Livonia ' onMouseout='HidePop("71675")' href="http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Latvian_language">Latvian
Latvian is the official state language of Latvia. It is also sometimes referred to as Lettish. There are about 1.4 million native Latvian speakers in Latvia and about 150,000 abroad. The Latvian language has a relatively large number of non-native speakers, atypical for a small language...
and ; ; ;
GermanGerman is a West Germanic language, thus related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. It is one of the world's major languages and the most widely spoken first language in the European Union. Around the world, German is spoken by approximately 105 million native speakers and also by...
and
SwedishSwedish is a North Germanic language, spoken by approximately 10 million people, predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the coast and on the Åland islands. It is to a considerable extent mutually intelligible with Norwegian and to a lesser extent with Danish...
:
Livland; ,
Liwlandia; ) was once the land of the
Finnic Livonians inhabiting the principal ancient Livonian County
MetsepoleMetsepole was an ancient Livonian county inhabited by a Finnic people Livonians, on the east coast of the Gulf of Riga, at the northwest of what is now the Vidzeme region of Latvia...
with its center at
TuraidaTuraida Castle is a recently reconstructed medieval castle in Turaida, in the Vidzeme region of Latvia, on the opposite bank of the Gauja River from Sigulda....
. The most prominent ruler of the ancient Livonia was
Caupo of TuraidaCaupo of Turaida, or Kaupo was a leader of the Finnic-speaking Livonian people in the beginning of the 13th century, in what is now Latvia. He is sometimes called 'King of Livonia', Chronicle of Henry of Livonia calls him quasi rex, 'like a king'.He was the first prominent Livonian to be christened...
.
During the
Livonian CrusadeThe Livonian Crusade refers to the German and Danish conquest and colonization of medieval Livonia, the territory constituting modern Latvia and Estonia, during the Northern Crusades...
, ancient Livonia was colonized by the
Livonian Brothers of the SwordBishop Albert of Riga founded the military order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword in 1202; Pope Innocent III sanctioned the establishment in 1204. The membership of the order comprised German "warrior monks"...
, later called
Livonian OrderThe Livonian Order was an autonomous Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1435–1561. After being defeated by Samogitians in the 1236 Battle of Schaulen , the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic...
and the name Livonia came to designate a much broader territory: Terra Mariana on the eastern coasts of the
Baltic SeaThe Baltic Sea is a brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and the...
, in present-day
LatviaLatvia , officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia , to the south by Lithuania , to the east by the Russian Federation , and to the southeast by Belarus . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden...
and
EstoniaEstonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by the Russian Federation...
. Its frontiers are the
Gulf of Riga300px|thumb|The Gulf of RigaThe Gulf of Riga, or Bay of Riga, is a bay of the Baltic Sea between Latvia and Estonia.The area of the Gulf of Riga is about 18,000 km². The maximum depth is 67 m....
and the
Gulf of FinlandThe Gulf of Finland is the easternmost arm of the Baltic Sea that extends between Finland and Estonia all the way to Saint Petersburg in Russia, where the river Neva drains into it. Other major cities around the gulf include Helsinki and Tallinn...
in the north-west,
Lake PeipusLake Peipsi-Pihkva, sometimes also called Peipus is the biggest transboundary and fourth largest fresh water lake in Europe, on the border between Estonia and Russia....
and
RussiaRussia , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia . It is a semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
to the east, and
LithuaniaLithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the southernmost of the three Baltic states. Situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, it shares borders with Latvia to the north, Belarus to the southeast, Poland, and the Russian exclave of...
to the south.
Livonia was inhabited by various
BalticThe Balts or Baltic peoples , defined as speakers of one of the Baltic languages, a branch of the Indo-European language family, are descended from a group of Indo-European tribes who settled the area between lower Vistula and upper Daugava and Dnieper rivers on the southeast shore of the Baltic Sea...
and
Finnic peoplesFinnic peoples are a linguistic group speaking Finnic languages: Baltic Finns, who live near the Baltic Sea, Volga Finns, who live near the Volga River, the Permians, who live in north-central Russia...
, ruled by an upper class of Baltic Germans. Over the course of time, some nobles were
polonized Polonization is the acquisition or imposition of elements of Polish culture, in particular, Polish language, as experienced in some historic periods by non-Polish populations of territories controlled or substantially influenced by Poland.-Piast Poland:...
into the Polish-Lithuanian nobility (
SzlachtaSzlachta is the noble class in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the increasingly polonized territories under their control . The nobility arose in the late Middle Ages and existed through the 18th century and into the 20th century...
) or
russifiedRussification is an adoption of the Russian language or some other Russian attribute by non-Russian communities...
into the Russian nobility (
Dvoryanstvo).
History
Beginning in the 12th century, Livonia was an area of economic and political expansion by Danes and
GermansThe German people are an ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent, and speaking the German language as a mother tongue. Within Germany, Germans are defined by citizenship , distinguished from people of German ancestry...
, particularly by the
Hanseatic LeagueThe Hanseatic League was an alliance of trading cities and their guilds that established and maintained a trade monopoly along the coast of Northern Europe, from the Baltic to the North Sea and inland, during the Late Middle Ages and early modern period...
and the Cistercian Order.
Around 1160, Hanseatic traders from
LübeckThe Hanseatic City of Lübeck is the second largest city in Schleswig-Holstein, in northern Germany, and one of the major ports of Germany. It was for several centuries the "capital" of the Hanseatic League and because of its Brick Gothic architectural heritage is on UNESCO's list of World...
established a trading post at the future site of
RigaRiga is the capital and largest city of Latvia, a major industrial, commercial, cultural and financial centre of the Baltics, and an important seaport, situated on the mouth of the Daugava...
, which Albrecht von Buxthoeven founded in 1201. He ordered the construction of a cathedral and became the first
Prince-BishopA Prince-Bishop is a bishop who is a territorial Prince of the Church on account of one or more secular principalities, usually pre-existent titles of nobility held concurrently with their inherent clerical office...
of Livonia.
Livonian Brothers of the Sword 1204-1237
Bishop Albert of Riga (Albert of Buxhoeveden) founded the
military orderA military order is a Christian order of knighthood that is founded for crusading, i.e. propagating and/or defending the faith , either in the Holy Land or against Islam or pagans in Europe, but many became secularized later.-History:Catholic military orders appeared following the...
of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword in 1202;
Pope Innocent IIIPope Innocent III was Pope from 8 January 1198 until his death. He was born with the name Lotario de Conti.-Early life and election to the Papacy:Lotario de' Conti was born Gavignano, near Anagni...
sanctioned the establishment in 1204. The membership of the order comprised
GermanThe German people are an ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent, and speaking the German language as a mother tongue. Within Germany, Germans are defined by citizenship , distinguished from people of German ancestry...
"warrior
monkA monk is a person who practices religious asceticism, living either alone or with any number of monks, whilst always maintaining some degree of physical separation from those not sharing the same purpose...
s". Alternative names of the order include the Christ Knights, Sword Brethren, and The Militia of Christ of Livonia. Following their defeat by
LithuaniaThe history of Lithuania between 1219 and 1295 deals with the establishment and early history of the first Lithuanian state, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the 13th century marks the end of the prehistory of Lithuania. From this point on the history of Lithuania is recorded in...
in the Battle of Saule in 1236, the surviving Brothers merged into the Teutonic Order as an autonomous branch and became known as the
Livonian OrderThe Livonian Order was an autonomous Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1435–1561. After being defeated by Samogitians in the 1236 Battle of Schaulen , the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic...
.
Albert, bishop of
RigaRiga is the capital and largest city of Latvia, a major industrial, commercial, cultural and financial centre of the Baltics, and an important seaport, situated on the mouth of the Daugava...
(or
Prince-BishopA Prince-Bishop is a bishop who is a territorial Prince of the Church on account of one or more secular principalities, usually pre-existent titles of nobility held concurrently with their inherent clerical office...
of Livonia), founded the Brotherhood to aid the Bishopric of Riga in the conversion of the
paganPaganism is a word with several different meanings.In its broadest definition, pagan denotes all non-Abrahamic religions, that is to say it denotes all religions other than Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.Other usages are:*Paganism may mean Polytheism: The group so defined includes most of the...
CuroniansThe Curonians or Kurs were a people living on the Eastern shores of the Baltic who were eventually absorbed by the expansion of the Latvian and Lithuanian nations. They gave their name to the region of Courland . They spoke the Curonian language...
,
LivoniansThe Livonians or Livs are the indigenous inhabitants of Livonia, a large part of what is today the northwestern Latvia and southwestern Estonia...
,
SemigalliansThe Semigallians are one of the Baltic tribes that lived in Zemgale, in the southcentral Latvia...
, and
LatgaliansThis article is about ancient Baltic people. For modern ethnic group of Latvians see Latgalians .The term Latgalians can refer to the inhabitants of the Latgale region in eastern Latvia in general, the ethnic Latvians of Latgale This article is about ancient Baltic people. For modern ethnic group...
living on the shores of the
Gulf of Riga300px|thumb|The Gulf of RigaThe Gulf of Riga, or Bay of Riga, is a bay of the Baltic Sea between Latvia and Estonia.The area of the Gulf of Riga is about 18,000 km². The maximum depth is 67 m....
. From its foundation, the undisciplined Order tended to ignore its supposed
vassalA vassal in the terminology that both preceded and accompanied the feudalism of medieval Europe, is one who enters into mutual obligations with a monarch, usually of military support and mutual protection, in exchange for certain guarantees, which came to include the terrain held as a fief. By...
age to the bishops. In 1218, Albert asked King
Valdemar IIValdemar II , called Valdemar the Conqueror or Valdemar the Victorious , was the King of Denmark from November 12, 1202 until his death in 1241...
of
DenmarkDenmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe and the senior member of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries; southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and it is bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark borders both the Baltic and the North Sea...
for assistance, but Valdemar instead arranged a deal with the Brotherhood and conquered the
north of EstoniaDanish Estonia refers to the territories of present-day Estonia that were ruled by Denmark firstly during the 13th-14th centuries and again in the 16th-17th centuries....
for Denmark. The Brotherhood had its headquarters at
Fellin (Viljandi)Viljandi is a town and municipality in southern Estonia. Population 19,870 . It is the capital of Viljandi County. The town was first mentioned in 1283, upon being granted its town charter by Wilhelm von Endorpe....
in present-day
EstoniaEstonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by the Russian Federation...
, where the walls of the Master's castle stand. Other strongholds included
Wenden (Cēsis)Cēsis , is a town in Latvia located in the northern part of the Vidzeme central upland. Cēsis is on the Gauja River valley, and is built on a series of ridges above the river overlooking the "blue woods" below...
,
Segewold (Sigulda)Sigulda is a town in the Vidzeme Region of Latvia, 53 km from the capital city Riga.-Overview:Sigulda is situated on a picturesque stretch of the primeval Gauja river valley...
and
Ascheraden (Aizkraukle)Aizkraukle is a town in Vidzeme region in Latvia, the administrative centre of Aizkraukle municipality on the right bank of the Daugava River.-History:Aizkraukle before the World War I was formerly known by its German name of Ascheraden...
. The commanders of Fellin,
Goldingen (Kuldīga)Kuldīga is a town in western Latvia. It is the center of Kuldigas County with a population of approximately 13,500.Kuldīga was first mentioned in 1242. It joined the Hanseatic League in 1368...
,
Marienburg (Alūksne)Alūksne is a town on the shores of Lake Alūksne in northeastern Latvia near the borders with Estonia and Russia. It is the seat of Alūksne District.- History :...
,
Reval (Tallinn)Tallinn is the capital and largest city of Estonia. It occupies a surface of in which 405,867 inhabitants live. It is situated on the northern coast of the country, on the banks of the Gulf of Finland, south of Helsinki.-Historical names:...
, and the
bailiffA bailiff is a governor or custodian ; a legal officer to whom some degree of authority, care or jurisdiction is committed...
of
Weißenstein (Paide)Paide is the capital of Järva County, Estonia.A castle built by the Livonian Brothers of the Sword is located here. The town was formally founded 30 September 1291 by Halt, master of the Livonian Order....
belonged to the five-member entourage of the Order's Master.
Pope Gregory IXPope Gregory IX, born Ugolino di Conti, was pope from March 19, 1227 to August 22, 1241.The successor of Pope Honorius III , he fully inherited the traditions of Pope Gregory VII and of his uncle Pope Innocent III , and zealously continued their policy of Papal supremacy.-Early life:Ugolino was...
asked the Brothers to defend
FinlandFinland , officially the Republic of Finland
, is a Nordic country and democracy situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. It borders Sweden on the west, Russia on the east, and Norway on the north, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland...
from the
Novgorodian attacksFinnish-Novgorodian wars were a series of conflicts that took place between a group called Yem, usually supposed to be Finnic tribes in eastern Fennoscandia, and the Republic of Novgorod from the 11th or 12th century to early 13th century. The wars seem to have contributed to the eventual Swedish...
in his letter of November 24, 1232;
however, no known information regarding the knights' possible activities in Finland has survived. (
SwedenSweden was, between 1611 and 1718, one of the great powers of Europe. In modern historiography this period is known as the Swedish Empire, or stormaktstiden .-Sweden's emergence into a great power:...
eventually took over Finland after the
Second Swedish CrusadeSecond Swedish Crusade was a semi-historical Swedish military expedition to Finland by Birger jarl in the 13th century. As a result of the crusade, Finland became permanently part of Sweden for the next 550 years.-Year of the crusade:...
in 1249.) In the Battle of Saule in 1236 the
LithuaniansLithuanians are the Baltic ethnic group native to Lithuania, where they number slightly over 3 million people. Another million or more make up the Lithuanian diaspora, largely found in countries such as the United States, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Russia, United Kingdom and Ireland...
and
SemigalliansThe Semigallians are one of the Baltic tribes that lived in Zemgale, in the southcentral Latvia...
decimated the Order. This disaster led the surviving Brothers to become incorporated into the Order of
Teutonic KnightsThe Order of the Teutonic Knights of St. Mary's Hospital in Jerusalem , or for short the Teutonic Order , is a German Roman Catholic religious order. It was formed to aid Catholics on their pilgrimages to the Holy Land and to establish hospitals to care for the sick and injured...
in the following year, and from that point on they became known as the
Livonian OrderThe Livonian Order was an autonomous Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1435–1561. After being defeated by Samogitians in the 1236 Battle of Schaulen , the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic...
. They continued, however, to function in all respects (rule, clothing and policy) as an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order, headed by their own Master (himself
de jure subject to the Teutonic Order's
Grand MasterThe grand master is the holder of the supreme office of the Teutonic Order. It is equivalent to the grand master of other military orders and the superior general in non-military Roman Catholic religious orders...
).
Livonian Crusade 1206-1227
The
Chronicle of Henry of LivoniaThe Chronicle of Henry of Livonia is a document describing historic events in Livonia and surrounding areas from 1180 to 1227. Apart from the few references in the Primary Chronicle compiled in Kievan Rus in the twelfth century, it is the oldest known written document about the history of these...
from the 1220s gives a firsthand account of the Christianization of Livonia, granted as a fief by the
HohenstaufenThe House of Hohenstaufen was a dynasty of German kings lasting from 1138 to 1254. Three of these kings were also crowned Holy Roman Emperor. In 1194 the Hohenstaufen also became Kings of Sicily...
King of Germany,
Philip of SwabiaPhilip of Swabia was king of Germany and duke of Swabia, the rival of the emperor Otto IV.-Biography:Philip was the fifth and youngest son of the emperor Frederick I and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III, count of Burgundy, and brother of the emperor Henry VI...
, to Bishop Albert of Buxthoeven, nephew of the
Hartwig IIHartwig of Uthlede was - as Hartwig II - Prince-Archbishop of Bremen and one of the originators of the Livonian Crusade. Coming from a family of the Bremian Ministerialis at Uthlede, he was a canon of Bremen Cathedral and a clerk of Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony, House of Guelph, before becoming...
, Archbishop of Bremen, who sailed with a convoy of ships filled with armed crusaders to carve out a Catholic territory in the east during the
Livonian CrusadeThe Livonian Crusade refers to the German and Danish conquest and colonization of medieval Livonia, the territory constituting modern Latvia and Estonia, during the Northern Crusades...
.
Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights 1224-1237
From 1236, Livonia consisted of the following subdivisions:
- a state ruled by the Livonian Order
Bishop Albert of Riga founded the military order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword in 1202; Pope Innocent III sanctioned the establishment in 1204. The membership of the order comprised German "warrior monks"...
founded by Albert in 1202, which was assimilated into the Teutonic KnightsThe Order of the Teutonic Knights of St. Mary's Hospital in Jerusalem , or for short the Teutonic Order , is a German Roman Catholic religious order. It was formed to aid Catholics on their pilgrimages to the Holy Land and to establish hospitals to care for the sick and injured...
in 1237;
- the Bishopric of Riga (an archbishopric since 1255);
- the Bishoprics of Courland
The Bishopric of Courland was a second smallest ecclesiastical state in the Livonian Confederation founded in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade...
, Ösel-WiekThe Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek was a semi-independent Roman Catholic prince-bishopric in what is now Saare and Lääne counties of Estonia....
, and DorpatThe Bishopric of Dorpat was a medieval principality and a catholic diocese which existed from 1224 to 1558, generally encompassing what are now Tartu, Põlva, Võru and Jõgeva counties in Estonia. The Bishopric was part of Livonian Confederation. The first bishop of Dorpat was Hermann von...
, where Albert's brother Hermann established himself as the prince-bishop (Terra Mariana). The conquest of Livonia by the Germans is described in the Livonian Rhymed ChronicleThe Livonian Rhymed Chronicle was a chronicle written in Low German by an anonymous writer. It covers the period 1180 – 1290 and contains a wealth of detail about Livonia, modern Latvia and Estonia....
.
Livonian Order 1237-1561
The Livonian Order was a largely autonomous branch of the
Teutonic KnightsThe Order of the Teutonic Knights of St. Mary's Hospital in Jerusalem , or for short the Teutonic Order , is a German Roman Catholic religious order. It was formed to aid Catholics on their pilgrimages to the Holy Land and to establish hospitals to care for the sick and injured...
(or Teutonic Order) and a member of the
Livonian ConfederationTerra Mariana was the official name for Medieval Livonia or Old Livonia which was formed in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade in the territories comprising present day Estonia and Latvia...
from 1418–1561. After being defeated by
LithuaniaThe history of Lithuania between 1219 and 1295 deals with the establishment and early history of the first Lithuanian state, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the 13th century marks the end of the prehistory of Lithuania. From this point on the history of Lithuania is recorded in...
in the 1236 Battle of Saule, the remnants of the
Livonian Brothers of the SwordBishop Albert of Riga founded the military order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword in 1202; Pope Innocent III sanctioned the establishment in 1204. The membership of the order comprised German "warrior monks"...
were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights as the Livonian Order in 1237. Between 1237 and 1290, the Livonian Order conquered all of
CourlandCourland is one of the cultural and historical regions of Latvia. The regions of Semigallia and Selonia are sometimes considered as part of Courland.- Geography and climate :...
, Livonia, and Semigallia, but their attack on northern Russia was repelled in the
Battle of Wesenberg (Rakovor)The Battle of Rakovor or Battle of Wesenberg or Battle of Rakvere was a battle fought on February 18, 1268, between the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Knights and a coalition of Russian princes...
(1268). In 1346, the Order bought the rest of
EstoniaEstonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by the Russian Federation...
from King
Valdemar IV of DenmarkValdemar Atterdag was a King of Denmark from 1340 to 1375.He was the youngest son of Christopher II and spent most of his childhood and youth in exile at the court of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor in Bavaria after the defeats of his father...
. Life within the Order's territory is described in the
Chronicle of Henry of LivoniaThe Chronicle of Henry of Livonia is a document describing historic events in Livonia and surrounding areas from 1180 to 1227. Apart from the few references in the Primary Chronicle compiled in Kievan Rus in the twelfth century, it is the oldest known written document about the history of these...
and the
Livonian Rhymed ChronicleThe Livonian Rhymed Chronicle was a chronicle written in Low German by an anonymous writer. It covers the period 1180 – 1290 and contains a wealth of detail about Livonia, modern Latvia and Estonia....
. The Teutonic Order fell into decline following its defeat in the
Battle of GrunwaldThe Battle of Grunwald took place on July 15, 1410 with the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led by the king Jogaila , ranged against the knights of the Teutonic Order, led by the Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen...
in 1410 and the secularization of its Prussian territories by Albert of Brandenburg in 1525, but the Livonian Order managed to maintain an independent existence. During many years of
Livonian WarThe Livonian War of 1558–1583 was a lengthy series of wars between the Tsardom of Russia and a variable coalition of Denmark–Norway, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland , and Sweden for control of medieval Livonia, the territory of the present-day Estonia and Latvia.By the late 1550s,...
(1558-1582), however, they suffered a decisive defeat by troops of Muscovite Russia in the
Battle of ErgemeThe Battle of Ērģeme was fought on 2 August, 1560 in present-day Latvia as part of the Livonian War between the forces of Ivan IV of Russia and the Livonian Confederation. It was the last battle fought by the German knights in Livonia and an important Russian victory...
in 1560 and continued living under great threat. Letters to the Emperor arrived from many European countries, warning,
that Moscow has its eyes on much more than only a few harbors or the province of Liefland... the East Sea (Ostsee-
Baltic SeaThe Baltic Sea is a brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and the...
and the West Sea (Atlantic) are equally in danger. Duke Barnim the Elder, 50 years duke of Pomerania, warned,
that never before did he experience the fear than now, where even in his land, where people send by Moscow are everywhere. At stake was the
NarwaNarwa can refer to:*Narva, a city in Estonia also known in the history as Narwa* Narwa, a Kamboj tribe...
-Trade-Route and practically all trade of all Northern and with that all of Europe. Due to religious upheavals of the
ReformationThe Protestant Reformation was a Christian reform movement in Europe which is generally deemed to have begun with Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses in 1517 although a number of precursors such as Jan Hus predate that event...
the empire could not send troops, which it could not afford and which were too far away anyway. Prussia was not able to help for much of the same reason and Duke Albrecht was under continuous ban by the emperor. The Hanseatic League was greatly weakened by this and the city state of Luebeck fought its last great war. The emperor
Maximilian IIMaximilian II can refer to:*Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor *Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria *Maximilian II of Bavaria...
diffused the greatest threat by remaining on friendly terms with the czar, but not sending him troops as requested, in his struggles with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Czar Ivan of Moscow installed Duke Magnus as King of Livonia. This was opposed be the other forces. The Livonian Order saw no other way than to seek protection from
Sigismund II AugustusSigismund II Augustus I was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the only son of Sigismund I the Old, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548...
, the
King of PolandThe Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state created by the accession of Jogaila , Grand Duke of Lithuania, to the Polish throne in 1386. The Union of Krewo or Krėva Act, united Poland and Lithuania under the rule of a single monarch...
and the
Grand Duke of LithuaniaThe Grand Duchy of Lithuania was an Eastern and Central European state from the 12th /13th century until 1795. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the pagan Baltic tribes from Aukštaitija...
, who had intervened in a war between Bishop
WilliamWilhelm von Brandenburg was the Archbishop of Riga from 1539 to 1561.A member of the House of Hohenzollern, William was the son of Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, the brother of Albert, Duke of Prussia, and the grandson of Albert III Achilles, Elector of Brandenburg and Casimir IV...
of Riga and the Brothers in 1557. After coming to an agreement with Sigismund II Augustus and his representatives (especially Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł), the last Livonian Master,
Gotthard KettlerGotthard von Kettler was the last Master of the Livonian Order and the first Duke of Courland and Semigallia....
, secularized the Order and converted to
LutheranismLutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the 16th century German reformer Martin Luther. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched the Protestant Reformation...
. In the southern part of the Brothers' lands he created the
Duchy of Courland and SemigalliaThe Duchy of Courland and Semigallia is the name of a duchy in the Baltic region that existed from 1562 to 1791 as a vassal state of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and later the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth...
for his family. Most of the remaining lands were seized by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The north of Estonia was taken back by Denmark and
SwedenSweden was, between 1611 and 1718, one of the great powers of Europe. In modern historiography this period is known as the Swedish Empire, or stormaktstiden .-Sweden's emergence into a great power:...
.
Livonian Confederation 1418-1561
The 5 Ecclesiastical states of the Holy Roman Empire in Medieval Livonia were organized into the
Livonian ConfederationTerra Mariana was the official name for Medieval Livonia or Old Livonia which was formed in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade in the territories comprising present day Estonia and Latvia...
in 1418 A diet or
LandtagA Landtag is a representative assembly or parliament in German-speaking countries with some legislative authority.The German word "Landtag" is composed of the words Land which names a political entity comparable to a federal state and the word Tag...
was formed in 1419. The city of
WalkWalk was the historical German name for the town that is now divided into Valga in Estonia and Valka in Latvia. After 1419 it was the seat of the Landtag of the Livonian Confederation.-See also:*List of German exonyms for places in Estonia...
was chosen as the site of the diet.
Livonian War 1558-1582
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman EmperorFerdinand I was a Central European monarch from the House of Habsburg. He was Holy Roman Emperor from 1558, King of Bohemia and Hungary from 1526. He ruled the Austrian hereditary lands of the Habsburgs most of his public life, at the behest of his elder brother, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and...
once again asked for help of
Gustav I of SwedenGustav I, born Gustav Eriksson and later known as Gustav Vasa , was King of Sweden from 1523 until his death. He was the first monarch of the House of Vasa, an influential noble family which came to be the royal house of Sweden for much of the 16th and 17th centuries...
, and The
Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state created by the accession of Jogaila , Grand Duke of Lithuania, to the Polish throne in 1386. The Union of Krewo or Krėva Act, united Poland and Lithuania under the rule of a single monarch...
also began direct
negotiationNegotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests...
s with Gustavus, but nothing resulted because on September 29, 1560, Gustavus I Vasa died. The chances for success of Magnus and his supporters looked particularly good in 1560 (and 1570). In the former case, he had been recognised as their
sovereignSovereign may refer to:*Sovereignty, a philosophical concept or state*Sovereign *Sovereign Hill, Victoria, Australia*Sovereign Bank, banking institution in the United States*Sovereign wealth fund, type of investment funds...
by The
Bishopric of Ösel-WiekThe Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek was a semi-independent Roman Catholic prince-bishopric in what is now Saare and Lääne counties of Estonia....
and The
Bishopric of CourlandThe Bishopric of Courland was a second smallest ecclesiastical state in the Livonian Confederation founded in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade...
, and as their prospective ruler by the authorities of The
Bishopric of DorpatThe Bishopric of Dorpat was a medieval principality and a catholic diocese which existed from 1224 to 1558, generally encompassing what are now Tartu, Põlva, Võru and Jõgeva counties in Estonia. The Bishopric was part of Livonian Confederation. The first bishop of Dorpat was Hermann von...
; The
Bishopric of RevalThe Bishopric of Reval was created in Duchy of Estonia by Valdemar II of Denmark in 1240. Contradictory to canon law Valdemar II reserved the right to appoint the bishops of Reval to himself and his successor kings of Denmark. The decision to simply nominate the holy see of Reval was unique in the...
with the Harrien-Wierland
gentryGentry denotes “well-born and well-bred people” occupying the social class of the minor aristocracy, and whose income derives from their large landholdings.- British :...
were on his side;
Livonian OrderThe Livonian Order was an autonomous Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1435–1561. After being defeated by Samogitians in the 1236 Battle of Schaulen , the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic...
conditionally recognised his right of
ownershipOwnership is the state or fact of exclusive rights and control over property, which may be an object, land/real estate or intellectual property. An ownership right is also referred to as title. The concept of ownership has existed for thousands of years and in all cultures...
of
EstoniaEstonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by the Russian Federation...
(Principality of Estonia). Then along with
ArchbishopIn Christianity, an archbishop is an elevated bishop. In many Christian Churches, this means that they lead a diocese of particular importance called an archdiocese, or in the Anglican Communion an Ecclesiastical Province, but this is not always the case. An archbishop is equivalent to a bishop in...
Wilhelm von Brandenburg of The Archbishopric of Riga and his Coadjutor Christoph von Mecklenburg, Kettler gave to Magnus the portions of The
Kingdom of LivoniaThe Kingdom of Livonia was a nominally declared state by Ivan IV during the Livonian War. On June 10 1570 the Danish Duke Magnus of Holstein arrived in Moscow where he was crowned King of Livonia. Magnus took the oath of allegiance to Ivan as his overlord and received from the corresponding charter...
, which he had taken possession of, but they refused to give him any more land. Once
Eric XIV of SwedenEric XIV was King of Sweden from 1560 until he was deposed in 1568. Eric XIV was the son of Gustav I of Sweden and Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg . He was also ruler of Estonia, after its conquest by Sweden in 1561...
became king he took quick actions to get involved in the war. He negotiated a continued
peacePeace is commonly understood as the absence of hostility, or the existence of healthy or newly-healed interpersonal or international relationships, safety in matters of social or economic welfare, the acknowledgment of equality and fairness in political relationships and, in world matters,...
with Muscovy and spoke to the
burgherBurgher may refer to:* A formally defined class in medieval German cities, usually the only group from which city officials could be drawn. The equivalent in German of burgess or bourgeoisie.* More loosely, a member of the urban middle class, or...
s of Reval
cityA city is a relatively large and permanent settlement, particularly a large urban settlement. Although there is no agreement on technical definitions distinguishing a city from a town within general English language meanings, many cities have a particular administrative, legal, or historical status...
. He offered them goods to submit to him as well as threatening them. By June 6, 1561 they submitted to him contrary to the
persuasionPersuasion is a form of social influence. It is the process of guiding people and oneself toward the adoption of an idea, attitude, or action by rational and symbolic means. It is a strategy of problem-solving relying on "appeals" rather than coercion...
s of Kettler to the burghers. The King's brother Johan married the Polish
princessPrincess, is the feminine form of prince . Most often, the term has been used for the consort of a prince, or his daughters....
Catherine JagiellonCatherine Jagiellon was Duchess of Finland 1562-83, Queen Consort of Sweden 1569-83 and Grand Duchess of Finland 1581-83 and heir to her mother's claim to the title of King of Jerusalem....
. Wanting to obtain his own land in Livonia, he loaned Poland money and then claimed the
castleA castle is a defensive structure seen as one of the main symbols of the Middle Ages. The term has a history of scholarly debate surrounding its exact meaning, but it is usually regarded as being distinct from the general terms fort or fortress, in that it describes a residence of a monarch or...
s they had pawned as his own instead of using them to pressure Poland. After Johan returned to
FinlandFinland , officially the Republic of Finland
, is a Nordic country and democracy situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. It borders Sweden on the west, Russia on the east, and Norway on the north, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland...
, Erik XIV forbade him to deal with any foreign countries without his consent. Shortly after that Erik XIV started acting quickly lost any allies he was about to obtain, either from Magnus or the Archbishop of
RigaRiga is the capital and largest city of Latvia, a major industrial, commercial, cultural and financial centre of the Baltics, and an important seaport, situated on the mouth of the Daugava...
. Magnus was upset he had been
trickTrick may refer to:* Trick , a 2009 album by Kumi Koda* Trick , a 1999 American film* Tricks , a 2007 Polish film by Andrzej Jakimowski* Trick , a comedic Japanese television dorama...
ed out of his
inheritanceInheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, and obligations upon the death of an individual. It has long played an important role in human societies...
of
HolsteinHolstein is the region between the rivers Elbe and Eider. It is part of Schleswig-Holstein, the northernmost state of Germany....
. After Sweden
occupiedOccupation may refer to:In business:*Employment, a person's job or work in service of an employer*Profession, an occupation requiring specialized knowledge*Vocation, an occupation pursued more for altruistic benefit rather than for income...
Reval,
Frederick II of DenmarkFrederick II , King of Denmark-Norway and duke of Schleswig from 1559 until his death. He was the son of King Christian III of Denmark and Norway and Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg....
made a treaty with Erik XIV of Sweden in August 1561. The brothers were in great disagreement and Frederick II negotiated a treaty with Ivan IV on August 7, 1562 in order to help his brother obtain more land and stall further Swedish advance. Erik XIV did not like this and The
Northern Seven Years' WarThe Northern Seven Years' War was the war between Sweden and a coalition of Denmark-Norway, Lübeck and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, fought between 1563 and 1570. The fighting continued until both armies had been exhausted, and many men died...
between The Free City of Lübeck, Denmark, Poland, and Sweden broke out. While only losing land and trade, Frederick II and Magnus were not faring well. But in 1568 Erik XIV became insane and his brother Johan III took his place. Johan III ascended to the
throneA throne is the official chair or seat upon which a monarch is seated on state or ceremonial occasions. "Throne" in an abstract sense can also refer to the monarchy or the Crown itself, an instance of metonymy, and is also used in many terms such as "the power behind the throne".-Thrones in ancient...
of Sweden and due to his friendship with Poland he began a policy against Muscovy. He would try to obtain more land in Livonia and exercise strength over Denmark. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King
Sigismund II AugustusSigismund II Augustus I was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the only son of Sigismund I the Old, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548...
of
Polish-Lithuanian CommonwealthThe Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed by the union of the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1569. The new Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th-century Europe....
, know that he was ready for peace. On December 15, 1570, the
Treaty of StettinThe Treaty of Stettin of December 13, 1570, ended the Northern Seven Years' War fought between Sweden and Denmark with her internally fragmented alliance of Lübeck and Poland. Unfavourable for Sweden, it assured Danish hegemony in Northern Europe for a short period...
was concluded. It is, however, more difficult to estimate the
scopeScope or Scopes may refer to:* SCOPE , a technique of creating gene libraries* Scope , the range in which a variable can be referenced* Scope , a mouthwash brand by Procter & Gamble* SCOPE...
and
magnitudeMagnitude may refer to:* Magnitude , the relative size of a mathematical object* Scalar , a variable defined only by its magnitude* Euclidean vector, a vector defined by both its magnitude and its direction...
of the support Magnus received in Livonian cities. Compared to the Harrien-Wierland gentry, the Reval city council, and hence probably the majority of citizens, demonstrated a much more reserved attitude towards Denmark and King Magnus of Livonia. Nevertheless, there is no reason to speak about any strong pro-Swedish sentiments among the residents of Reval. The citizens who had fled to The Bishopric of Dorpat or had been deported to Muscovy hailed Magnus as their saviour until 1571. The analysis indicates that during the
Livonian WarThe Livonian War of 1558–1583 was a lengthy series of wars between the Tsardom of Russia and a variable coalition of Denmark–Norway, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland , and Sweden for control of medieval Livonia, the territory of the present-day Estonia and Latvia.By the late 1550s,...
a pro-
independenceIndependence is the self-government of a nation, country, or state by its residents and population, or some portion thereof, generally exercising sovereignty....
wing emerged among the Livonian gentry and townspeople, forming the so-called "
Peace PartyThe Peace Party is a small political party in the United Kingdom and represents some who totally oppose war. The party was founded in 1996 as the Pacifist Party by a group of activists in Guildford, Surrey....
". Dismissing hostilities, these forces perceived an agreement with Muscovy as a chance to escape the atrocities of war and avoid the division of Livonia. That is why Magnus, who represented Denmark and later struck a deal with Ivan the Terrible, proved a suitable figurehead for this faction.
The Peace Party, however, had its own armed forces – scattered bands of household troops (
Hofleute) under diverse command, which only united in action in 1565 (Battle of Pärnu, 1565 and Siege of Reval, 1565), in 1570 – 1571 (Siege of Reval, 1570-1571; 30 weeks), and in 1574 – 1576 (first on Sweden’s side, then came the sale of
WiekWiek may refer to:*the old German name for Lääne County, Estonia*Wiek, Rügen, a municipality on the island of Rügen, GermanySee also:*Wieck*Wyk*Wick...
to the
Danish CrownDanish Crown may refer to several things.* Danish krone, currency used in Denmark* The Danish monarchy* Danish Crown Regalia, symbols of the Danish monarchy.* Danish Crown AmbA, a large meat processing company....
, and the loss of the territory to
MuscovitesMuscovites may refer to:* The inhabitants of Moscow* A historical term for the people now known as Russians in the time of the Grand Duchy of Moscow...
). In 1575 after Muscovy attacked Danish claims in Livonia, Frederick II dropped out of the competition as well as the Holy Roman Emperor. After this Johan III held off on his pursuit for more land due to Muscovy obtaining lands that Sweden controlled. He used the next two years of truce to get in a better position. In 1578, he resumed the fight for not only Livonia, but also everywhere due to an understanding he made with
RzeczpospolitaThe Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed by the union of the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1569. The new Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th-century Europe....
. In 1578 Magnus retired to Rzeczpospolita and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia.
Duchy of Livonia 1561-1621
In 1561, during the
Livonian WarThe Livonian War of 1558–1583 was a lengthy series of wars between the Tsardom of Russia and a variable coalition of Denmark–Norway, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland , and Sweden for control of medieval Livonia, the territory of the present-day Estonia and Latvia.By the late 1550s,...
, Livonia fell to the
Grand Duchy of LithuaniaThe Grand Duchy of Lithuania was an Eastern and Central European state from the 12th /13th century until 1795. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the pagan Baltic tribes from Aukštaitija...
with vassal dependency from Lithuania. Eight years later, in 1569, when the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland formed
Polish-Lithuanian CommonwealthThe Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed by the union of the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1569. The new Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th-century Europe....
, Livonia became a joint domain administered directly by the king and grand duke.
Having rejected peace proposals from its enemies, Ivan the Terrible found himself in a difficult position by 1579, when
Crimean KhanateThe Crimean Khanate or the Khanate of Crimea was a Crimean Tatar state from 1441 to 1783. Its native name was Crimean Yurt The Crimean Khanate or the Khanate of Crimea was a Crimean Tatar state from 1441 to 1783. Its native name was Crimean Yurt...
devastated Muscovian territories and burnt down
MoscowMoscow is the capital and the largest city of Russia. It is also the largest metropolitan area in Europe, and ranks among the largest urban areas in the world. Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the world, a...
(see
Russo-Crimean WarsThe Russo-Crimean Wars were fought between the forces of the Muscovy and the invading Tatars of the Crimean Khanate.-History:...
), the
droughtA drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region...
and epidemics have fatally affected the economy,
OprichninaThe Oprichnina is the period of Russian history between Tsar Ivan the Terrible's 1565 initiation, and his 1572 disbanding, of a domestic policy of political police, mass repressions, public executions, and confiscation of land from Russian aristocrats....
had thoroughly disrupted the government, while The Grand Principality of Lithuania
had united withThe Union of Lublin replaced the personal union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with a real union and an elective monarchy, since Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellons, remained childless after three marriages...
The
Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state created by the accession of Jogaila , Grand Duke of Lithuania, to the Polish throne in 1386. The Union of Krewo or Krėva Act, united Poland and Lithuania under the rule of a single monarch...
and acquired an energetic leader,
Stefan BatoryStephen Báthory was a Hungarian noble Prince of Transylvania , then King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania . He was a member of the Somlyo branch of the noble Hungarian Báthory family...
, supported by
Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State , also known by its contemporaries as the Turkish Empire or Turkey , was an empire that lasted from 1299 to November 1, 1922 The Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِیَّهِ عُثْمَانِیَّه Dawlet-il ʿAliyyat-il ʿOs̠māniyye, Modern Turkish:...
(1576). Stefan Batory replied with a series of three
offensiveOffensive may refer to:* Offensive , a political party* Offensive , an attack...
s against Muscovy, trying to cut The
Kingdom of LivoniaThe Kingdom of Livonia was a nominally declared state by Ivan IV during the Livonian War. On June 10 1570 the Danish Duke Magnus of Holstein arrived in Moscow where he was crowned King of Livonia. Magnus took the oath of allegiance to Ivan as his overlord and received from the corresponding charter...
from Muscovian territories. During his first offensive in 1579, with 22,000 men, he retook
PolotskPolotsk is a historical city in Belarus, situated on the Dvina river. It is the center of Polotsk district in Vitsebsk Voblast. Its population is approximately 79,000...
; during the second, in 1580, with 29,000-strong army, he took Velikie Luki, and in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army he started the
Siege of PskovThe Siege of Pskov, known as the Pskov Defense in Russia took place between August of 1581 and February of 1582, when the army of the Polish king Stefan Batory laid an unsuccessful siege and successful blockade to the city of Pskov during the final stage of the Livonian War of 1558-1583.The first...
. Frederick II of Denmark and Norway had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy unlike
SwedenSweden was, between 1611 and 1718, one of the great powers of Europe. In modern historiography this period is known as the Swedish Empire, or stormaktstiden .-Sweden's emergence into a great power:...
and Poland. He came to an agreement with
John IIIJohn III was King of Sweden from 1568 until his death. He was the son of King Gustav I of Sweden and his second wife Margaret Leijonhufvud. He was also quite autonomously the ruler of Finland from 1556 to 1563...
in 1580 giving him the titles in Livonia. That war would last from 1577 to 1582. Muscovy recognized Polish-Lithuanian control of Ducatus Ultradunensis only in 1582. After Magnus von Lyffland died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in The Duchy of Courland and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of
inheritanceInheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, and obligations upon the death of an individual. It has long played an important role in human societies...
. Except for the island of Œsel,
DenmarkDenmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe and the senior member of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries; southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and it is bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark borders both the Baltic and the North Sea...
was out of the
BalticThe Baltic region is an ambiguous term that refers to slightly different combinations of countries in the general area surrounding the Baltic Sea.- Etymology :...
by 1585. As of 1598 Inflanty Voivodeship was divided onto:
- Wenden Voivodeship
Wenden Voivodeship was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, since it was formed in 1598 till the Swedish conquest of Livonia in the 1620s...
(województwo wendeńskie, Kieś)
- Dorpat Voivodeship
The Dorpat Voivodeship was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, from 1598 till the Swedish conquest of Livonia in the 1620s....
(województwo dorpackie, Dorpat)
- Parnawa Voivodeship
The Parnawa Voivodeship was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, since it was formed in 1598 till the Swedish conquest of Livonia in the 1620s....
(województwo parnawskie, Parnawa)
Kingdom of Livonia 1570-1578
The armies of
Ivan the TerribleIvan IV Vasilyevich , known in English as Ivan the Terrible was Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533. The epithet "Grozny" is associated with might, power and strictness, rather than poor performance, horror or cruelty...
were initially successful, taking Polock (1563) and Parnawa (1575) and overrunning much of Grand Duchy of Lithuania up to
VilniusVilnius Vilnius Vilnius as of 2008. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the...
. Eventually, Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland formed
Polish-Lithuanian CommonwealthThe Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed by the union of the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1569. The new Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th-century Europe....
in 1569 under the
Union of LublinThe Union of Lublin replaced the personal union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with a real union and an elective monarchy, since Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellons, remained childless after three marriages...
.
Eric XIV of SwedenEric XIV was King of Sweden from 1560 until he was deposed in 1568. Eric XIV was the son of Gustav I of Sweden and Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg . He was also ruler of Estonia, after its conquest by Sweden in 1561...
did not like this and The
Northern Seven Years' WarThe Northern Seven Years' War was the war between Sweden and a coalition of Denmark-Norway, Lübeck and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, fought between 1563 and 1570. The fighting continued until both armies had been exhausted, and many men died...
between Free City of Lübeck, Denmark, Poland, and Sweden broke out. While only losing land and trade,
Frederick II of DenmarkFrederick II , King of Denmark-Norway and duke of Schleswig from 1559 until his death. He was the son of King Christian III of Denmark and Norway and Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg....
and Magnus von Lyffland of
Œsel-WiekThe Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek was a semi-independent Roman Catholic prince-bishopric in what is now Saare and Lääne counties of Estonia....
were not faring well. But in 1569, Erik XIV became insane and his brother
John III of SwedenJohn III was King of Sweden from 1568 until his death. He was the son of King Gustav I of Sweden and his second wife Margaret Leijonhufvud. He was also quite autonomously the ruler of Finland from 1556 to 1563...
took his place. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King
Zygmunt II AugustSigismund II Augustus I was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the only son of Sigismund I the Old, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548...
, know that he was ready for peace. On December 15, 1570, the
Treaty of StettinThe Treaty of Stettin of December 13, 1570, ended the Northern Seven Years' War fought between Sweden and Denmark with her internally fragmented alliance of Lübeck and Poland. Unfavourable for Sweden, it assured Danish hegemony in Northern Europe for a short period...
was concluded.
In the next phase of the conflict, in 1577 Ivan IV took opportunity of the Commonwealth internal strife (called the war against
GdańskGdańsk, also known by its German name Danzig , is a city on the Baltic coast in northern Poland, at the centre of the country's fourth-largest metropolitan area....
in Polish historiography), and during the reign of
Stefan BatoryStephen Báthory was a Hungarian noble Prince of Transylvania , then King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania . He was a member of the Somlyo branch of the noble Hungarian Báthory family...
in Poland invaded Livonia, quickly taking almost the entire territory, with the exception of
RigaRiga is the capital and largest city of Latvia, a major industrial, commercial, cultural and financial centre of the Baltics, and an important seaport, situated on the mouth of the Daugava...
and Rewel. In 1578,
Magnus of LivoniaMagnus, Duke of Holstein was a Prince of Denmark and a member of the House of Oldenburg. As a vassal of Ivan IV of Russia, he was the titular King of Livonia from 1570 to 1578.-Early life:...
recognized the
sovereigntySovereignty is the quality of having supreme, independent authority over a territory. It can be found in a power to rule and make law that rests on a political fact for which no purely legal explanation can be provided...
of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (not
ratifiedRatification is the act of approving and paying for supplies or services provided to and accepted by the government as a result of an unauthorized commitment. It gives official sanction or approval to a formal document such as a treaty or constitution...
by the
SejmThe Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. Each member of Sejm is called Poseł.Before the 20th century, the term "Sejm" referred to the entire three-chamber Polish parliament, comprising the lower house , the upper house and the King. It was commonly termed a three-estate parliament...
of Poland-Lithuania, or recognized by Denmark). The Kingdom of Livonia was beaten back by Muscovy on all fronts. In 1578, Magnus of Livonia retired to The
Bishopric of CourlandThe Bishopric of Courland was a second smallest ecclesiastical state in the Livonian Confederation founded in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade...
and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia.
Swedish Livonia 1629-1721
SwedenSweden was, between 1611 and 1718, one of the great powers of Europe. In modern historiography this period is known as the Swedish Empire, or stormaktstiden .-Sweden's emergence into a great power:...
was given roughly the same area as the former Duchy of Livonia after the 1626-1629
Polish-Swedish WarThe Polish–Swedish War of 1626–1629 was the fourth stage in a series of conflicts between Sweden and Poland fought in the 17th century...
. The area, usually known as
Swedish LivoniaSwedish Livonia was a dominion of the Swedish Empire from the 1629 until 1721. The territory, which constituted the southern part of modern Estonia and northern part of modern Latvia , represented the conquest of the major part of the Polish-Lithuanian Duchy of Livonia during the 1600–1629...
, became a very important Swedish dominion, with Riga being the second largest Swedish city and Livonia paying for one third of the Swedish war costs. Sweden lost Swedish Livonia,
Swedish EstoniaThe Duchy of Estonia , also known as Swedish Estonia, was a dominion of Swedish Empire from 1561 until 1721, when it was ceded to Russia in the Treaty of Nystad, following the outcome in the Great Northern War. The dominion arose when the northern parts of present-day Estonia were united under...
and
IngriaIngria is a historical region in the eastern Baltic, now part of Russia, comprising the southern bank of the river Neva, between the Gulf of Finland, the Narva River, Lake Peipus in the west, and Lake Ladoga and the western bank of the Volkhov river in the east...
to
RussiaRussia , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia . It is a semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
almost 100 years later, at the
Treaty of NystadThe Treaty of Nystad was signed in 1721 in the then Swedish town of Nystad . It ended the Great Northern War, in which Russia received the territories of Estonia, Livonia and Ingria, as well as much of Karelia and number of islands in the Baltic Sea from Sweden and Tsar Peter I of Russia replaced...
in 1721.
Livonian Voivodeship 1620s-1772
The Livonian Voivodeship was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the
Polish-Lithuanian CommonwealthThe Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed by the union of the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1569. The new Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th-century Europe....
, since it was formed in the 1620s out of the
Wenden VoivodeshipWenden Voivodeship was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, since it was formed in 1598 till the Swedish conquest of Livonia in the 1620s...
till the
First Partition of PolandThe Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The partitions were carried out by Prussia, Russia and Habsburg Austria dividing up the Commonwealth lands...
in 1772.
Inflanty 1660-1772
The portion of Livonia remaining in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after the
Treaty of OlivaThe Treaty of Oliva, was a peace treaty ending the "Deluge" . The treaty was signed in Oliwa near Danzig in Royal Prussia on April 23 1660. The signatories were Emperor Leopold I, Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg-Prussia, King Charles X of Sweden, and King John II Casimir of Poland...
in 1660 was known as Polish Livonia, or
Inflanty Voivodeship. It consisted mainly of the southern Latvian region
LatgaleLatgalia or Latgale is one of the four cultural and historical regions of Latvia recognised in the Constitution of the Latvian Republic. It is the easternmost region north of the Daugava river...
within the Inflanty Voivodeship with the capital of
DaugavpilsDaugavpils is the second largest city in Latvia. It is located approximately 230 km south-east of the Latvian capital, Riga, on the banks of the Daugava River. Daugavpils has a favorable geographical position as it borders Belarus and Lithuania . It is located some 120 km from the...
, or
Dyneburg. This division of Livonia was codified in the Treaty of Oliva in 1660.
Riga Governorate 1721-1796
The
Russian EmpireThe Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia, and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
conquered Swedish Livonia during the course of the
Great Northern WarThe Great Northern War was a war in which the so-called Northern Alliance composed of Russia, Denmark-Norway, Poland-Lithuania and Saxony engaged Sweden for the supremacy in the Baltic Sea. The war ended with a defeat for Sweden in 1721, leaving Russia as the new major power in the Baltic Sea and...
and acquired the province at the
Treaty of NystadThe Treaty of Nystad was signed in 1721 in the then Swedish town of Nystad . It ended the Great Northern War, in which Russia received the territories of Estonia, Livonia and Ingria, as well as much of Karelia and number of islands in the Baltic Sea from Sweden and Tsar Peter I of Russia replaced...
in 1721. Russia then added Polish Livonia in 1772 during the
Partitions of PolandThe Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The partitions were carried out by Prussia, Russia and Habsburg Austria dividing up the Commonwealth lands...
.
Governorate of Livonia 1796-1918
In 1796 the Riga Governorate was renamed as the Governorate of Livonia . Livonia remained within the Russian Empire until the end of
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, when it was split between the newly independent states of Latvia and Estonia. In 1918–1920, both Soviet troops and German
FreikorpsThe designation of Freikorps was originally applied to voluntary armies formed in German lands from the middle of the 18th century onwards...
fought against Latvian and Estonian troops for control over Livonia, but their attempts were defeated.
Governors-General of Estonia, Livonia, and Courland 1845-1876
From 1845 to 1876, the Baltic governorates of Estonia, Livonia, and
CourlandThe Governorate of Courland, also known as the Province of Courland, Governorate of Kurland , and Government of Courland , was one of the Baltic provinces or governorates of the Russian Empire, now part of the Republic of Latvia....
—an area roughly corresponding to the historical medieval Livonia —were administratively subordinated to a common
Governor-GeneralA governor-general, also known as governor general, is a vice-regal representative of a monarch in an independent realm or a major colonial circonscription...
. Amongst the holders of this post were Count Alexander Arkadyevich Suvorov and Count
Pyotr Andreyevich ShuvalovCount Pyotr Andreyevich Shuvalov was an influential Russian statesman and a counselor to Tsar Alexander II...
.
United Baltic Duchy 1918-1919
The United Baltic Duchy was a short-lived state constructed in 1918. The
duchyA duchy is a territory, fief, or domain ruled by a duke or duchess.Some duchies were sovereign in areas that would become unified realms only during the Modern era...
's creation was made possible through the
German EmpireThe German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871 to 1918, when it became a German republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of Wilhelm II .The term Second Reich...
's
occupationBelligerent military occupation occurs when the control and authority over a territory passes to a hostile army.-Military occupation and the laws of war:...
of the territory covering what are now
LatviaLatvia , officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia , to the south by Lithuania , to the east by the Russian Federation , and to the southeast by Belarus . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden...
and
EstoniaEstonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by the Russian Federation...
before the end of
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
. On March 8 and April 12 1918 the local Baltic German-dominated
Kurländische Landesrat and the
Vereinigter Landesrat of
Livland,
Estland* Estland is the modern name for Estonia in German, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Dutch and some other Germanic languages, with the notable exception of modern English....
,
RigaRiga is the capital and largest city of Latvia, a major industrial, commercial, cultural and financial centre of the Baltics, and an important seaport, situated on the mouth of the Daugava...
, and
ÖselSaaremaa is the largest island belonging to Estonia, measuring 2,673 km². The main island of Saare County, it is located in the Baltic Sea, south of Hiiumaa island, and belongs to the West Estonian Archipelago...
had declared themselves independent states, known as the Duchy of Courland (
Herzogtum Kurland) and Baltic State (
Baltischer Staat), respectively. Both states proclaimed themselves to be in personal union with the
Kingdom of PrussiaThe Kingdom of Prussia was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918, until the defeat of Germany in World War I, was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising almost two-thirds of the area of the empire...
, although the German government never responded to acknowledge that claim. These Baltic lands were nominally recognized as a sovereign state by
KaiserKaiser is the German title meaning "Emperor", with Kaiserin being the female equivalent, "Empress". Like the Russian Czar it is directly derived from the Latin Emperors' title of Caesar, which in turn is derived from the name of Julius Caesar...
William IIWilhelm II was the last German Emperor and King of Prussia , ruling both the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from 15 June 1888 to 9 November 1918....
only on September 22, 1918, half a year after
Soviet RussiaThe Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , also called the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, the Russian SFSR and the RSFSR for short, was the largest and most populous of the fifteen Soviet republics of the Soviet Union and became the Russian...
had formally relinquished all authority over its former Imperial
Baltic provincesThe Baltic governorates were independently administered governorates of the Russian Empire on the territory of what in 1918 became, and is now, independent Estonia and Latvia....
to Germany in the
Treaty of Brest-LitovskThe Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, at Brest-Litovsk between the Russian SFSR and the Central Powers, marking Russia's exit from World War I....
. On November 5, 1918, a temporary Regency Council (
Regentschaftsrat) for the new state led by Baron
Adolf Pilar von PilchauAdolf Konstantin Jakob Pilar von Pilchau was a Baltic German politician, regent of the United Baltic Duchy , and baron....
was formed on a joint basis from the two local Land Councils.
Vidzeme in Independent Latvia 1918-1940
In independent
LatviaLatvia , officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia , to the south by Lithuania , to the east by the Russian Federation , and to the southeast by Belarus . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden...
between the World Wars, southern Livonia became an administrative region under the traditional Latvian name
VidzemeVidzeme is one of the cultural and historical regions of Latvia. Literally meaning "the Middle Land" it is situated in north-central Latvia north of the Daugava River...
, encompassing the then much larger counties of
RigaRiga District is an administrative division of Latvia, located in Semigallia and Vidzeme regions, in the centre of the country. The district has the two cities of Riga and Jūrmala with the Gulf of Riga to the north. Beginning from the west and counterclockwise to the east, Riga District has...
,
CēsisCēsis District is an administrative division of Latvia, located in the Vidzeme region, in the country's north-east. It borders the districts of Valmiera and Valka to the north, Limbaži and Riga to the west, Gulbene to the east, Ogre and Madona to the south. It is organized into two cities, a...
,
ValmieraThe Valmiera district is an administrative division of Latvia, located in the Vidzeme region, in the country's north-east. Its administrative center is Valmiera. It borders Estonia to the north and the districts of Limbaži to the west, Valka to the east and Cēsis to the south...
, and
ValkaValka district is an administrative division of Latvia, located in Vidzeme region, in the country's north-east. The district's area is 2441 km
2. The population was 31,314 inhabitants in 2008.The district contains 4 towns and 17 parishes...
.
Ostland 1941-1944
Ostland was one of the Reichskommissariats established, by a Decree of the Führer dated 17 July 1941, as administrative units of the "Großdeutsches Reich" (Greater Germany). They were subject to
ReichsleiterReichsleiter , was the second highest political rank of the NSDAP next only to the office of Führer. Reichsleiter also served as a paramilitary rank, for the Nazi Party and was the highest position attainable in any Nazi-Organisation....
Alfred Rosenberg' was an early and intellectually influential member of the Nazi Party. Rosenberg was first introduced to Adolf Hitler by Dietrich Eckart; he later held several important posts in the Nazi government...
,
Minister für die besetzten Ostgebiete (Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories). The structure of the Reichskommissariats was defined by the same decree. Local administration in the Reichskommissariats was to be organized under a "National Director" (
Reichskomissar) in Estonia, a "General Director" in Latvia and a "General Adviser" in Lithuania. The local administration of the Reichskommissariat Ostland was under
Reichskomissar Hinrich LohseHinrich Lohse was a Nazi German politician.- Early life :...
. Below him there was an administrative hierarchy: a
Generalkomissar led each
Generalbezirke,
Gebietskomissars and
Hauptkommissars administered
Kreigsbietes and
Hauptgenbietes, respectively. Rosenberg's ministerial authority was, in practice, severely limited. The first reason was that many of the practicalities were commanded elsewhere: the
WehrmachtWehrmacht was the name of the unified armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the Heer , the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe ....
and the
SSThe , abbreviated SS- or - was a major Nazi organization under Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. The SS grew from a small paramilitary unit to a powerful force that served as the Führer's "Praetorian Guard," the Nazi Party's "Shield Squadron" and a force that, fielding almost a million men ,...
managed the military and security aspects, Fritz Saukel (Reich Director of Labour) had control over manpower and working areas,
Hermann GöringHermann Wilhelm Göring was a German politician, military leader and a leading member of the Nazi Party. Among many offices, he was Hitler's designated successor and commander of the Luftwaffe...
and
Albert SpeerAlbert Speer was a German architect who was, for part of World War II, Minister of Armaments and War Production for the Third Reich. Speer was Adolf Hitler's chief architect before assuming ministerial office...
had total management of economic aspects in the territories and the Reich postal service administered the East territories' postal services. These German central government interventions in the affairs of Ostland, overriding the appropriate ministries was known as "Sonderverwaltungen" (special administration). Later, from September, the civil administration that had been decreed in the previous July was actually set up. Lohse and, for that matter, Koch would not bow to his authority seeking to administer their territories with the independence and authority of gauleiters. on 1 April 1942 an
arbeitsbereich (lit. "working sphere", a name for the party cadre organisation outside the reich proper) was established in the civil administration part of the occupied Soviet territories, whereupon Koch and Lohse gradually ceased communication with him preferring to deal directly with Hitler through
Martin BormannMartin Ludwig Bormann was a prominent Nazi official. He became head of the Party Chancellery and private secretary to Adolf Hitler...
and the party chancellery. In the process they also displaced all other actors including notably the SS, except in central Belarus where HSSPF 'Erich von dem Bach-Zelewsky had a special command encompassing both military and civil administration territories and engaged in "anti-partisan" atrocities.
Baltic countries since 1990
The historical land of Livonia has been split between
LatviaLatvia , officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia , to the south by Lithuania , to the east by the Russian Federation , and to the southeast by Belarus . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden...
and
EstoniaEstonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by the Russian Federation...
ever since. The native
Livonian languageLivonian belongs to the Baltic Finnic branch of the Uralic languages. It is a moribund language until recently spoken by some 35 people, of whom only 10 were fluent. It is closely related to Estonian...
is still spoken by some individuals (far less than 100), but is understood to be fast approaching extinction.
The anthem (unofficial) of Livonians is
Min izāmō, min sindimō sharing the melody of
FinnishFinland , officially the Republic of Finland
, is a Nordic country and democracy situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. It borders Sweden on the west, Russia on the east, and Norway on the north, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland...
and
EstoniaEstonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by the Russian Federation...
n anthems.
See also
- Bishopric of Reval
The Bishopric of Reval was created in Duchy of Estonia by Valdemar II of Denmark in 1240. Contradictory to canon law Valdemar II reserved the right to appoint the bishops of Reval to himself and his successor kings of Denmark. The decision to simply nominate the holy see of Reval was unique in the...
- Courland
Courland is one of the cultural and historical regions of Latvia. The regions of Semigallia and Selonia are sometimes considered as part of Courland.- Geography and climate :...
- Livonian Coast
Livonian Coast is a territory of Latvia inhabited by Livonian people. It is located in Northern Courland and encompasses twelve Livonian villages....
- Duchy of Courland
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History of EstoniaEstonia was settled near the end of the last glacial era, beginning from around 8500 BC. Before the German invasions in the 13th century proto-Estonians of the Ancient Estonia worshipped the spirits of nature...
History of LatviaThe history of Latvia began when the area which is today Latvia was settled after the last glacial period around 9,000 BC. Ancient Baltic peoples appeared during the second millennium BC and four distinct tribal realms in Latvia's territories were identifiable towards the end of the first...
History of LithuaniaThe history of Lithuania dates back to at least 1009, the first recorded written use of the term. Lithuanians later conquered neighboring lands, finally establishing the Kingdom of Lithuania in the 13th century. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania remained fiercely independent and was notably one of the...
History of PolandSettled agricultural people have lived in the area that is now Poland for the last 7500 years, the Slavic people have been in this territory for over 1500 years, and the history of Poland as a state spans well over a millennium. The territory ruled by Poland has shifted and varied greatly...
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External links