Timeline of artificial intelligence
Encyclopedia
To 1900
| Date | Development |
|---|---|
| Antiquity | Greek myths of Hephaestus Hephaestus Hephaestus was a Greek god whose Roman equivalent was Vulcan. He is the son of Zeus and Hera, the King and Queen of the Gods - or else, according to some accounts, of Hera alone. He was the god of technology, blacksmiths, craftsmen, artisans, sculptors, metals, metallurgy, fire and volcanoes... and Pygmalion Pygmalion (mythology) Pygmalion is a legendary figure of Cyprus. Though Pygmalion is the Greek version of the Phoenician royal name Pumayyaton, he is most familiar from Ovid's Metamorphoses, X, in which Pygmalion was a sculptor who fell in love with a statue he had carved.-In Ovid:In Ovid's narrative, Pygmalion was a... incorporated the idea of intelligent robots (such as Talos Talos In Greek mythology, Talos or Talon was a giant man of bronze who protected Europa in Crete from pirates and invaders by circling the island's shores three times daily while guarding it.- History :... ) and artificial beings (such as Galatea Galatea Galatea is an ancient Greek name meaning "she who is milk-white".Galatea or Galathea may refer to:-In mythology:* Galatea :**Galatea, a woman who prayed for her daughter to be turned into a son, Leucippus... and Pandora Pandora In Greek mythology, Pandora was the first woman. As Hesiod related it, each god helped create her by giving her unique gifts... ). |
| Antiquity | Yan Shi presented King Mu of Zhou King Mu of Zhou King Mu of Zhou or King Mu of Chou or Mu Wang or Mu Wang was the fifth sovereign of the Chinese Zhou Dynasty. The dates of his reign are 976-922 BC or 956-918 BC.-Life:... with mechanical men. |
| Antiquity | Sacred mechanical statues Cult image In the practice of religion, a cult image is a human-made object that is venerated for the deity, spirit or daemon that it embodies or represents... built in Egypt Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh... and Greece Ancient Greece Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the... were believed to be capable of wisdom and emotion. Hermes Trismegistus Hermes Trismegistus Hermes Trismegistus is the eponymous author of the Hermetic Corpus, a sacred text belonging to the genre of divine revelation.-Origin and identity:... would write "they have sensus and spiritus ... by discovering the true nature of the gods, man has been able to reproduce it." Mosaic Moses Moses was, according to the Hebrew Bible and Qur'an, a religious leader, lawgiver and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed... law prohibits the use of automaton Automaton An automaton is a self-operating machine. The word is sometimes used to describe a robot, more specifically an autonomous robot. An alternative spelling, now obsolete, is automation.-Etymology:... s in religion. |
| 384 BC–322 BC | Aristotle Aristotle Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology... described the syllogism Syllogism A syllogism is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition is inferred from two or more others of a certain form... , a method of formal, mechanical thought. |
| 1st century | Heron of Alexandria Alexandria Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving... created mechanical men and other automaton Automaton An automaton is a self-operating machine. The word is sometimes used to describe a robot, more specifically an autonomous robot. An alternative spelling, now obsolete, is automation.-Etymology:... s. |
| 260 | Porphyry of Tyros wrote Isagogê which categorized knowledge and logic. |
| ~800 | Geber Geber Abu Musa Jābir ibn Hayyān, often known simply as Geber, was a prominent polymath: a chemist and alchemist, astronomer and astrologer, engineer, geologist, philosopher, physicist, and pharmacist and physician. Born and educated in Tus, he later traveled to Kufa... (Jabir ibn Hayyan) develops the Arabic alchemical theory of Takwin Takwin Takwin was a goal of certain Ismaili Muslim alchemists, notably Jabir ibn Hayyan. In the alchemical context, takwin refers to the creation of synthetic life in the laboratory, up to and including human life... , the artificial creation of life in the laboratory, up to and including human Human Humans are the only living species in the Homo genus... life. |
| 1206 | Al-Jazari Al-Jazari Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī was a Muslim polymath: a scholar, inventor, mechanical engineer, craftsman, artist, mathematician and astronomer from Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia, who lived during the Islamic Golden Age... created a programmable Computer program A computer program is a sequence of instructions written to perform a specified task with a computer. A computer requires programs to function, typically executing the program's instructions in a central processor. The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute... orchestra of mechanical human beings. |
| 1275 | Ramon Llull Ramon Llull Ramon Llull was a Majorcan writer and philosopher, logician and tertiary Franciscan. He wrote the first major work of Catalan literature. Recently-surfaced manuscripts show him to have anticipated by several centuries prominent work on elections theory... , Catalan Catalan people The Catalans or Catalonians are the people from, or with origins in, Catalonia that form a historical nationality in Spain. The inhabitants of the adjacent portion of southern France are sometimes included in this definition... theologian Theology Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo... invents the Ars Magna, a tool for combining concepts mechanically, based on an Arabic astrological tool, the Zairja Zairja A zairja was a device used by medieval Arab astrologers to generate ideas by mechanical means. The name may derive from a mixture of the Persian words zaicha and daira .... . The method would be developed further by Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a German philosopher and mathematician. He wrote in different languages, primarily in Latin , French and German .... in the 17th century. |
| ~1500 | Paracelsus Paracelsus Paracelsus was a German-Swiss Renaissance physician, botanist, alchemist, astrologer, and general occultist.... claimed to have created an artificial man out of magnetism, sperm and alchemy. |
| ~1580 | Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel Judah Loew ben Bezalel Judah Loew ben Bezalel, alt. Loewe, Löwe, or Levai, widely known to scholars of Judaism as the Maharal of Prague, or simply The MaHaRaL, the Hebrew acronym of "Moreinu ha-Rav Loew," was an important Talmudic scholar, Jewish mystic, and philosopher who served as a leading rabbi in the city of... of Prague Prague Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of over 2.3 million... is said to have invented the Golem Golem In Jewish folklore, a golem is an animated anthropomorphic being, created entirely from inanimate matter. The word was used to mean an amorphous, unformed material in Psalms and medieval writing.... , a clay man brought to life. |
| Early 17th century | René Descartes René Descartes René Descartes ; was a French philosopher and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy', and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day... proposed that bodies of animals are nothing more than complex machines (but that mental phenomena are of a different "substance"). |
| 1623 | Wilhelm Schickard Wilhelm Schickard Wilhelm Schickard was a German polymath who designed a calculating machine in 1623, twenty years before the Pascaline of Blaise Pascal. Unfortunately a fire destroyed the machine as it was being built in 1624 and Schickard decided to abandon his project... created the first mechanical calculating machine. |
| 1641 | Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury , in some older texts Thomas Hobbs of Malmsbury, was an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy... published Leviathan Leviathan (book) Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil — commonly called simply Leviathan — is a book written by Thomas Hobbes and published in 1651. Its name derives from the biblical Leviathan... and presented a mechanical, combinatorial theory of cognition. He wrote "...for reason is nothing but reckoning". |
| 1652 | Blaise Pascal Blaise Pascal Blaise Pascal , was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Catholic philosopher. He was a child prodigy who was educated by his father, a tax collector in Rouen... created the second mechanical and first digital Digital A digital system is a data technology that uses discrete values. By contrast, non-digital systems use a continuous range of values to represent information... calculating machine Pascal's calculator Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator in 1642. He conceived it while trying to help his father who had been assigned the task of reorganizing the tax revenues of the French province of Haute-Normandie ; first called Arithmetic Machine, Pascal's Calculator and later Pascaline, it could... |
| 1672 | Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a German philosopher and mathematician. He wrote in different languages, primarily in Latin , French and German .... improved the earlier machines, making the Stepped Reckoner Stepped Reckoner The Step Reckoner was a digital mechanical calculator invented by German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz around 1672 and completed in 1694. The name comes from the translation of the German term for its operating mechanism; staffelwalze meaning 'stepped drum'... to do multiplication Multiplication Multiplication is the mathematical operation of scaling one number by another. It is one of the four basic operations in elementary arithmetic .... and division Division (mathematics) right|thumb|200px|20 \div 4=5In mathematics, especially in elementary arithmetic, division is an arithmetic operation.Specifically, if c times b equals a, written:c \times b = a\,... . He also invented the binary numeral system Binary numeral system The binary numeral system, or base-2 number system, represents numeric values using two symbols, 0 and 1. More specifically, the usual base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2... and envisioned a universal calculus of reasoning (alphabet of human thought Alphabet of human thought The alphabet of human thought is a concept originally proposed by Gottfried Leibniz that provides a universal way to represent and analyze ideas and relationships, no matter how complicated, by breaking down their component pieces... ) by which arguments could be decided mechanically. Leibniz Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a German philosopher and mathematician. He wrote in different languages, primarily in Latin , French and German .... worked on assigning a specific number to each and every object in the world, as a prelude to an algebraic solution to all possible problems. |
| 1727 | Jonathan Swift Jonathan Swift Jonathan Swift was an Irish satirist, essayist, political pamphleteer , poet and cleric who became Dean of St... published Gulliver's Travels Gulliver's Travels Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World, in Four Parts. By Lemuel Gulliver, First a Surgeon, and then a Captain of Several Ships, better known simply as Gulliver's Travels , is a novel by Anglo-Irish writer and clergyman Jonathan Swift that is both a satire on human nature and a parody of... , which includes this description of the Engine The Engine The Engine is a fictional device described in Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift in 1726. It is possibly the earliest known reference to a device in any way resembling a modern computer. It is found at the Academy of Projectors in Lagado and is described thus by Swift:“..... , a machine on the island of Laputa Laputa Laputa is a fictional place from the book Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift.Laputa is a fictional flying island or rock, about 4.5 miles in diameter, with an adamantine base, which its inhabitants can maneuver in any direction using magnetic levitation... : "a Project for improving speculative Knowledge by practical and mechanical Operations " by using this "Contrivance", "the most ignorant Person at a reasonable Charge, and with a little bodily Labour, may write Books in Philosophy, Poetry, Politicks, Law, Mathematicks, and Theology, with the least Assistance from Genius or study." The machine is a parody of Ars Magna, one of the inspirations of Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a German philosopher and mathematician. He wrote in different languages, primarily in Latin , French and German .... ' mechanism. |
| 1750 | Julien Offray de La Mettrie Julien Offray de La Mettrie Julien Offray de La Mettrie was a French physician and philosopher, and one of the earliest of the French materialists of the Enlightenment... published L'Homme Machine, which argued that human thought is strictly mechanical. |
| 1769 | Wolfgang von Kempelen Wolfgang von Kempelen Johann Wolfgang Ritter von Kempelen de Pázmánd was a Hungarian author and inventor with Irish ancestors.-Life:... built and toured with his chess Chess Chess is a two-player board game played on a chessboard, a square-checkered board with 64 squares arranged in an eight-by-eight grid. It is one of the world's most popular games, played by millions of people worldwide at home, in clubs, online, by correspondence, and in tournaments.Each player... -playing automaton Automaton An automaton is a self-operating machine. The word is sometimes used to describe a robot, more specifically an autonomous robot. An alternative spelling, now obsolete, is automation.-Etymology:... , The Turk The Turk The Turk, also known as the Mechanical Turk or Automaton Chess Player , was a fake chess-playing machine constructed in the late 18th century. From 1770 until its destruction by fire in 1854, it was exhibited by various owners as an automaton, though it was exposed in the early 1820s as an... . The Turk was later shown to be a hoax Hoax A hoax is a deliberately fabricated falsehood made to masquerade as truth. It is distinguishable from errors in observation or judgment, or rumors, urban legends, pseudosciences or April Fools' Day events that are passed along in good faith by believers or as jokes.-Definition:The British... , involving a human chess player. |
| 1818 | Mary Shelley Mary Shelley Mary Shelley was a British novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, and travel writer, best known for her Gothic novel Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus . She also edited and promoted the works of her husband, the Romantic poet and philosopher Percy Bysshe Shelley... published the story of Frankenstein; or the Modern Prometheus Frankenstein Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is a novel about a failed experiment that produced a monster, written by Mary Shelley, with inserts of poems by Percy Bysshe Shelley. Shelley started writing the story when she was eighteen, and the novel was published when she was twenty-one. The first... , a fictional consideration of the ethics of creating sentient beings. |
| 1822–1859 | Charles Babbage Charles Babbage Charles Babbage, FRS was an English mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer who originated the concept of a programmable computer... & Ada Lovelace Ada Lovelace Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace , born Augusta Ada Byron, was an English writer chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage's early mechanical general-purpose computer, the analytical engine... worked on programmable mechanical calculating machines Difference engine A difference engine is an automatic, mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions. Both logarithmic and trigonometric functions can be approximated by polynomials, so a difference engine can compute many useful sets of numbers.-History:... . |
| 1837 | The mathematician Bernard Bolzano Bernard Bolzano Bernhard Placidus Johann Nepomuk Bolzano , Bernard Bolzano in English, was a Bohemian mathematician, logician, philosopher, theologian, Catholic priest and antimilitarist of German mother tongue.-Family:Bolzano was the son of two pious Catholics... made the first modern attempt to formalize semantics Semantics Semantics is the study of meaning. It focuses on the relation between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs and symbols, and what they stand for, their denotata.... . |
| 1854 | George Boole George Boole George Boole was an English mathematician and philosopher.As the inventor of Boolean logic—the basis of modern digital computer logic—Boole is regarded in hindsight as a founder of the field of computer science. Boole said,... set out to "investigate the fundamental laws of those operations of the mind by which reasoning is performed, to give expression to them in the symbolic language of a calculus", inventing Boolean algebra. |
| 1863 | Samuel Butler Samuel Butler (novelist) Samuel Butler was an iconoclastic Victorian author who published a variety of works. Two of his most famous pieces are the Utopian satire Erewhon and a semi-autobiographical novel published posthumously, The Way of All Flesh... suggested that Darwinian Charles Darwin Charles Robert Darwin FRS was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection.He published his theory... evolution Evolution Evolution is any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at every level of biological organisation, including species, individual organisms and molecules such as DNA and proteins.Life on Earth... also applies to machines, and speculates that they will one day become conscious and eventually supplant humanity. |
1900–1950
| Date | Development |
|---|---|
| 1913 | Bertrand Russell Bertrand Russell Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist, but he also admitted that he had never been any of these things... and Alfred North Whitehead Alfred North Whitehead Alfred North Whitehead, OM FRS was an English mathematician who became a philosopher. He wrote on algebra, logic, foundations of mathematics, philosophy of science, physics, metaphysics, and education... published Principia Mathematica Principia Mathematica The Principia Mathematica is a three-volume work on the foundations of mathematics, written by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell and published in 1910, 1912, and 1913... , which revolutionized formal logic Formal logic Classical or traditional system of determining the validity or invalidity of a conclusion deduced from two or more statements... . |
| 1915 | Leonardo Torres y Quevedo Leonardo Torres y Quevedo Leonardo Torres y Quevedo was a Spanish civil engineer and mathematician of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.- Biography :Torres was born on 28 December 1852, on the Feast of the Holy Innocents, in Santa Cruz de Iguña, Molledo , Spain... built a chess automaton, El Ajedrecista El Ajedrecista El Ajedrecista was an automaton built in 1912 by Leonardo Torres y Quevedo. El Ajedrecista made a public debut during the Paris World Fair of 1914, creating great excitement at the time. It was first widely mentioned in Scientific American as "Torres and His Remarkable Automatic Devices" on... and published speculation about thinking and automata. |
| 1923 | Karel Čapek Karel Capek Karel Čapek was Czech writer of the 20th century.-Biography:Born in 1890 in the Bohemian mountain village of Malé Svatoňovice to an overbearing, emotional mother and a distant yet adored father, Čapek was the youngest of three siblings... 's play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) R.U.R. is a 1920 science fiction play in the Czech language by Karel Čapek. R.U.R. stands for Rossum's Universal Robots, an English phrase used as the subtitle in the Czech original. It premiered in 1921 and introduced the word "robot" to the English language and to science fiction as a whole.The... opened in London. This is the first use of the word "robot Robot A robot is a mechanical or virtual intelligent agent that can perform tasks automatically or with guidance, typically by remote control. In practice a robot is usually an electro-mechanical machine that is guided by computer and electronic programming. Robots can be autonomous, semi-autonomous or... " in English. |
| 1920s and 1930s | Ludwig Wittgenstein Ludwig Wittgenstein Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein was an Austrian philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language. He was professor in philosophy at the University of Cambridge from 1939 until 1947... and Rudolf Carnap Rudolf Carnap Rudolf Carnap was an influential German-born philosopher who was active in Europe before 1935 and in the United States thereafter. He was a major member of the Vienna Circle and an advocate of logical positivism.... lead philosophy Philosophy Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational... into logical analysis of knowledge Knowledge Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something unknown, which can include information, facts, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject... . Alonzo Church Alonzo Church Alonzo Church was an American mathematician and logician who made major contributions to mathematical logic and the foundations of theoretical computer science. He is best known for the lambda calculus, Church–Turing thesis, Frege–Church ontology, and the Church–Rosser theorem.-Life:Alonzo Church... develops Lambda Calculus Lambda calculus In mathematical logic and computer science, lambda calculus, also written as λ-calculus, is a formal system for function definition, function application and recursion. The portion of lambda calculus relevant to computation is now called the untyped lambda calculus... to investigate computability using recursive functional notation. |
| 1931 | Kurt Gödel Kurt Gödel Kurt Friedrich Gödel was an Austrian logician, mathematician and philosopher. Later in his life he emigrated to the United States to escape the effects of World War II. One of the most significant logicians of all time, Gödel made an immense impact upon scientific and philosophical thinking in the... showed that sufficiently powerful consistent formal system Formal system In formal logic, a formal system consists of a formal language and a set of inference rules, used to derive an expression from one or more other premises that are antecedently supposed or derived . The axioms and rules may be called a deductive apparatus... s permit the formulation of true theorems that are unprovable by any theorem-proving machine deriving all possible theorems from the axioms. To do this he had to build a universal, integer-based programming language, which is the reason why he is sometimes called the "father of theoretical computer science Theoretical computer science Theoretical computer science is a division or subset of general computer science and mathematics which focuses on more abstract or mathematical aspects of computing.... ". |
| 1941 | Konrad Zuse Konrad Zuse Konrad Zuse was a German civil engineer and computer pioneer. His greatest achievement was the world's first functional program-controlled Turing-complete computer, the Z3, which became operational in May 1941.... built the first working program-controlled computers. |
| 1943 | Warren Sturgis McCulloch Warren Sturgis McCulloch Warren Sturgis McCulloch was an American neurophysiologist and cybernetician, known for his work on the foundation for certain brain theories and his contribution to the cybernetics movement.- Biography :... and Walter Pitts Walter Pitts Walter Harry Pitts, Jr. was a logician who worked in the field of cognitive psychology.He proposed landmark theoretical formulations of neural activity and emergent processes that influenced diverse fields such as cognitive sciences and psychology, philosophy, neurosciences, computer science,... publish "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" (1943), laying foundations for artificial neural network Artificial neural network An artificial neural network , usually called neural network , is a mathematical model or computational model that is inspired by the structure and/or functional aspects of biological neural networks. A neural network consists of an interconnected group of artificial neurons, and it processes... s. |
| 1943 | Arturo Rosenblueth Arturo Rosenblueth Arturo Rosenblueth Stearns was a Mexican researcher, physician and physiologist, who is known as one of the pioneers of cybernetics.- Biography:... , Norbert Wiener Norbert Wiener Norbert Wiener was an American mathematician.A famous child prodigy, Wiener later became an early researcher in stochastic and noise processes, contributing work relevant to electronic engineering, electronic communication, and control systems.Wiener is regarded as the originator of cybernetics, a... and Julian Bigelow coin the term "cybernetics Cybernetics Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary study of the structure of regulatory systems. Cybernetics is closely related to information theory, control theory and systems theory, at least in its first-order form... ". Wiener's popular book by that name published in 1948. |
| 1945 | Game theory Game theory Game theory is a mathematical method for analyzing calculated circumstances, such as in games, where a person’s success is based upon the choices of others... which would prove invaluable in the progress of AI was introduced with the 1944 paper, Theory of Games and Economic Behavior Theory of Games and Economic Behavior Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, published in 1944 by Princeton University Press, is a book by mathematician John von Neumann and economist Oskar Morgenstern which is considered the groundbreaking text that created the interdisciplinary research field of game theory... by mathematician Mathematician A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study is the field of mathematics. Mathematicians are concerned with quantity, structure, space, and change.... John von Neumann John von Neumann John von Neumann was a Hungarian-American mathematician and polymath who made major contributions to a vast number of fields, including set theory, functional analysis, quantum mechanics, ergodic theory, geometry, fluid dynamics, economics and game theory, computer science, numerical analysis,... and economist Economist An economist is a professional in the social science discipline of economics. The individual may also study, develop, and apply theories and concepts from economics and write about economic policy... Oskar Morgenstern Oskar Morgenstern Oskar Morgenstern was a German-born Austrian-School economist. He, along with John von Neumann, helped found the mathematical field of game theory .... . |
| 1945 | Vannevar Bush Vannevar Bush Vannevar Bush was an American engineer and science administrator known for his work on analog computing, his political role in the development of the atomic bomb as a primary organizer of the Manhattan Project, the founding of Raytheon, and the idea of the memex, an adjustable microfilm viewer... published As We May Think As We May Think As We May Think is an essay by Vannevar Bush, first published in The Atlantic Monthly in July 1945, and republished again as an abridged version in September 1945 — before and after the U.S. nuclear attacks on Japan... (The Atlantic Monthly The Atlantic Monthly The Atlantic is an American magazine founded in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1857. It was created as a literary and cultural commentary magazine. It quickly achieved a national reputation, which it held for more than a century. It was important for recognizing and publishing new writers and poets,... , July 1945) a prescient vision of the future in which computers assist humans in many activities. |
| 1948 | John von Neumann John von Neumann John von Neumann was a Hungarian-American mathematician and polymath who made major contributions to a vast number of fields, including set theory, functional analysis, quantum mechanics, ergodic theory, geometry, fluid dynamics, economics and game theory, computer science, numerical analysis,... (quoted by E.T. Jaynes) in response to a comment at a lecture that it was impossible for a machine to think: "You insist that there is something a machine cannot do. If you will tell me precisely what it is that a machine cannot do, then I can always make a machine which will do just that!". Von Neumann was presumably alluding to the Church-Turing thesis which states that any effective procedure can be simulated by a (generalized) computer. |
1950s
| Date | Development |
|---|---|
| 1950 | Alan Turing Alan Turing Alan Mathison Turing, OBE, FRS , was an English mathematician, logician, cryptanalyst, and computer scientist. He was highly influential in the development of computer science, providing a formalisation of the concepts of "algorithm" and "computation" with the Turing machine, which played a... proposes the Turing Test Turing test The Turing test is a test of a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behaviour. In Turing's original illustrative example, a human judge engages in a natural language conversation with a human and a machine designed to generate performance indistinguishable from that of a human being. All... as a measure of machine intelligence. |
| 1950 | Claude Shannon Claude Elwood Shannon Claude Elwood Shannon was an American mathematician, electronic engineer, and cryptographer known as "the father of information theory".... published a detailed analysis of chess Chess Chess is a two-player board game played on a chessboard, a square-checkered board with 64 squares arranged in an eight-by-eight grid. It is one of the world's most popular games, played by millions of people worldwide at home, in clubs, online, by correspondence, and in tournaments.Each player... playing as search Search algorithm In computer science, a search algorithm is an algorithm for finding an item with specified properties among a collection of items. The items may be stored individually as records in a database; or may be elements of a search space defined by a mathematical formula or procedure, such as the roots... . |
| 1950 | Isaac Asimov Isaac Asimov Isaac Asimov was an American author and professor of biochemistry at Boston University, best known for his works of science fiction and for his popular science books. Asimov was one of the most prolific writers of all time, having written or edited more than 500 books and an estimated 90,000... published his Three Laws of Robotics Three Laws of Robotics The Three Laws of Robotics are a set of rules devised by the science fiction author Isaac Asimov and later added to. The rules are introduced in his 1942 short story "Runaround", although they were foreshadowed in a few earlier stories... . |
| 1951 | The first working AI programs were written in 1951 to run on the Ferranti Mark 1 machine of the University of Manchester University of Manchester The University of Manchester is a public research university located in Manchester, United Kingdom. It is a "red brick" university and a member of the Russell Group of research-intensive British universities and the N8 Group... : a checkers-playing program written by Christopher Strachey Christopher Strachey Christopher Strachey was a British computer scientist. He was one of the founders of denotational semantics, and a pioneer in programming language design... and a chess-playing program written by Dietrich Prinz. |
| 1952–1962 | Arthur Samuel Arthur Samuel Arthur Lee Samuel was an American pioneer in the field of computer gaming and artificial intelligence. The Samuel Checkers-playing Program appears to be the world's first self-learning program, and as such a very early demonstration of the fundamental concept of artificial intelligence... (IBM IBM International Business Machines Corporation or IBM is an American multinational technology and consulting corporation headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software, and it offers infrastructure, hosting and consulting services in areas... ) wrote the first game-playing program, for checkers (draughts Draughts Draughts is a group of abstract strategy board games between two players which involve diagonal moves of uniform pieces and mandatory captures by jumping over the enemy's pieces. Draughts developed from alquerque... ), to achieve sufficient skill to challenge a respectable amateur. His first checkers-playing program was written in 1952, and in 1955 he created a version that learned Machine learning Machine learning, a branch of artificial intelligence, is a scientific discipline concerned with the design and development of algorithms that allow computers to evolve behaviors based on empirical data, such as from sensor data or databases... to play. |
| 1955 | The first Dartmouth College Dartmouth College Dartmouth College is a private, Ivy League university in Hanover, New Hampshire, United States. The institution comprises a liberal arts college, Dartmouth Medical School, Thayer School of Engineering, and the Tuck School of Business, as well as 19 graduate programs in the arts and sciences... summer AI conference is organized by John McCarthy John McCarthy (computer scientist) John McCarthy was an American computer scientist and cognitive scientist. He coined the term "artificial intelligence" , invented the Lisp programming language and was highly influential in the early development of AI.McCarthy also influenced other areas of computing such as time sharing systems... , Marvin Minsky Marvin Minsky Marvin Lee Minsky is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence , co-founder of Massachusetts Institute of Technology's AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy.-Biography:... , Nathan Rochester of IBM and Claude Shannon. |
| 1956 | The name artificial intelligence is used for the first time as the topic of the second Dartmouth Conference, organized by John McCarthy John McCarthy (computer scientist) John McCarthy was an American computer scientist and cognitive scientist. He coined the term "artificial intelligence" , invented the Lisp programming language and was highly influential in the early development of AI.McCarthy also influenced other areas of computing such as time sharing systems... |
| 1956 | The first demonstration of the Logic Theorist Logic Theorist Logic Theorist is a computer program written in 1955 and 1956 by Allen Newell, Herbert Simon and J. C. Shaw. It was the first program deliberately engineered to mimic the problem solving skills of a human being and is called "the first artificial intelligence program." It would eventually prove 38... (LT) written by Allen Newell Allen Newell Allen Newell was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND corporation and at Carnegie Mellon University’s School of Computer Science, Tepper School of Business, and Department of Psychology... , J.C. Shaw Cliff Shaw J.C. Shaw was a systems programmer at the RAND Corporation. He is a coauthor of the first artificial intelligence program, the Logic Theorist, and was one of the developers of Information Processing Language, a programming language of the 1950s. It is considered the true "father" of the JOSS... and Herbert Simon Herbert Simon Herbert Alexander Simon was an American political scientist, economist, sociologist, and psychologist, and professor—most notably at Carnegie Mellon University—whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, cognitive science, computer science, public administration, economics,... (Carnegie Institute of Technology Carnegie Institute of Technology The Carnegie Institute of Technology , is the name for Carnegie Mellon University’s College of Engineering. It was first called the Carnegie Technical Schools, or Carnegie Tech, when it was founded in 1900 by Andrew Carnegie who intended to build a “first class technical school” in Pittsburgh,... , now Carnegie Mellon University Carnegie Mellon University Carnegie Mellon University is a private research university in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States.... ). This is often called the first AI program, though Samuel's checkers program also has a strong claim. |
| 1957 | The General Problem Solver General Problem Solver General Problem Solver was a computer program created in 1959 by Herbert Simon, J.C. Shaw, and Allen Newell intended to work as a universal problem solver machine. Any formalized symbolic problem can be solved, in principle, by GPS. For instance: theorems proof, geometric problems and chess... (GPS) demonstrated by Newell, Shaw and Simon. |
| 1958 | John McCarthy (Massachusetts Institute of Technology Massachusetts Institute of Technology The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. MIT has five schools and one college, containing a total of 32 academic departments, with a strong emphasis on scientific and technological education and research.Founded in 1861 in... or MIT) invented the Lisp programming language Lisp programming language Lisp is a family of computer programming languages with a long history and a distinctive, fully parenthesized syntax. Originally specified in 1958, Lisp is the second-oldest high-level programming language in widespread use today; only Fortran is older... . |
| 1958 | Herb Gelernter and Nathan Rochester (IBM) described a theorem prover in geometry Geometry Geometry arose as the field of knowledge dealing with spatial relationships. Geometry was one of the two fields of pre-modern mathematics, the other being the study of numbers .... that exploits a semantic model of the domain in the form of diagrams of "typical" cases. |
| 1958 | Teddington Conference on the Mechanization of Thought Processes was held in the UK and among the papers presented were John McCarthy's Programs with Common Sense, Oliver Selfridge Oliver Selfridge Oliver Gordon Selfridge , grandson of Harry Gordon Selfridge, the founder of Selfridges' department stores, was a pioneer of artificial intelligence. He has been called the "Father of Machine Perception."... 's Pandemonium, and Marvin Minsky Marvin Minsky Marvin Lee Minsky is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence , co-founder of Massachusetts Institute of Technology's AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy.-Biography:... 's Some Methods of Heuristic Programming and Artificial Intelligence. |
| 1959 | John McCarthy John McCarthy (computer scientist) John McCarthy was an American computer scientist and cognitive scientist. He coined the term "artificial intelligence" , invented the Lisp programming language and was highly influential in the early development of AI.McCarthy also influenced other areas of computing such as time sharing systems... and Marvin Minsky Marvin Minsky Marvin Lee Minsky is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence , co-founder of Massachusetts Institute of Technology's AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy.-Biography:... founded the MIT AI Lab. |
| Late 1950s, early 1960s | Margaret Masterman Margaret Masterman Margaret Masterman was a British linguist and philosopher, most known for her pioneering work in the field of computational linguistics and especially machine translation.- Biography :... and colleagues at University of Cambridge University of Cambridge The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in both the United Kingdom and the English-speaking world , and the seventh-oldest globally... design semantic net Lexical semantics Lexical semantics is a subfield of linguistic semantics. It is the study of how and what the words of a language denote . Words may either be taken to denote things in the world, or concepts, depending on the particular approach to lexical semantics.The units of meaning in lexical semantics are... s for machine translation Machine translation Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the abbreviation MT is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of computer software to translate text or speech from one natural language to another.On a basic... . |
1960s
| Date | Development |
|---|---|
| 1960s | Ray Solomonoff Ray Solomonoff Ray Solomonoff was the inventor of algorithmic probability, and founder of algorithmic information theory, He was an originator of the branch of artificial intelligence based on machine learning, prediction and probability... lays the foundations of a mathematical theory of AI, introducing universal Bayesian methods for inductive inference and prediction. |
| 1960 | Man-Computer Symbiosis by J.C.R. Licklider. |
| 1961 | James Slagle (PhD dissertation, MIT) wrote (in Lisp) the first symbolic integration Integral Integration is an important concept in mathematics and, together with its inverse, differentiation, is one of the two main operations in calculus... program, SAINT, which solved calculus Calculus Calculus is a branch of mathematics focused on limits, functions, derivatives, integrals, and infinite series. This subject constitutes a major part of modern mathematics education. It has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus, which are related by the fundamental theorem... problems at the college freshman level. |
| 1961 | In Minds, Machines and Gödel Minds, Machines and Gödel Minds, Machines and Gödel is J. R. Lucas's 1959 philosophical paper in which he argues that a human mathematician cannot be accurately represented by an algorithmic automaton... , John Lucas John Lucas (philosopher) - Overview :John Lucas was educated at Winchester College and Balliol College, Oxford, where he studied first mathematics, then Greats , obtaining first class honors, and proceeding to an MA in Philosophy in 1954. He spent the 1957-58 academic year at Princeton University, deepening his... denied the possibility of machine intelligence on logic Logic In philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science... al or philosophical Philosophy Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational... grounds. He referred to Kurt Gödel Kurt Gödel Kurt Friedrich Gödel was an Austrian logician, mathematician and philosopher. Later in his life he emigrated to the United States to escape the effects of World War II. One of the most significant logicians of all time, Gödel made an immense impact upon scientific and philosophical thinking in the... 's result of 1931: sufficiently powerful formal systems are either inconsistent or allow for formulating true theorems unprovable by any theorem-proving AI deriving all provable theorems from the axioms. Since humans are able to "see" the truth of such theorems, machines were deemed inferior. |
| 1962 | First industrial robot company, Unimation, founded. |
| 1963 | Thomas Evans Thomas Evans Thomas Evans or Tom Evans may refer to:*Thomas Evans , British Army General*Thomas Evans , American politician, U.S... ' program, ANALOGY, written as part of his PhD work at MIT, demonstrated that computers can solve the same analogy Analogy Analogy is a cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another particular subject , and a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process... problems as are given on IQ Intelligence quotient An intelligence quotient, or IQ, is a score derived from one of several different standardized tests designed to assess intelligence. When modern IQ tests are constructed, the mean score within an age group is set to 100 and the standard deviation to 15... tests. |
| 1963 | Edward Feigenbaum Edward Feigenbaum Edward Albert Feigenbaum is a computer scientist working in the field of artificial intelligence. He is often called the "father of expert systems."... and Julian Feldman published Computers and Thought, the first collection of articles about artificial intelligence. |
| 1963 | Leonard Uhr Leonard Uhr Leonard Uhr was an American computer scientist and a pioneer in computer vision, pattern recognition, machine learning and cognitive science. He was an expert in many aspects of human neurophysiology and perception, and a central theme of his research was to design artificial intelligence systems... and Charles Vossler published "A Pattern Recognition Program That Generates, Evaluates, and Adjusts Its Own Operators", which described one of the first machine learning programs that could adaptively acquire and modify features and thereby overcome the limitations of simple perceptrons of Rosenblatt Frank Rosenblatt Frank Rosenblatt was a New York City born computer scientist who completed the Perceptron, or MARK 1, computer at Cornell University in 1960... |
| 1964 | Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT (technical report #1 from MIT's AI group, Project MAC), shows that computers can understand natural language well enough to solve algebra Algebra Algebra is the branch of mathematics concerning the study of the rules of operations and relations, and the constructions and concepts arising from them, including terms, polynomials, equations and algebraic structures... word problem Word problem The term word problem has several meanings:* word problem is a type of textbook problem designed to help students apply abstract mathematical concepts to "real-world" situations... s correctly. |
| 1964 | Bertram Raphael Bertram Raphael Bertram Raphael is an American computer scientist known for his contributions to artificial intelligence.-Biography:Raphael was born in 1936 in in New York... 's MIT dissertation on the SIR program demonstrates the power of a logical representation of knowledge for question-answering systems. |
| 1965 | J. Alan Robinson invented a mechanical proof Mathematical proof In mathematics, a proof is a convincing demonstration that some mathematical statement is necessarily true. Proofs are obtained from deductive reasoning, rather than from inductive or empirical arguments. That is, a proof must demonstrate that a statement is true in all cases, without a single... procedure, the Resolution Method, which allowed programs to work efficiently with formal logic as a representation language. |
| 1965 | Joseph Weizenbaum Joseph Weizenbaum Joseph Weizenbaum was a German-American author and professor emeritus of computer science at MIT.-Life and career:... (MIT) built ELIZA ELIZA ELIZA is a computer program and an early example of primitive natural language processing. ELIZA operated by processing users' responses to scripts, the most famous of which was DOCTOR, a simulation of a Rogerian psychotherapist. Using almost no information about human thought or emotion, DOCTOR... , an interactive program Interactivity In the fields of information science, communication, and industrial design, there is debate over the meaning of interactivity. In the "contingency view" of interactivity, there are three levels:... that carries on a dialogue in English language English language English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria... on any topic. It was a popular toy at AI centers on the ARPANET ARPANET The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network , was the world's first operational packet switching network and the core network of a set that came to compose the global Internet... when a version that "simulated" the dialogue of a psychotherapist Psychotherapy Psychotherapy is a general term referring to any form of therapeutic interaction or treatment contracted between a trained professional and a client or patient; family, couple or group... was programmed. |
| 1965 | Edward Feigenbaum Edward Feigenbaum Edward Albert Feigenbaum is a computer scientist working in the field of artificial intelligence. He is often called the "father of expert systems."... initiated Dendral Dendral Dendral was an influential pioneer project in artificial intelligence of the 1960s, and the computer software expert system that it produced. Its primary aim was to study hypothesis formation and discovery in science... , a ten-year effort to develop software to deduce the molecular structure of organic compounds using scientific instrument data. It was the first expert system Expert system In artificial intelligence, an expert system is a computer system that emulates the decision-making ability of a human expert. Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning about knowledge, like an expert, and not by following the procedure of a developer as is the case in... . |
| 1966 | Ross Quillian (PhD dissertation, Carnegie Inst. of Technology, now CMU) demonstrated semantic nets. |
| 1966 | Machine Intelligence workshop at Edinburgh – the first of an influential annual series organized by Donald Michie Donald Michie Donald Michie was a British researcher in artificial intelligence. During World War II, Michie worked for the Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park, contributing to the effort to solve "Tunny," a German teleprinter cipher.-Early life and career:Michie was born in Rangoon, Burma... and others. |
| 1966 | Negative report on machine translation kills much work in Natural language processing Natural language processing Natural language processing is a field of computer science and linguistics concerned with the interactions between computers and human languages; it began as a branch of artificial intelligence.... (NLP) for many years. |
| 1967 | Dendral Dendral Dendral was an influential pioneer project in artificial intelligence of the 1960s, and the computer software expert system that it produced. Its primary aim was to study hypothesis formation and discovery in science... program (Edward Feigenbaum, Joshua Lederberg Joshua Lederberg Joshua Lederberg ForMemRS was an American molecular biologist known for his work in microbial genetics, artificial intelligence, and the United States space program. He was just 33 years old when he won the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering that bacteria can mate and... , Bruce Buchanan, Georgia Sutherland at Stanford University Stanford University The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San... ) demonstrated to interpret mass spectra on organic chemical compounds. First successful knowledge-based program for scientific reasoning. |
| 1968 | Joel Moses Joel Moses Joel Moses is an Israeli-American computer scientist and Institute Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Joel Moses was born in Palestine in 1941 and emigrated to the U.S. in 1954. He attended Midwood High School in Brooklyn, New York... (PhD work at MIT) demonstrated the power of symbolic reasoning for integration problems in the Macsyma Macsyma Macsyma is a computer algebra system that was originally developed from 1968 to 1982 at MIT as part of Project MAC and later marketed commercially... program. First successful knowledge-based program in mathematics Mathematics Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity... . |
| 1968 | Richard Greenblatt (programmer) Richard Greenblatt (programmer) Richard D. Greenblatt is an American computer programmer. Along with Bill Gosper, he may be considered to have founded the hacker community, and holds a place of distinction in the Lisp and the MIT AI Lab communities.-Childhood:... at MIT built a knowledge-based chess-playing program Computer chess Computer chess is computer architecture encompassing hardware and software capable of playing chess autonomously without human guidance. Computer chess acts as solo entertainment , as aids to chess analysis, for computer chess competitions, and as research to provide insights into human... , MacHack MacHack (chess) Mac Hack is a computer chess program written by Richard D. Greenblatt. Also known as Mac Hac and ', it was developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology... , that was good enough to achieve a class-C rating in tournament play. |
| 1968 | Wallace and Boulton's program, Snob (Comp.J. 11(2) 1968), for unsupervised classification (clustering) uses the Bayesian Minimum Message Length Minimum message length Minimum message length is a formal information theory restatement of Occam's Razor: even when models are not equal in goodness of fit accuracy to the observed data, the one generating the shortest overall message is more likely to be correct... criterion, a mathematical realisation of Occam's razor Occam's razor Occam's razor, also known as Ockham's razor, and sometimes expressed in Latin as lex parsimoniae , is a principle that generally recommends from among competing hypotheses selecting the one that makes the fewest new assumptions.-Overview:The principle is often summarized as "simpler explanations... . |
| 1969 | Stanford Research Institute SRI International SRI International , founded as Stanford Research Institute, is one of the world's largest contract research institutes. Based in Menlo Park, California, the trustees of Stanford University established it in 1946 as a center of innovation to support economic development in the region. It was later... (SRI): Shakey the Robot Shakey the Robot Shakey the Robot was the first general-purpose mobile robot to be able to reason about its own actions. While other robots would have to be instructed on each individual step of completing a larger task, Shakey could analyze the command and break it down into basic chunks by itself... , demonstrated combining animal locomotion Animal locomotion Animal locomotion, which is the act of self-propulsion by an animal, has many manifestations, including running, swimming, jumping and flying. Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, or a suitable microhabitat, and to escape predators... , perception Perception Perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of the environment by organizing and interpreting sensory information. All perception involves signals in the nervous system, which in turn result from physical stimulation of the sense organs... and problem solving Problem solving Problem solving is a mental process and is part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding and problem shaping. Consideredthe most complex of all intellectual functions, problem solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of... . |
| 1969 | Roger Schank Roger Schank Roger Schank is an American artificial intelligence theorist, cognitive psychologist, learning scientist, educational reformer, and entrepreneur.-Academic career:... (Stanford) defined concept Concept The word concept is used in ordinary language as well as in almost all academic disciplines. Particularly in philosophy, psychology and cognitive sciences the term is much used and much discussed. WordNet defines concept: "conception, construct ". However, the meaning of the term concept is much... ual dependency model for natural language understanding Natural language processing Natural language processing is a field of computer science and linguistics concerned with the interactions between computers and human languages; it began as a branch of artificial intelligence.... . Later developed (in PhD dissertations at Yale University Yale University Yale University is a private, Ivy League university located in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States... ) for use in story understanding by Robert Wilensky and Wendy Lehnert, and for use in understanding memory by Janet Kolodner. |
| 1969 | Yorick Wilks (Stanford) developed the semantic coherence view of language called Preference Semantics, embodied in the first semantics-driven machine translation program, and the basis of many PhD dissertations since such as Bran Boguraev and David Carter at Cambridge. |
| 1969 | First International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) held at Stanford. |
| 1969 | Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert Seymour Papert Seymour Papert is an MIT mathematician, computer scientist, and educator. He is one of the pioneers of artificial intelligence, as well as an inventor of the Logo programming language.... publish Perceptron Perceptron The perceptron is a type of artificial neural network invented in 1957 at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory by Frank Rosenblatt. It can be seen as the simplest kind of feedforward neural network: a linear classifier.- Definition :... s, demonstrating previously unrecognized limits of this feed-forward two-layered structure. This book is considered by some to mark the beginning of the AI winter AI winter In the history of artificial intelligence, an AI winter is a period of reduced funding and interest in artificial intelligence research. The process of hype, disappointment and funding cuts are common in many emerging technologies , but the problem has been particularly acute for AI... of the 1970s, a failure of confidence and funding for AI. Nevertheless significant progress in the field continued (see below). |
| 1969 | McCarthy and Hayes started the discussion about the frame problem Frame problem In artificial intelligence, the frame problem was initially formulated as the problem of expressing a dynamical domain in logic without explicitly specifying which conditions are not affected by an action. John McCarthy and Patrick J. Hayes defined this problem in their 1969 article, Some... with their essay, "Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence". |
1970s
| Date | Development |
|---|---|
| Early 1970s | Jane Robinson and Don Walker established an influential Natural Language Processing Natural language processing Natural language processing is a field of computer science and linguistics concerned with the interactions between computers and human languages; it began as a branch of artificial intelligence.... group at SRI. |
| 1970 | Jaime Carbonell (Sr.) developed SCHOLAR, an interactive program for computer assisted instruction based on semantic nets as the representation of knowledge. |
| 1970 | Bill Woods described Augmented Transition Networks (ATN's) as a representation for natural language understanding. |
| 1970 | Patrick Winston Patrick Winston Patrick Henry Winston is an American computer scientist, and is a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Winston was director of the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory from 1972 to 1997, succeeding Marvin Minsky, who left to found the MIT Media Lab and succeeded by Rodney Brooks... 's PhD program, ARCH, at MIT learned concepts from examples in the world of children's blocks. |
| 1971 | Terry Winograd Terry Winograd Terry Allen Winograd is an American professor of computer science at Stanford University, and co-director of the Stanford Human-Computer Interaction Group... 's PhD thesis (MIT) demonstrated the ability of computers to understand English sentences in a restricted world of children's blocks, in a coupling of his language understanding program, SHRDLU SHRDLU SHRDLU was an early natural language understanding computer program, developed by Terry Winograd at MIT from 1968-1970. In it, the user carries on a conversation with the computer, moving objects, naming collections and querying the state of a simplified "blocks world", essentially a virtual box... , with a robot arm that carried out instructions typed in English. |
| 1971 | Work on the Boyer-Moore theorem prover started in Edinburgh. |
| 1972 | Prolog Prolog Prolog is a general purpose logic programming language associated with artificial intelligence and computational linguistics.Prolog has its roots in first-order logic, a formal logic, and unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is declarative: the program logic is expressed in terms of... programming language developed by Alain Colmerauer Alain Colmerauer Alain Colmerauer is a French computer scientist.After completing his Ph.D. at the University of Grenoble, he spent 1967–1970 as Assistant Professor at the University of Montreal, where he created Q-Systems, one of the earliest linguistic formalisms used in the development of the TAUM-METEO machine... . |
| 1972 | Earl Sacerdoti developed one of the first hierarchical planning programs, ABSTRIPS. |
| 1973 | The Assembly Robotics Group at University of Edinburgh University of Edinburgh The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1583, is a public research university located in Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city, with many of the buildings in the historic Old Town belonging to the university... builds Freddy Robot, capable of using visual perception Visual perception Visual perception is the ability to interpret information and surroundings from the effects of visible light reaching the eye. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight, or vision... to locate and assemble models. (See Edinburgh Freddy Assembly Robot Freddy II Freddy and Freddy II were experimental robots built in the Department of Machine Intelligence and Perception .... : a versatile computer-controlled assembly system.) |
| 1973 | The Lighthill report Lighthill report The Lighthill report is the name commonly used for the paper "Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey" by James Lighthill, published in Artificial Intelligence: a paper symposium in 1973.... gives a largely negative verdict on AI research in Great Britain and forms the basis for the decision by the British government to discontinue support for AI research in all but two universities. |
| 1974 | Ted Shortliffe Edward H. Shortliffe Edward Hance Shortliffe, MD, PhD is a Canadian-born American biomedical informatician, physician and computer scientist. Dr. Shortliffe is a pioneer in the use of artificial intelligence in medicine... 's PhD dissertation on the MYCIN Mycin In artificial intelligence, MYCIN was an early expert system designed to identify bacteria causing severe infections, such as bacteremia and meningitis, and to recommend antibiotics, with the dosage adjusted for patient's body weight — the name derived from the antibiotics themselves, as many... program (Stanford) demonstrated a very practical rule-based approach to medical diagnoses, even in the presence of uncertainty. While it borrowed from DENDRAL, its own contributions strongly influenced the future of expert system Expert system In artificial intelligence, an expert system is a computer system that emulates the decision-making ability of a human expert. Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning about knowledge, like an expert, and not by following the procedure of a developer as is the case in... development, especially commercial systems. |
| 1975 | Earl Sacerdoti developed techniques of partial-order planning Partial-order planning Partial-order planning is an approach to automated planning. The basic idea is to leave the decision about the order of the actions as open as possible. Given a problem description, a partial-order plan is a set of all needed actions and order conditions for the actions where needed.The approach is... in his NOAH system, replacing the previous paradigm of search among state space descriptions. NOAH was applied at SRI International to interactively diagnose and repair electromechanical systems. |
| 1975 | Austin Tate Austin Tate Professor Austin Tate FRSE FBCS FAAAI is Director of AIAI in the School of Informatics at the University of Edinburgh. He holds the Chair in Knowledge-based systems at the University of Edinburgh... developed the Nonlin hierarchical planning system able to search a space of partial plan Partial plan In formal AI planning, a partial plan is a plan which specifies all actions that need to be taken, but does not specify an exact order for the actions as the order does not matter... s characterised as alternative approaches to the underlying goal structure of the plan. |
| 1975 | Marvin Minsky published his widely-read and influential article on Frames Frame problem In artificial intelligence, the frame problem was initially formulated as the problem of expressing a dynamical domain in logic without explicitly specifying which conditions are not affected by an action. John McCarthy and Patrick J. Hayes defined this problem in their 1969 article, Some... as a representation of knowledge, in which many ideas about schemas Schema (psychology) A schema , in psychology and cognitive science, describes any of several concepts including:* An organized pattern of thought or behavior.* A structured cluster of pre-conceived ideas.... and semantic links are brought together. |
| 1975 | The Meta-Dendral learning program produced new results in chemistry Chemistry Chemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds.... (some rules of mass spectrometry Mass spectrometry Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles.It is used for determining masses of particles, for determining the elemental composition of a sample or molecule, and for elucidating the chemical structures of molecules, such as peptides and... ) the first scientific discoveries by a computer to be published in a refereed journal. |
| Mid 1970s | Barbara Grosz (SRI) established limits to traditional AI approaches to discourse modeling. Subsequent work by Grosz, Bonnie Webber and Candace Sidner developed the notion of "centering", used in establishing focus of discourse Discourse Discourse generally refers to "written or spoken communication". The following are three more specific definitions:... and anaphoric references in Natural language processing Natural language processing Natural language processing is a field of computer science and linguistics concerned with the interactions between computers and human languages; it began as a branch of artificial intelligence.... . |
| Mid 1970s | David Marr and MIT colleagues describe the "primal sketch" and its role in visual perception Visual perception Visual perception is the ability to interpret information and surroundings from the effects of visible light reaching the eye. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight, or vision... . |
| 1976 | Douglas Lenat Douglas Lenat Douglas B. Lenat is the CEO of Cycorp, Inc. of Austin, Texas, and has been a prominent researcher in artificial intelligence, especially machine learning , knowledge representation, blackboard systems, and "ontological engineering"... 's AM program Automated Mathematician The Automated Mathematician is one of the earliest successful discovery systems. It was created by Doug Lenat in Lisp, and in 1977 led to Lenat being awarded the IJCAI Computers and Thought Award.... (Stanford PhD dissertation) demonstrated the discovery model (loosely-guided search for interesting conjectures). |
| 1976 | Randall Davis demonstrated the power of meta-level reasoning in his PhD dissertation at Stanford. |
| 1978 | Tom Mitchell, at Stanford, invented the concept of Version Spaces for describing the search space Search space Search space may refer to one of the following.*In optimization, the domain of the function to be optimized*In search algorithms of computer science, the set of all possible solutions... of a concept formation program. |
| 1978 | Herbert Simon Herbert Simon Herbert Alexander Simon was an American political scientist, economist, sociologist, and psychologist, and professor—most notably at Carnegie Mellon University—whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, cognitive science, computer science, public administration, economics,... wins the Nobel Prize in Economics for his theory of bounded rationality Bounded rationality Bounded rationality is the idea that in decision making, rationality of individuals is limited by the information they have, the cognitive limitations of their minds, and the finite amount of time they have to make a decision... , one of the cornerstones of AI known as "satisficing Satisficing Satisficing, a portmanteau "combining satisfy with suffice", is a decision-making strategy that attempts to meet criteria for adequacy, rather than to identify an optimal solution... ". |
| 1978 | The MOLGEN program, written at Stanford by Mark Stefik and Peter Friedland, demonstrated that an object-oriented programming Object-oriented programming Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,... representation of knowledge can be used to plan gene-cloning Cloning Cloning in biology is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants reproduce asexually. Cloning in biotechnology refers to processes used to create copies of DNA fragments , cells , or... experiments. |
| 1979 | Bill VanMelle's PhD dissertation at Stanford demonstrated the generality of MYCIN Mycin In artificial intelligence, MYCIN was an early expert system designed to identify bacteria causing severe infections, such as bacteremia and meningitis, and to recommend antibiotics, with the dosage adjusted for patient's body weight — the name derived from the antibiotics themselves, as many... 's representation of knowledge and style of reasoning in his EMYCIN program, the model for many commercial expert system "shells". |
| 1979 | Jack Myers and Harry Pople at University of Pittsburgh University of Pittsburgh The University of Pittsburgh, commonly referred to as Pitt, is a state-related research university located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. Founded as Pittsburgh Academy in 1787 on what was then the American frontier, Pitt is one of the oldest continuously chartered institutions of... developed INTERNIST, a knowledge-based medical diagnosis program based on Dr. Myers' clinic Clinic A clinic is a health care facility that is primarily devoted to the care of outpatients... al knowledge. |
| 1979 | Cordell Green, David Barstow, Elaine Kant and others at Stanford demonstrated the CHI system for automatic programming Automatic programming In computer science, the term automatic programming identifies a type of computer programming in which some mechanism generates a computer program to allow human programmers to write the code at a higher abstraction level.... . |
| 1979 | The Stanford Cart, built by Hans Moravec Hans Moravec Hans Moravec is an adjunct faculty member at the Robotics Institute of Carnegie Mellon University. He is known for his work on robotics, artificial intelligence, and writings on the impact of technology. Moravec also is a futurist with many of his publications and predictions focusing on... , becomes the first computer-controlled, autonomous vehicle Autonomous robot Autonomous robots are robots that can perform desired tasks in unstructured environments without continuous human guidance. Many kinds of robots have some degree of autonomy. Different robots can be autonomous in different ways... when it successfully traverses a chair-filled room and circumnavigates the Stanford AI Lab. |
| 1979 | BKG, a backgammon program written by Hans Berliner Hans Berliner Hans Jack Berliner , a Professor of , is a former World Correspondence Chess Champion, from 1965–68. He is a Grandmaster of Correspondence Chess, and an International Master for over-the-board chess. He directed the construction of the chess computer HiTech. Berliner is also a chess writer.-Life... at CMU Carnegie Mellon University Carnegie Mellon University is a private research university in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States.... , defeats the reigning world champion. |
| 1979 | Drew McDermott and Jon Doyle at MIT, and John McCarthy at Stanford begin publishing work on non-monotonic logic Non-monotonic logic A non-monotonic logic is a formal logic whose consequence relation is not monotonic. Most studied formal logics have a monotonic consequence relation, meaning that adding a formula to a theory never produces a reduction of its set of consequences. Intuitively, monotonicity indicates that learning a... s and formal aspects of truth maintenance. |
| Late 1970s | Stanford's SUMEX-AIM resource, headed by Ed Feigenbaum and Joshua Lederberg, demonstrates the power of the ARPAnet for scientific collaboration. |
1980s
| Date | Development |
|---|---|
| Early 1980s | The team of Ernst Dickmanns Ernst Dickmanns Ernst Dieter Dickmanns is a former professor at Bundeswehr University Munich , and a pioneer of dynamic computer vision and of driverless cars. Dickmanns has been visiting professor to CalTech, Pasadena, and to MIT, Boston teaching courses on 'dynamic vision'.- Biography :Dickmanns was born in 1936... at Bundeswehr University of Munich builds the first robot cars, driving up to 55 mph on empty streets. |
| 1980s | Lisp machine Lisp machine Lisp machines were general-purpose computers designed to efficiently run Lisp as their main software language. In a sense, they were the first commercial single-user workstations... s developed and marketed. First expert system Expert system In artificial intelligence, an expert system is a computer system that emulates the decision-making ability of a human expert. Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning about knowledge, like an expert, and not by following the procedure of a developer as is the case in... shells and commercial applications. |
| 1980 | First National Conference of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence American Association for Artificial Intelligence The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence or AAAI is an international, nonprofit, scientific society devoted to advancing the scientific understanding of the mechanisms underlying thought and intelligent behavior and their embodiment in machines... (AAAI) held at Stanford. |
| 1981 | Danny Hillis designs the connection machine, which utilizes Parallel computing Parallel computing Parallel computing is a form of computation in which many calculations are carried out simultaneously, operating on the principle that large problems can often be divided into smaller ones, which are then solved concurrently . There are several different forms of parallel computing: bit-level,... to bring new power to AI, and to computation in general. (Later founds Thinking Machines Corporation) |
| 1982 | The Fifth Generation Computer Systems project (FGCS), an initiative by Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry, begun in 1982, to create a "fifth generation computer" (see history of computing hardware) which was supposed to perform much calculation utilizing massive parallelism. |
| 1983 | John Laird and Paul Rosenbloom, working with Allen Newell Allen Newell Allen Newell was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND corporation and at Carnegie Mellon University’s School of Computer Science, Tepper School of Business, and Department of Psychology... , complete CMU dissertations on Soar Soar (cognitive architecture) Soar is a symbolic cognitive architecture, created by John Laird, Allen Newell, and Paul Rosenbloom at Carnegie Mellon University, now maintained by John Laird's research group at the University of Michigan. It is both a view of what cognition is and an implementation of that view through a... (program). |
| 1983 | James F. Allen James F. Allen James Frederick Allen is a computational linguist recognized for his contributions to temporal logic, in particular Allen's Interval Algebra. He is the John H. Dessaurer Professor of Computer Science at the University of Rochester.-Biography:... invents the Interval Calculus, the first widely used formalization of temporal events. |
| Mid 1980s | Neural Networks become widely used with the Backpropagation Backpropagation Backpropagation is a common method of teaching artificial neural networks how to perform a given task. Arthur E. Bryson and Yu-Chi Ho described it as a multi-stage dynamic system optimization method in 1969 . It wasn't until 1974 and later, when applied in the context of neural networks and... algorithm Algorithm In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is an effective method expressed as a finite list of well-defined instructions for calculating a function. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning... (first described by Paul Werbos Paul Werbos Paul J. Werbos is a scientist best known for his 1974 Harvard University Ph.D. thesis, which first described the process of training artificial neural networks through backpropagation of errors. The thesis, and some supplementary information, can be found in his book, The Roots of Backpropagation... in 1974). |
| 1985 | The autonomous drawing program, AARON AARON AARON is a software program written by artist Harold Cohen that creates original artistic images.Proceeding from Cohen's initial question "What are the minimum conditions under which a set of marks functions as an image?", AARON has been in continual development since 1973... , created by Harold Cohen Harold Cohen (artist) Harold Cohen is a British-born artist who is noted as the creator of AARON-External links:*... , is demonstrated at the AAAI National Conference (based on more than a decade of work, and with subsequent work showing major developments). |
| 1987 | Marvin Minsky published The Society of Mind, a theoretical description of the mind as a collection of cooperating agents Intelligent agent In artificial intelligence, an intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which observes through sensors and acts upon an environment using actuators and directs its activity towards achieving goals . Intelligent agents may also learn or use knowledge to achieve their goals... . He had been lecturing on the idea for years before the book came out (c.f. Doyle 1983). |
| 1987 | Around the same time, Rodney Brooks Rodney Brooks Rodney Allen Brooks is the former Panasonic professor of robotics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Since 1986 he has authored a series of highly influential papers which have inaugurated a fundamental shift in artificial intelligence research... introduced the subsumption architecture Subsumption architecture Subsumption architecture is a reactive robot architecture heavily associated with behavior-based robotics. The term was introduced by Rodney Brooks and colleagues in 1986... and behavior-based robotics Behavior-based robotics Behavior-based robotics or behavioral robotics is the branch of robotics that incorporates modular or behavior based AI .- How they work :... as a more minimalist modular model of natural intelligence; Nouvelle AI Nouvelle AI During the late 1980s, the approach now known as nouvelle AI was pioneered at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory by Rodney Brooks. Nouvelle AI is different from classical artificial intelligence in that it tries not to reach for human-level performance, but rather tries to create systems... . |
| 1989 | Dean Pomerleau at CMU creates ALVINN (An Autonomous Land Vehicle in a Neural Network). |
1990s
| Date | Development |
|---|---|
| Early 1990s | TD-Gammon TD-Gammon TD-Gammon was a computer backgammon program developed in 1992 by Gerald Tesauro at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center. Its name comes from the fact that it is an artificial neural net trained by a form of temporal-difference learning, specifically TD-lambda.... , a backgammon Backgammon Backgammon is one of the oldest board games for two players. The playing pieces are moved according to the roll of dice, and players win by removing all of their pieces from the board. There are many variants of backgammon, most of which share common traits... program written by Gerry Tesauro, demonstrates that reinforcement Reinforcement Reinforcement is a term in operant conditioning and behavior analysis for the process of increasing the rate or probability of a behavior in the form of a "response" by the delivery or emergence of a stimulus Reinforcement is a term in operant conditioning and behavior analysis for the process of... (learning) is powerful enough to create a championship-level game-playing program by competing favorably with world-class players. |
| 1990s | Major advances in all areas of AI, with significant demonstrations in machine learning, intelligent tutoring, case-based reasoning, multi-agent planning, scheduling Scheduling (computing) In computer science, a scheduling is the method by which threads, processes or data flows are given access to system resources . This is usually done to load balance a system effectively or achieve a target quality of service... , uncertain reasoning, data mining Data mining Data mining , a relatively young and interdisciplinary field of computer science is the process of discovering new patterns from large data sets involving methods at the intersection of artificial intelligence, machine learning, statistics and database systems... , natural language understanding and translation, vision, virtual reality Virtual reality Virtual reality , also known as virtuality, is a term that applies to computer-simulated environments that can simulate physical presence in places in the real world, as well as in imaginary worlds... , games, and other topics. |
| 1991 | DART Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool The Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool, commonly abbreviated to DART, is an artificial intelligence program used by the U.S. military to optimize and schedule the transportation of supplies or personnel and solve other logistical problems.... scheduling application deployed in the first Gulf War Gulf War The Persian Gulf War , commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a U.N.-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by the United States, against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.The war is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf... paid back DARPA's Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military... investment of 30 years in AI research. |
| 1993 | Ian Horswill extended behavior-based robotics Behavior-based robotics Behavior-based robotics or behavioral robotics is the branch of robotics that incorporates modular or behavior based AI .- How they work :... by creating Polly Polly (robot) Polly was a robot created at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory by Ian Horswill for his PhD and published in 1993 as a technical report.... , the first robot to navigate using vision Computer vision Computer vision is a field that includes methods for acquiring, processing, analysing, and understanding images and, in general, high-dimensional data from the real world in order to produce numerical or symbolic information, e.g., in the forms of decisions... and operate at animal-like speeds (1 meter/second). |
| 1993 | Rodney Brooks Rodney Brooks Rodney Allen Brooks is the former Panasonic professor of robotics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Since 1986 he has authored a series of highly influential papers which have inaugurated a fundamental shift in artificial intelligence research... , Lynn Andrea Stein and Cynthia Breazeal Cynthia Breazeal Cynthia Lynn Breazeal is an Associate Professor of Media Arts and Sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where she is the director of the Personal Robots Group at the MIT Media Laboratory... started the widely-publicized MIT Cog project with numerous collaborators, in an attempt to build a humanoid robot Humanoid robot A humanoid robot or an anthropomorphic robot is a robot with its overall appearance, based on that of the human body, allowing interaction with made-for-human tools or environments. In general humanoid robots have a torso with a head, two arms and two legs, although some forms of humanoid robots... child in just five years. |
| 1993 | ISX corporation wins "DARPA contractor of the year" for the Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool The Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool, commonly abbreviated to DART, is an artificial intelligence program used by the U.S. military to optimize and schedule the transportation of supplies or personnel and solve other logistical problems.... (DART) which reportedly repaid the US government's entire investment in AI research since the 1950s. |
| 1994 | With passengers on board, the twin robot cars VaMP VaMP The VaMP driverless car was one of the first truly autonomous cars along with its twin vehicle, the VITA-2. They were able to drive in heavy traffic for long distances without human intervention, using computer vision to recognize rapidly moving obstacles such as other cars, and automatically... and VITA-2 of Ernst Dickmanns Ernst Dickmanns Ernst Dieter Dickmanns is a former professor at Bundeswehr University Munich , and a pioneer of dynamic computer vision and of driverless cars. Dickmanns has been visiting professor to CalTech, Pasadena, and to MIT, Boston teaching courses on 'dynamic vision'.- Biography :Dickmanns was born in 1936... and Daimler-Benz Daimler-Benz Daimler-Benz AG was a German manufacturer of automobiles, motor vehicles, and internal combustion engines; founded in 1926. An Agreement of Mutual Interest - which was valid until year 2000 - was signed on 1 May 1924 between Karl Benz's Benz & Cie., and Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft, which had... drive more than one thousand kilometers on a Paris three-lane highway in standard heavy traffic at speeds up to 130 km/h. They demonstrate autonomous driving in free lanes, convoy driving, and lane changes left and right with autonomous passing of other cars. |
| 1995 | Semi-autonomous ALVINN steered a car coast-to-coast under computer control for all but about 50 of the 2850 miles. Throttle and brakes, however, were controlled by a human driver. |
| 1995 | In the same year, one of Ernst Dickmanns Ernst Dickmanns Ernst Dieter Dickmanns is a former professor at Bundeswehr University Munich , and a pioneer of dynamic computer vision and of driverless cars. Dickmanns has been visiting professor to CalTech, Pasadena, and to MIT, Boston teaching courses on 'dynamic vision'.- Biography :Dickmanns was born in 1936... ' robot cars (with robot-controlled throttle and brakes) drove more than 1000 miles from Munich Munich Munich The city's motto is "" . Before 2006, it was "Weltstadt mit Herz" . Its native name, , is derived from the Old High German Munichen, meaning "by the monks' place". The city's name derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who founded the city; hence the monk depicted on the city's coat... to Copenhagen Copenhagen Copenhagen is the capital and largest city of Denmark, with an urban population of 1,199,224 and a metropolitan population of 1,930,260 . With the completion of the transnational Øresund Bridge in 2000, Copenhagen has become the centre of the increasingly integrating Øresund Region... and back, in traffic, at up to 120 mph, occasionally executing maneuvers to pass other cars (only in a few critical situations a safety driver took over). Active vision was used to deal with rapidly changing street scenes. |
| 1997 | The Deep Blue chess machine (IBM IBM International Business Machines Corporation or IBM is an American multinational technology and consulting corporation headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software, and it offers infrastructure, hosting and consulting services in areas... ) beats the world chess Chess Chess is a two-player board game played on a chessboard, a square-checkered board with 64 squares arranged in an eight-by-eight grid. It is one of the world's most popular games, played by millions of people worldwide at home, in clubs, online, by correspondence, and in tournaments.Each player... champion, Garry Kasparov Garry Kasparov Garry Kimovich Kasparov is a Russian chess grandmaster, a former World Chess Champion, writer, political activist, and one of the greatest chess players of all time.... . |
| 1997 | First official RoboCup RoboCup RoboCup is an international robotics competition founded in 1997. The aim is to develop autonomous soccer robots with the intention of promoting research and education in the field of artificial intelligence... football (soccer) match featuring table-top matches with 40 teams of interacting robots and over 5000 spectators. |
| 1998 | Tiger Electronics Tiger Electronics Tiger Electronics is an American toy manufacturer, best known for its handheld LCD games, the Furby, and Giga Pets. When Tiger was an independent company, Tiger Electronics Inc., its headquarters were in Vernon Hills, Illinois.... ' Furby Furby A Furby was a popular electronic robotic toy resembling a hamster/owl-like creature which went through a period of being a "must-have" toy following its launch in the holiday season of 1998, with continual sales until 2000... is released, and becomes the first successful attempt at producing a type of A.I to reach a domestic environment Domestic robot A domestic robot is a robot used for household chores. Thus far, there are only a few limited models, though science fiction writers and other speculators have suggested that they could become more common in the future... . |
| 1998 | Tim Berners-Lee Tim Berners-Lee Sir Timothy John "Tim" Berners-Lee, , also known as "TimBL", is a British computer scientist, MIT professor and the inventor of the World Wide Web... published his Semantic Web Road map Semantic Web The Semantic Web is a collaborative movement led by the World Wide Web Consortium that promotes common formats for data on the World Wide Web. By encouraging the inclusion of semantic content in web pages, the Semantic Web aims at converting the current web of unstructured documents into a "web of... paper. |
| 1999 | Sony Sony , commonly referred to as Sony, is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan and the world's fifth largest media conglomerate measured by revenues.... introduces an improved domestic robot similar to a Furby, the AIBO AIBO AIBO was one of several types of robotic pets designed and manufactured by Sony... becomes one of the first artificially intelligent "pets" that is also autonomous Autonomous robot Autonomous robots are robots that can perform desired tasks in unstructured environments without continuous human guidance. Many kinds of robots have some degree of autonomy. Different robots can be autonomous in different ways... . |
| Late 1990s | Web crawler Web crawler A Web crawler is a computer program that browses the World Wide Web in a methodical, automated manner or in an orderly fashion. Other terms for Web crawlers are ants, automatic indexers, bots, Web spiders, Web robots, or—especially in the FOAF community—Web scutters.This process is called Web... s and other AI-based information extraction programs become essential in widespread use of the World Wide Web World Wide Web The World Wide Web is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet... . |
| Late 1990s | Demonstration of an Intelligent room and Emotional Agents at MIT's AI Lab. |
| Late 1990s | Initiation of work on the Oxygen architecture, which connects mobile and stationary computers in an adaptive network Computer network A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information.... . |
2000 and Beyond
| Date | Development |
|---|---|
| 2000 | Interactive robopets ("smart toy Smart toy A smart toy is a toy which effectively has its own intelligence by virtue of on-board electronics. These enable it to learn, behave according to pattern, and alter its actions depending upon environmental stimuli. Typically, it can adjust to the abilities of the player... s") become commercially available, realizing the vision of the 18th century novelty toy makers. |
| 2000 | Cynthia Breazeal Cynthia Breazeal Cynthia Lynn Breazeal is an Associate Professor of Media Arts and Sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where she is the director of the Personal Robots Group at the MIT Media Laboratory... at MIT publishes her dissertation on Sociable machines, describing Kismet (robot) Kismet (robot) Kismet is a robot made in the late 1990s at Massachusetts Institute of Technology by Dr. Cynthia Breazeal. The robot's auditory, visual and expressive systems were intended to allow it to participate in human social interaction and to demonstrate simulated human emotion and appearance... , with a face that expresses emotion Emotion Emotion is a complex psychophysiological experience of an individual's state of mind as interacting with biochemical and environmental influences. In humans, emotion fundamentally involves "physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience." Emotion is associated with mood,... s. |
| 2000 | The Nomad robot explores remote regions of Antarctica looking for meteorite samples. |
| 2004 | OWL Web Ontology Language Web Ontology Language The Web Ontology Language is a family of knowledge representation languages for authoring ontologies.The languages are characterised by formal semantics and RDF/XML-based serializations for the Semantic Web... W3C Recommendation (10 February 2004). |
| 2004 | DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military... introduces the DARPA Grand Challenge DARPA Grand Challenge The DARPA Grand Challenge is a prize competition for driverless vehicles, funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, the most prominent research organization of the United States Department of Defense... requiring competitors to produce autonomous vehicles for prize money. |
| 2005 | Honda Honda is a Japanese public multinational corporation primarily known as a manufacturer of automobiles and motorcycles.Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959, as well as the world's largest manufacturer of internal combustion engines measured by volume, producing more than... 's ASIMO ASIMO is a humanoid robot created by Honda. Introduced in 2000, ASIMO, which is an acronym for "Advanced Step in Innovative MObility", was created to be a helper to people. With aspirations of helping people who lack full mobility, ASIMO is used to encourage young people to study science and mathematics... robot, an artificially intelligent humanoid robot, is able to walk as fast as a human, delivering tray Tray A tray is a shallow platform designed for carrying things. It is larger than a salver, a diminutive version commonly used for lighter and smaller servings, and it can be fashioned from numerous materials, including silver, brass, sheet iron, wood, melamine, and papier-mâché... s to customers in restaurant settings. |
| 2005 | Recommendation technology based on tracking web activity or media usage brings AI to marketing. See TiVo Suggestions TiVo TiVo is a digital video recorder developed and marketed by TiVo, Inc. and introduced in 1999. TiVo provides an on-screen guide of scheduled broadcast programming television programs, whose features include "Season Pass" schedules which record every new episode of a series, and "WishList"... . |
| 2005 | Blue Brain Blue Brain The Blue Brain Project is an attempt to create a synthetic brain by reverse-engineering the mammalian brain down to the molecular level.The aim of the project, founded in May 2005 by the Brain and Mind Institute of the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne is to study the brain's architectural... is born, a project to simulate the brain at molecular detail.http://bluebrain.epfl.ch/. |
| 2006 | The Dartmouth Artificial Intelligence Conference: The Next 50 Years (AI@50) AI@50 AI@50 AI@50, formally known as the "Dartmouth Artificial Intelligence Conference: The Next Fifty Years" , was a conference commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Dartmouth Conferences which effectively inaugurated the history of artificial intelligence... (14–16 July 2006) |
| 2007 | Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B – Biology, one of the world's oldest scientific journals, puts out a special issue on using AI to understand biological intelligence, titled Models of Natural Action Selection Action selection Action selection is a way of characterizing the most basic problem of intelligent systems: what to do next. In artificial intelligence and computational cognitive science, "the action selection problem" is typically associated with intelligent agents and animats—artificial systems that exhibit... |
| 2007 | Checkers is solved Solved game A solved game is a game whose outcome can be correctly predicted from any position when each side plays optimally. Games which have not been solved are said to be "unsolved"... by a team of researchers at the University of Alberta University of Alberta The University of Alberta is a public research university located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Founded in 1908 by Alexander Cameron Rutherford, the first premier of Alberta and Henry Marshall Tory, its first president, it is widely recognized as one of the best universities in Canada... . |
| 2011 | AI received much public attention in February, 2011, with the Jeopardy! Jeopardy! Griffin's first conception of the game used a board comprising ten categories with ten clues each, but after finding that this board could not be shown on camera easily, he reduced it to two rounds of thirty clues each, with five clues in each of six categories... exhibition match during which IBM IBM International Business Machines Corporation or IBM is an American multinational technology and consulting corporation headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software, and it offers infrastructure, hosting and consulting services in areas... 's Watson Watson (artificial intelligence software) Watson is an artificial intelligence computer system capable of answering questions posed in natural language, developed in IBM's DeepQA project by a research team led by principal investigator David Ferrucci. Watson was named after IBM's first president, Thomas J... soundly defeated the two greatest Jeopardy! champions, Brad Rutter Brad Rutter Bradford Gates "Brad" Rutter is the biggest all-time money winner on the U.S. syndicated game show Jeopardy! and the second biggest all-time money winner on a game show.... and Ken Jennings Ken Jennings Kenneth Wayne "Ken" Jennings III is an American game show contestant and author. Jennings is noted for holding the record for the longest winning streak on the U.S. syndicated game show Jeopardy! and as being the all-time leading money winner on American game shows... . |