence around El Agheila, were spread out rather than concentrating its armour, as more experienced units had learned from earlier campaigns. Rommel′s Afrika Korps attacked on the 21 January scattering the British 1st Armoured Division's units. The 2nd Armoured Brigade was also committed piecemeal and easily defeated by Rommel′s more concentrated forces. Both units were forced back across the Cyrenaica
Cyrenaica
Cyrenaica is the eastern coastal region of Libya.Also known as Pentapolis in antiquity, it was part of the Creta et Cyrenaica province during the Roman period, later divided in Libia Pentapolis and Libia Sicca...
line into eastern Libya, along with the 201st Guards Motor Brigade, in the process giving up both Msus and Benghazi to the German forces.
From February-May 1942, the front line settled down at the Gazala
Gazala
Gazala, or Ain el Gazala , is a small Libyan village near the coast in the northeastern portion of the country. It is located west of Tobruk....
line, just west of Tobruk, with both armies preparing an offensive.
Rommel managed to get his offensive off first in June 1942. After a lengthy armoured battle, known as "the Cauldron", he defeated the Allies in the Battle of Gazala
Battle of Gazala
The Battle of Gazala was an important battle of the Second World War Western Desert Campaign, fought around the port of Tobruk in Libya from 26 May-21 June 1942...
and captured Tobruk
Tobruk
Tobruk or Tubruq is a city, seaport, and peninsula on Libya's eastern Mediterranean coast, near the border with Egypt. It is the capital of the Butnan District and has a population of 120,000 ....
. Auchinleck fired Ritchie and took personal command of 8th Army, halting Rommel at the Alamein Line only seventy miles from Alexandria in the First Battle of El Alamein
First Battle of El Alamein
The First Battle of El Alamein was a battle of the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War, fought between Axis forces of the Panzer Army Africa commanded by Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, and Allied forces The First Battle of El Alamein (1–27 July 1942) was a battle of the Western Desert...
.
Montgomery's Allied offensive
Montgomery won a comprehensive defensive victory at the Battle of Alam el Halfa in August 1942 and then built up the Allied forces before returning to the offensive in the Second Battle of El Alamein
Second Battle of El Alamein
The Second Battle of El Alamein marked a major turning point in the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. The battle took place over 20 days from 23 October – 11 November 1942. The First Battle of El Alamein had stalled the Axis advance. Thereafter, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery...
in October–November. It is notable that he had resources far in excess in quantity and quality to those of his predecessors. Second Alamein proved a decisive victory. In spite of a brilliant rearguard action by Rommel, the Allies retook Egypt and then advanced across Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, capturing Tripoli
Tripoli
Tripoli is the capital and largest city in Libya. It is also known as Western Tripoli , to distinguish it from Tripoli, Lebanon. It is affectionately called The Mermaid of the Mediterranean , describing its turquoise waters and its whitewashed buildings. Tripoli is a Greek name that means "Three...
in February 1943 and entering Tunisia in March.
Marsa Matruh
Marsa Matrouh is a Mediterranean seaport and the capital of the Matrouh Governorate in Egypt. It is west of Alexandria and 222 km from Sallum, on the main highway from the Nile Delta to the Libyan border. Another highway leads south from the town, toward the Western Desert and the oases of...
was frustrated by rain and they escaped by 7 November. The coast road had been cut, but the Halfaya Pass
Halfaya Pass
Halfaya Pass is located in Egypt, near the border with Libya. A high escarpment extends south eastwards from the Egyptian-Libyan border at the coast at as-Salum , with the scarp slope facing into Egypt...
was easily captured and Egypt was cleared. Tobruk was retaken on 13 November, again Rommel′s forces escaped the trap, and Benghazi on 20 November. These two port towns were essential to the resupply of the campaign and an opportunity to outflank Rommel at Agedabia
Ajdabiya
Ajdabiya was one of the districts of Libya. It lay in the northeastern part of the country. Its capital was Ajdabiya. As of 2007 it was subsumed within the enlarged Al Wahat District....
was cautiously declined, in case of counter-attack.
The Germans and Italians retired to a prepared defence line at El Agheila
El Agheila
El Agheila is a coastal city at the bottom of the Gulf of Sidra in far western Cyrenaica, Libya. In 1988 it was placed in Ajdabiya District; between 1995 and 2001 the district name is not known; however, it was again placed into Ajdabiya District in 2001...
. Axis supplies and reinforcements were now directed into Tunisia at Rommel′s expense: he was left with no capacity to counter-attack and was critically short of petrol. Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
ordered that the El Agheila line should be held at all costs, whereas Rommel′s view was for a fighting retreat to Tunisia and a strong defensive position at the Gabès
Gabès
Gabès , also spelt Cabès, Cabes, Kabes, Gabbs and Gaps, the ancient Tacape, is the capital city of the Gabès Governorate, a province of Tunisia. It lies on the coast of the Gulf of Gabès. With a population of 116,323 it is the 6th largest Tunisian city.-History:Strabo refers to Tacape as an...
Gap. Permission was granted for a withdrawal to Buerat, 50 mi (80.5 km) east of Sirte
Sirte
Sirte is a city in LibyaSirte may also refer to:* Sirte Declaration, a 1999 resolution to create the African Union* Sirte Oil Company, a Libyan oil companyIn geography:* Gulf of Sirte, alias for Gulf of Sidra on Libya's coast...
. An attempt to outflank El Agheila between 14 and 16 December once again failed to encircle the enemy — Rommel had exercised his authority to withdraw and his line of retreat was adequately defended.
Tripoli
Tripoli is the capital and largest city in Libya. It is also known as Western Tripoli , to distinguish it from Tripoli, Lebanon. It is affectionately called The Mermaid of the Mediterranean , describing its turquoise waters and its whitewashed buildings. Tripoli is a Greek name that means "Three...
was captured on 23 January 1943. The port was brought into use and, by mid-February 1943, nearly 3000 ST (2,721.6 t) of stores were landed daily.
Rommel′s retreat continued, despite Italian dissent. On 4 February, Allied units entered Tunisia. Soon after, Rommel was recalled to Germany, on health grounds.
Montgomery has been criticised for his perceived failure to trap the Axis armies, bring them to a decisive battle and destroy them in Libya. His tactics have been seen as too cautious and too slow. The counter arguments point out the defensive skills of German forces generally and the Afrika Korps in particular, and Montgomery's need not to relapse into the "see-saw" warfare of previous north African campaigns. Warfare in the desert has been described as a "quarter-master's nightmare", given the conditions of desert warfare and the difficulties of supply. Montgomery is renowned for fighting "balanced campaigns" and husbanding his resources: no attack until his troops were prepared and properly supplied. The 8th Army′s morale greatly improved under his command.
Conclusion
With the Axis forces driven out of Libya, they would soon find themselves trapped, in the Tunisia CampaignTunisia Campaign
The Tunisia Campaign was a series of battles that took place in Tunisia during the North African Campaign of the Second World War, between Axis and Allied forces. The Allies consisted of British Imperial Forces, including Polish and Greek contingents, with American and French corps...
, between the recently landed Anglo-American forces of the British 1st Army to the west and the 8th Army
Eighth Army (United Kingdom)
The Eighth Army was one of the best-known formations of the British Army during World War II, fighting in the North African and Italian campaigns....
pursuing from the east.
See also
- Egypt–Libya Campaign
- Military history of Egypt during World War IIMilitary history of Egypt during World War II- Introduction :In 1882 Egypt became a de facto British colony. This continued until 1922 when Egypt was granted its independence, but British troops remained in the country and true self rule did not occur until 1952 with the rise to power of Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser.-History of British rule:In...
- Military history of Italy during World War IIMilitary history of Italy during World War IIDuring World War II , the Kingdom of Italy had a varied and tumultuous military history. Defeated in Greece, France, East Africa and North Africa, the Italian invasion of British Somaliland was one of the only successful Italian campaigns of World War II accomplished without German support.In...
- Military history of the United Kingdom during World War IIMilitary history of the United Kingdom during World War IIBritain along with most of its dominions and Crown colonies, and British India, declared war on Nazi Germany in 1939. War with Japan began in 1941, after it attacked British colonies in Asia...
- Military history of Germany during World War II
- North African Campaign timelineNorth African Campaign timeline- 1940:* 10 June: The Kingdom of Italy declares war upon France and the United Kingdom* 14 June: British forces cross from Egypt into Libya and capture Fort Capuzzo* 16 June: The first tank battle of the North African Campaign takes place, the "Battle of Girba"...
- List of World War II Battles
- Timeline of World War II (1940)Timeline of World War II (1940)This is a timeline of events that stretched over the period of World War II.-January 1940:This is a timeline of events that stretched over the period of World War II.-January 1940:...
- Timeline of World War II (1941)Timeline of World War II (1941)This is a timeline of events that stretched over the period of World War II.-January 1941:*1: Accounting of the previous night's bombing of London reveals that the Old Bailey, the Guildhall, and eight churches by Christopher Wren were destroyed or badly damaged.:RAF bombs aircraft factories in...
- Timeline of World War II (1942)Timeline of World War II (1942)This is a timeline of events that stretched over the period of World War II.-January 1942:This is a timeline of events that stretched over the period of World War II.-January 1942:...
Further reading
- Glassop, Lawson (1944). We Were the Rats. Sydney: Angus & Roberston. Republished by Penguin, 1992; ISBN 0-14-014924-4.
- Wilmot, Chester (1944). Tobruk 1941. Sydney: Halstead Press. Republished by Penguin, 1993; ISBN 978-0-670-07120-3.
- Beaumont, Joan (1996). Australia's War, 1939–1945. Melbourne: Allen & Unwin; ISBN 1-86448-039-4.