Chinese rebellions
Encyclopedia
This is a list of major rebellions that have occurred in China
from 209 BCE to present times.
rule following the death of Qin Shi Huang
.
Chen Sheng
and Wu Guang
were both army officers who were ordered to lead their bands of commoner soldiers north to participate in the defense of Yuyang (漁陽). However, they were stopped halfway in Anhui
province by a severe rainstorm and flooding. The harsh Qin
laws stated that anyone late to show up for government jobs will be executed, regardless of the nature of the delay. Chen and Wu realized that they could never make it on time and decided to organize a band that would rebel against the government, that they would die fighting for their freedom rather than by execution. They became the center of armed uprisings all over China, and in a few months their strength congregated to around ten thousand men, composed mostly of discontent peasants. But on the battlefield, they were no match for the highly professional Qin soldiers and the uprising was in trouble in less than a year.
or Revolt of the Seven Kingdoms' (simplified Chinese: 七国之乱, traditional Chinese: 七國之亂) took place in 154 BCE against China's
Han Dynasty
to protest the emperor's attempt to further centralize the government.
At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, Liu Bang had made many of his relatives princes of certain sections, about one-third to one-half of the empire. This was an attempt to consolidate Liu family rule over the parts of China that were not ruled directly from the capital under the junxian(郡縣) commandery system.
During the reign of Emperor Wen
, these princes were still setting their own laws, but they in addition were casting their own coins (albeit with Emperor Wen's approval) and collecting their own taxes. Many princes were effectively ignoring the imperial government's authority within their own principalities. When Emperor Jing
became emperor in 157 BCE, the rich Principality of Wu was especially domineering.
Liu Pi therefore started a rebellion. The princes participating were:
Two other principalities agreed to join -- Qi (modern central Shandong
) and Jibei (modern northwestern Shandong
) -- but neither actually did. Liu Jianglü (劉將閭), the Prince of Qi, changed his mind at the final moment and chose to resist the rebellion forces. Liu Zhi (劉志), the Prince of Jibei, was put under house arrest by the commander of his guards and prevented from joining the rebellion. Three other princes were persuaded to join but either refused or did not actually agree to join -- Liu An (劉安), the Prince of Huainan (roughly modern Lu'an
, Anhui
); Liu Ci (劉賜), the Prince of Lujiang (roughly modern Chaohu, Anhui
); and Liu Bo (劉勃), the Prince of Hengshan (roughly part of modern Lu'an
, Anhui
). The princes also requested help from the southern independent kingdoms of Donghai (modern Zhejiang
) and Minyue (modern Fujian
), and the powerful northern Xiongnu
. Donghai and Minyue sent troops to participate in the campaign, but Xiongnu, after initially promising to do so as well, did not.
The seven princes, as part of their political propaganda, claimed that Chao Cuo was aiming to wipe out the principalities, and that they would be satisfied if Chao were executed.
' (綠林) or Lülin Force (綠林兵) refers, as an umbrella term, to one of the two major agrarian rebellion movements against Wang Mang
's Xin Dynasty
in the modern southern Henan
and northern Hubei
region who banded together to pool their strengths, and whose collective strength eventually led to the downfall of the Xin Dynasty and the establishment of a temporary reinstatement of the Han Dynasty
in the person of Liu Xuan (Emperor Gengshi
) as the emperor. Many Lülin leaders became important members of Emperor Gengshi's government, but infighting and incompetence (both of the emperor and his officials) in governing the empire led to the fall of the regime after only two years, paving the way for the eventual rise of Liu Xiu (Emperor Guangwu
) of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The name Lülin came from the Lülin Mountains (in modern Yichang
, Hubei
), where the rebels had their stronghold for a while.
In 17 CE, the Jing Province (荊州, modern Hubei
, Hunan
, and southern Henan
) was suffering a famine that was greatly exacerbated by the corruption and incompetence of Xin officials. The victims of the famine were reduced to consuming wild plants, and even those were in short supply, causing the suffering people to attack each other. Two men named Wang Kuang (王匡) and Wang Feng (王鳳), both from Xinshi (新市, in modern Jingmen
, Hubei
) became arbiters in some of these disputes, and they became the leaders of the enfamined people. They were later joined by many others, including Ma Wu (馬武), Wang Chang (王常), and Cheng Dan (成丹). Within a few months, 7,000 to 8,000 men gathered together under their commands. They had their base at Lülin Mountain, and their modus operandi was to attack and pillage villages far from the cities for food. This carried on for several years, during which they grew to tens of thousands in size.
Wang sent messengers issuing pardons in hopes of causing these rebels to disband. Once the messengers returned to the Xin capital Chang'an
, some honestly reported that the rebels gathered because the harsh laws made it impossible for them to make a living and therefore they were forced to rebel. Some, in order to flatter Wang Mang, told him that these were simply evil resistors who needed to be killed, or that this was a temporary phenomenon. Wang listened to those who flattered him and generally relieved those who told the truth from their posts. Further, Wang made no further attempts to pacify the rebels, but instead decided to suppress them by force. In reality, the rebels were forced into rebellion to survive, and they were hoping that eventually, when the famine was over, they could return home to farm. As a result, they never dared to attack cities.
In 21 CE, the governor of Jing Province mobilized 20,000 soldiers to attack the Lülin rebels, and a battle was pitched at Yundu (雲杜), a major victory for the rebles, who killed thousands of government soldiers and captured their food supply and arms. When the governor tried to retreat, his retreat route was temporarily cut off by Ma Wu, but Ma Wu allowed him to escape, not wanting to offend the government more than the rebels have done already. Instead, the Lülin rebels roved near the area, capturing many women, and then returning to the Lülin Mountain. By this point, they had 50,000 men.
(赤眉) refers, as an umbrella term, to one of the two major agrarian rebellion movements against Wang Mang
's Xin Dynasty
, initially active in the modern Shandong
and northern Jiangsu
region, that eventually led to Wang Mang's downfall by draining his resources, allowing the leader of the other movement (the Lülin
), Liu Xuan (Emperor Gengshi of Han
) to overthrow Wang and temporarily establish an incarnation of the Han Dynasty
under him. Eventually, Chimei forces would overthrow Emperor Gengshi and place their own Han descendant puppet, Emperor Liu Penzi
, on the throne briefly, before the Chimei leaders' incompetence in ruling the territories under their control, which matched their brilliance on the battlefield, to cause the people to rebel against them, forcing them to try to withdraw home. When their path was blocked off by Liu Xiu (Emperor Guangwu)'s newly established Eastern Han regime, they surrendered to him.
Circa 17 CE, due to Wang Mang's incompetence in ruling -- particularly in his implementation of his land reform policy -- and a major Yellow River
flood affecting the modern Shandong and northern Jiangsu regions, the people who could no longer subsist on farming were forced into rebellion to try to survive. The rebellions were numerous and fractured.
, sometimes also translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a 184 CE peasant rebellion against Emperor Lingdi of the Han Dynasty
of China
. It is named for the color of the scarves which the rebels wore around their heads. The rebels were associated with secret Taiping Taoist societies and the rebellion marked an important point in the history of Taoism. The rebellion is the opening event in the Chinese literary classic
Romance of the Three Kingdoms
.
A major cause of the Yellow Turban Rebellion was an agrarian crisis, in which famine forced many farmers and former military settlers in the north to seek employment in the south, where large landowners took advantage of the labor surplus and amassed large fortunes. The situation was further aggravated by smaller floods along the lower course of the Yellow River
. Further pressure was added on the peasants by high taxes imposed on them in order to build fortifications along the Silk Road
and garrisons against foreign infiltrations and invasions. From 170 CE on, landlords and peasants formed irregular armed bands, setting the stage for class conflict.
At the same time, the Han Dynasty
showed internal weakness. The power of the landowners had been a problem for a long time already (s. Wang Mang
), but in the run-up to the Yellow Turban Rebellion, the court eunuchs in particular gained considerably in influence on the emperor, which they abused to enrich themselves. Ten of the most powerful eunuchs formed a group known as The Ten Regular Attendants and the emperor referred to one of them (Zhang Rang
) as his "foster father". Consequently, the government was widely regarded as corrupt and incapable and against this backdrop, the famines and floods were seen as an indication that a decadent emperor had lost his mandate of heaven
.
The Yellow Turban Rebellion was led by Zhang Jiao
(who is referred to as Zhang Jue in the Robert Moss' English translation of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms
) and his
two younger brothers Zhang Bao
and Zhang Liang
, who were born in the Ju Lu district of the Ye Prefecture. The brothers had founded a taoist
religious sect in Shandong
Province
. They considered themselves followers of the "Way of Supreme Peace" (Tai Ping Dao) and venerated the deity Huang-Lao
, who according to Zhang Jiao had given him a sacred book called the Crucial Keys to the Way of Peace (Tai Ping Yao Shu). Zhang Jiao was said to be a sorcerer
and styled himself as the "Great Teacher". The sect propagated the principles of equal rights of all peoples and equal distribution of land; when the rebellion was proclaimed, the sixteen-word slogan was created by Zhang Jiao: 苍天已死，黄天当立，岁在甲子，天下大吉 ("The Blue Sky (ie. the Han Dynasty) has perished, the Yellow Sky (ie. the rebellion) will soon rise; in this year of Jia Zi
, let there be prosperity in the world!")
(206 BCE – 220 CE) instigated by Taoist
leader Zhang Daoling
's grandson Zhang Lu. The name of the rebellion refers to the five pecks that were paid to the Taoist church for either cures (Zhang Daoling was a faith healer
) or church dues. The rebellion became an example for the popular rebellions later instigated against dynastic governments.
Early in the 2nd Century CE, Zhang Daoling, the progenitor of the Taoist Church, used his popularity as a faith healer and religious leader to organize a theological movement against the Han Dynasty from the widespread poverty and corruption that oppressed the peasants under the Han. He gathered many followers from the Sichuan
area by not only providing a source of hope for the disparaged, but also by reforming religious practices into a more acceptable format. This created one of the first organized religious movements in China.
In 184 CE, his grandson and the successor of his son Zhang Heng
, Zhang Lu, revolted against the Han Dynasty and created his own state, Zhang Han. This state continued for over 30 years until Zhang Lu's defeat and surrender to the general Cao Cao
. After Zhang Lus's surrender, he relocated to the Han court where he continued to live until the Han Dynasty changed to the Wei
. Zhang Lu then used his own popularity as a religious leader to lend legitimacy to the new Wei court, proclaiming that the Wei court had inherited divine authority from the Tao church, as well as from Confucian laws.
occurred in China, during the Tang Dynasty
, from 756 to 763. It is also known as the Tianbao Rebellion (天寶之亂), because An Lushan
started it in the 14th year of the namesake era. The alternative term An Lushan Rebellion neglected the participation of Shi Siming
(史思明), a subordinate of An Lushan and later leader of the rebellion after murdering An Lushan's son An Qingxu
(安慶緒).
The rebellion spanned the reigns of three emperors. The first emperor, Xuanzong, escaped to Sichuan
(幸蜀). Xuanzong's army demanded the death of an official, Yang Guozhong
, and his cousin, Lady Yang (楊貴妃). Emperor Suzong (唐肅宗), (3rd or 4th) son of Xuanzong, was proclaimed emperor by the accompanying army and eunuchs while another group of local officials and Confucian literati proclaimed another prince at Jinling (today Nanjing
).
The rebellion was suppressed during the reign of Daizong by generals Pugu Huaien (僕固懷恩), Guo Ziyi
and Li Guangbi
(李光弼). Although successful at suppressing the rebellion, the Tang Dynasty was badly weakened by it and in its remaining years was troubled by persistent warlordism. The death toll of the rebellion according to various sources, including suppression and famine, is estimated to be about 36 million, which was the highest death toll
for any event for nearly 1200 years, until World War II
surpassed it with over 62 million deaths.
. Li Zicheng began recruiting troops in Xi'an, Shaanxi province, and later went on and gained power throughout north east China. From 1620, towards the end of emperor Wan Li's reign, the social and economic conditions provided by the Ming were becoming more and more severe. Li Zicheng didn't become emperor, but he paved the way for the rising of the new Qing dynasty, after overthrowing the Ming emperor. The Qin troops, arriving from north east (originally from Manchuria) were allied by Wu Sangui, one of the powerful Ming generals, an alliance which eventually lead to the defeat of Li Zicheng, though the impact of his rebellion were tremendous.
rulers on three Chinese generals (Wu Sangui
, Geng Jingzhong, and Shang Zhixin). In the second half of the 17th century, these generals revolted against the Manchu Qing Dynasty
. This rebellion came as the Qing rulers were establishing themselves after their conquest of China in 1644, and was the last serious threat to their imperium until the 19th century conflicts that ultimately brought about the end of the dynasty in 1912. The Revolt was followed by almost a decade of civil war which extended across the breadth of China.
In 1655, the Qing government granted Wu Sangui, a man to whom they were indebted for the conquest of China, both civil and military authority over the province of Yunnan
. In 1662, after the execution of Zhu Youlang, the last Ming
claimant to the throne, Wu was given jurisidiction also over Guizhou
. In the next decade he consolidated his power and by 1670 his influence had spread to include much of Hunan
, Sichuan
, Gansu
and even Shaanxi
. Two other powerful defected military leaders also developed similar powers: Shang Zhixin in Guangdong
and Geng Jingzhong in Fujian
. They ruled their "feudatories" as their own domains and the Qing court had virtually no control over the provinces in the south and southwest.
By 1672 the young Kangxi Emperor
had determined that the feudatories were a threat to the Manchu regime. In 1673 Shang Zhixin submitted a memorial
requesting permission to retire and in August of the same year a similar request arrived from Wu Sangui, designed to test the court's intentions. Kangxi went against the majority view in the Council of Princes and High Officials and accepted the request. News of Wu's rebellion reached Beijing
in January 1674.
uprising that occurred during the Ch'ing dynasty. It broke out (1796) among impoverished settlers in the mountainous region that separates Sichuan
province from Hubei
and Shaanxi
provinces. It apparently began as a tax
protest
led by the White Lotus Society
, a secret religious society that forecast the advent of the Buddha Maitreya
, advocated restoration of the native Chinese Ming dynasty
, and promised personal salvation
to its followers.
At first, the Ch'ing administration, under the control of Heshen
, sent inadequate and inefficient imperial forces to suppress the ill-organized rebels. On assuming effective power in 1799, however, Emperor Jiaqing
(reigned 1796-1820) overthrew the Heshen clique and gave support to the efforts of the more vigorous Manchu commanders as a way of restoring discipline and morale. A systematic program of pacification followed in which the populace was resettled in hundreds of stockaded villages and organized into militia by the name of tuanlian
. In its last stage, the Ch'ing suppression policy combined pursuit and extermination of rebel guerrilla
bands with a program of amnesty
for deserters. Although the Manchu finally crushed (1804) the rebellion, the myth of the military invincibility of the Manchu was shattered, perhaps contributing to the greater frequency of rebellions in the 19th century.
(太平天國, 1851–1864) was the second bloodiest conflict in history, a clash between the forces of Imperial China and those inspired by a Hakka
Prophet named Hong Xiuquan
, a Christian
convert who had claimed that he was the brother of Jesus Christ. Most accurate sources put the total deaths at about 20 million civilians
and army personnel, although some claim the death toll was much higher (as many as 50 million according to at least one source.http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/GENOCIDE.ENCY.HTM). There are reports that "Some historians have estimated that the combination of natural disaster
s combined with the political insurrections may have cost on the order of 200 million Chinese lives between 1850–1865 http://www.shangri-la-river-expeditions.com/willdowns/china/gonggashan1.html". That figure is generally thought to be an exaggeration, as it is approximately half the estimated population of China in 1851.http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/china/geog/population.htm#2b The rebellion is named after the revolutionaries' proclaimed Heavenly Kingdom of Taiping ' onMouseout='HidePop("92032")' href="/topics/Pinyin">pinyin
: Tàipíng Tiānguó, Wade-Giles
: T'ai-p'ing T'ien-kuo, lit. "Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace"), which lasted as long as the revolution.
Hong Xiuquan
gathered his support in a time of considerable turmoil. The country had suffered a series of natural disaster
s, economic problems and defeats at the hands of the Western powers, problems that the ruling Qing dynasty
did little to lessen. Anti-Manchu
sentiment was strongest in the south, and it was these disaffected that joined Hong. The sect extended into militarism
in the 1840s, initially against banditry. The persecution of the sect was the spur for the struggle to develop into guerrilla warfare
and then into full-blown war.
The revolt began in Guangxi
Province. In early January 1851, a ten-thousand-strong rebel army routed the Imperial troops at the town of Jintian (Jintian Uprising
). The Imperial forces attacked but were driven back. In August 1851, Hong then declared the establishment of the Heavenly Kingdom of Taiping with himself as absolute ruler. The revolt spread northwards with great rapidity. 500,000 Taiping soldiers took Nanjing
in March 1853, killing 30,000 Imperial soldiers and slaughtering thousands of civilians. The city became the movement's capital and was renamed Tiānjīn (in Wade-Giles
: T'ang-chun) (Heavenly Capital).
, Chinese Muslim
s, against the imperial Qing Dynasty
in western Yunnan Province, China
. It was part of a wave of Hui unrest during the Qing Dynasty.
The leader of the rebellion was Du Wenxiu (杜文秀; pinyin
: Dù Wénxiù) (1823 - 1872), an ethnic Hui
born in Yongcheng
. He became the Sultan of Dali
. He was beheaded by Qing troops after his death. His body is entombed in Xiadui.
The rebellion successfully captured the city of Dali
, which became the base for the rebels' operations, and declared themselves a separate political entity from China. The rebels identified their nation as Pingnan Guo (平南国 The Pacified Southern Nation); their leader Sulayman ibn `Abd ar-Rahman, known as Du Wenxiu [originally Yang Xiu]) (d. 1873) was styled Qa´id Jami al-Muslimin ('Leader of the Community of Muslims'), but is usually referred to in foreign sources as Sultan) and ruled 1856 - 26 December 1872.
The rebellion sieged the city of Kunming
multiple times (in 1857, 1861, 1863 and 1868), briefly taking the city in 1863. Later, as the Qing troops began to gain the upperhand versus the rebellion, the rebellion sent a letter to Queen Victoria
, asking the British Empire
for formal recognition and for military assistance; the fledgling state was turned down by the British. The rebellion was eventually suppressed by Qing troops, who killed and decapitated the 'sultan'.
The brutal suppression led to many Huis fleeing to neighboring countries bordering Yunnan. Surviving Huis escaped to Burma, Thailand
and Laos
, forming the basis of a minority Chinese Hui population in those nations.
Hundreds of thousands of Hui people
were massacred or died in these purges.
The rebellion had a significant negative impact on the Burmese Konbaung Dynasty
. After losing lower Burma to the British, Burma lost access to vast tracts of rice-growing land. Not wishing to upset China, the Burmese kingdom agreed to refuse trade with the Hui rebels in accordance with China's demands. Without the ability to import rice
from China, Burma was forced to import rice from the British. In addition, the Burmese economy had relied heavily on cotton
exports to China, and suddenly lost access to the vast Chinese market.
was a large armed uprising that took place in northern China from 1851 to 1868. The rebellion failed to topple the Qing dynasty
, but caused immense economic devastation and loss of life that became one of the major long-term factors in the collapse of the Qing regime.
The Nien movement was formed in the late 1840s by Zhang Luoxing/Zhang Lexing, and by 1851 numbered approximately 40,000. Unlike the Taiping
movement, though, the Nien initially had no clear goals or objectives aside from criticism of the Qing government. However, the Nien were provoked into taking direct action against the Imperial regime following a series of ecological disasters. In 1851, the massive Huang He river burst its banks, flooding hundreds of thousands of square miles and causing immense loss of life. The Qing government slowly began clearing up after the disaster, but were unable to provide effective aid as government finances had been drained during a recent war with Great Britain and the ongoing slaughter of the Taiping rebellion
. The damage created by the disaster had still not been repaired when, in 1855, the river burst its banks again, drowning thousands and devastating the fertile province of Jiangsu
. At the time, the Qing government was trying to negotiate a deal with the European powers, and as state finances had been so severely depleted, the regime was unable to provide effective relief aid. This enraged the Nien movement, who blamed the Europeans for contributing to China's troubles, and increasingly viewed the Qing government as incompetent and cowardly in the face of the Western powers.
In 1855, Zhang Luoxing took direct action by launching attacks against government troops in central China. By the summer, the fast-moving Nien cavalry
, well-trained and fully equipped with modern firearms, had cut the lines of communication between Beijing
and the Qing armies fighting the Taiping rebels in the south. Qing forces were badly overstretched as rebellions broke out across China, allowing the Nien armies to conquer large tracts of land and gain control over economically vital areas. The Nien fortified their captured cities and used them as bases to launch cavalry attacks against Qing troops in the countryside, prompting local towns to fortify themselves against Nien raiding parties. This resulted in constant fighting which devastated the previously rich provinces of Jiangsu
and Hunan
.
In early 1856, the Qing government sent the Mongol
General Senggelinqin, who had recently crushed a large Taiping army, to defeat the Nien. Senggelinqin's army captured several fortified cities and destroyed most of the Nien infantry, and killed Zhang Luoxing himself in an ambush. However, the Nien movement survived as Taiping commanders arrived to take control of the Nien forces, and the bulk of the Nien cavalry remained intact. Senggelinqin's infantry-based army could not stop the fast moving cavalry from devastating the countryside and launching surprise attacks on Imperial troops. In 1865, Senggelinqin and his bodyguards were ambushed by Nien troops and killed, depriving the government of its best military commander. The Qing regime sent General Zeng Guofan
to take command of Imperial forces, providing him with modern artillery and weapons, purchased from the Europeans at extortionate prices. Zeng's army set about building canals and trenches to hem in the Nien cavalry - an effective but slow and expensive method. Zeng is removed from the post after Nien broke one of his defense fronts. General Li Hongzhang
and General Zuo Zongtang
are in charge of the suppression. In late 1866, Nien split into two, east Nien stayed in the central China and west Nien sneaked close to Beijing. By late 1867, Li's and Zuo's troops had recaptured most Nien territory, and in early 1868, the movement was crushed by the combined forces of the government's troops and the Ever Victorious Army
.
minority
from the Shaanxi
(陝西), Gansu
(甘肅) and Ningxia
(寧夏) provinces of China
between 1862 and 1877.
Chinese Muslims had been traveling to West Asia for many years prior to the Hui Minorities' War. Some of them had adopted radical Sufi Islamic teachings referred to as New Teachings. There had been attempted risings by followers of these New Teachings in 1781 and 1783. In 1862 the prestige of the Qing dynasty was low and their armies were busy elsewhere. In 1867 the Qing government sent one of their best officials, Zuo Zongtang
(左宗棠), a hero of the suppression of the Taiping Rebellion, to Shaanxi
. His forces were ordered to help put down the Nian Rebellion and he was not able to deal with the Muslim rebels until December 1868. Zuo's approach was to rehabilitate the region by promoting agriculture, especially cotton and grain as well as supporting orthodox Confucian education. Due to the poverty of the region Zuo had to rely on financial support from outside the North-West. After building up enough grain reserves to feed his army, Zuo attacked the most important Muslim leader, Ma Hualong
. Ma was besieged in the city of Jinjibao for sixteen months before surrendering in March 1871. Zuo sentenced Ma and over eighty of his officials to death by slicing
. Thousands of Muslims were exiled to different parts of China. Despite repeated offers of amnesty, many Muslims continued to resist until the fall of Suzhou in Gansu
.
The failure of the uprising in 1873 led to some immigration of Hui people
into Imperial Russia. The descendants of the immigrants continue to live in the border region of Kazakhstan
, Uzbekistan
, and Kyrgyzstan
.
The Boxer Uprising or Boxer Rebellion (義和團之亂 or 義和團匪亂) was a movement against European commercial, political, religious and technological influence in China during the final years of the 19th century, from November 1899 to September 7, 1901. By August 1900 over 230 foreigners, thousands of Chinese Christian
s, an unknown number of rebels, their sympathizers and other Chinese were killed in the revolt and its suppression.
In 1840, the First Opium War
broke out, and China was defeated by Britain
. In view of the weakness of the Qing government, Britain and other nations such as France
, Russia
and Japan
started to exert influence over China. Due to their inferior army and navy, the Qing Dynasty
was forced to sign many agreements which became known as the "Unequal Treaties
". These include the Treaty of Nanking
(1842), the Treaty of Aigun
(1858), the Treaty of Tientsin
(1858), the Convention of Peking
(1860), the Treaty of Shimonoseki
(1895), and the Second Convention of Peking (1898).
Such treaties were regarded as grossly unfair by many Chinese. They had always considered themselves to be superior to foreigners, but their prestige was sorely damaged by the treaties, as foreigners were perceived to receive special treatment compared to Chinese. Rumours circulated of foreigners committing crimes as a result of agreements between foreign and the Chinese governments over how foreigners in China should be prosecuted. In Guizhou
, local officials were reportedly shocked to see a cardinal
using a sedan chair decorated in the same manner as one reserved for the governor. The Catholic Church's prohibition on some Chinese rituals and traditions were another issue of contention. Thus in the late 19th century such feelings increasingly resulted in civil disobedience
and violence towards both foreigners and Chinese Christians.
The rebellion was initiated by a society known as the Righteous Harmony Society (義和拳) or in contemporary English parlance, "Boxers", a group which initially opposed, but later reconciled itself, to China's ruling Manchu
Qing Dynasty
. The Boxer rebellion was concentrated in northern China where the European powers had begun to demand territorial, rail and mining concessions. Imperial Germany responded to the killing of two missionaries in Shandong
province in November 1897 by seizing the port of Qingdao
. A month later a Russia
n naval squadron took possession of Lushun, in southern Liaoning
. Britain and France followed, taking possession of Weihai
and Zhanjiang
respectively.
or Hsinhai Revolution was a republican
revolution
which overthrew China
's ruling Qing Dynasty
, which was also known as the Manchu
Dynasty
, and the establishment of the Republic of China
. The revolution had ended the monarchy
which had a history for 4000 years in China and replaced it with a republic
, with democratic
ideals. The ensuing revolutionary war lasted from October 10, 1911 and ended upon the formation of the Republic of China on February 12, 1912. Since 1911 is a Xinhai Year in the sexagenary cycle
of Chinese calendar
, Xinhai Revolution had got its present name.
The revolution began with the armed Wuchang Uprising
and the spread of republican insurrection through the southern provinces, and culminated in the abdication
of the Xuantong Emperor after lengthy negotiations between rival Imperial and Republican regimes based in Beijing
and Nanjing
respectively.
The Revolution inaugurated a period of struggle over China's eventual constitution
al form, which saw two brief monarchical restorations and successive periods of political fragmentation before the Republic
's final establishment.
Today, the Xinhai Revolution is commemorated in Taiwan
as Double Ten Day
(雙十節). In addition, numerous overseas Chinese
also celebrate Double Ten Day and events are usually held in Chinatown
s across the world.
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
from 209 BCE to present times.
Daze Village Uprising
The Daze Village Uprising was the first uprising against QinQin (state)
The State of Qin was a Chinese feudal state that existed during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods of Chinese history...
rule following the death of Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang , personal name Ying Zheng , was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 246 BC to 221 BC during the Warring States Period. He became the first emperor of a unified China in 221 BC...
.
Chen Sheng
Chen Sheng
Chen Sheng , also known in some sources as Chen She , was the leader of the first rebellion, known as Daze Village Uprising, against the Qin Dynasty during the reign of Qin Er Shi.-Start of the rebellion:...
and Wu Guang
Wu Guang
Wu Guang was a leader of the first rebellion against Qin Dynasty during the reign of Qin Er Shi, following the death of Qin Shi Huang. Less is known about him than Chen Sheng.-Biography:Wu was born in Yangxia...
were both army officers who were ordered to lead their bands of commoner soldiers north to participate in the defense of Yuyang (漁陽). However, they were stopped halfway in Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
province by a severe rainstorm and flooding. The harsh Qin
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
laws stated that anyone late to show up for government jobs will be executed, regardless of the nature of the delay. Chen and Wu realized that they could never make it on time and decided to organize a band that would rebel against the government, that they would die fighting for their freedom rather than by execution. They became the center of armed uprisings all over China, and in a few months their strength congregated to around ten thousand men, composed mostly of discontent peasants. But on the battlefield, they were no match for the highly professional Qin soldiers and the uprising was in trouble in less than a year.
Rebellion of the Seven States
The Rebellion of the Seven StatesRebellion of the Seven States
The Rebellion of the Seven States or Revolt of the Seven Kingdoms took place in 154 BC against China's Han Dynasty to resist the emperor's attempt to centralise the government further.-Prelude to the rebellion:...
or Revolt of the Seven Kingdoms' (simplified Chinese: 七国之乱, traditional Chinese: 七國之亂) took place in 154 BCE against China's
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
to protest the emperor's attempt to further centralize the government.
At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, Liu Bang had made many of his relatives princes of certain sections, about one-third to one-half of the empire. This was an attempt to consolidate Liu family rule over the parts of China that were not ruled directly from the capital under the junxian(郡縣) commandery system.
During the reign of Emperor Wen
Emperor Wen of Han
Emperor Wen of Han was the fifth emperor of the Han Dynasty in China. His given name is Heng.Liu Heng was a son of Emperor Gao of Han and Consort Bo, later empress dowager...
, these princes were still setting their own laws, but they in addition were casting their own coins (albeit with Emperor Wen's approval) and collecting their own taxes. Many princes were effectively ignoring the imperial government's authority within their own principalities. When Emperor Jing
Emperor Jing of Han
Emperor Jing of Han was an emperor of China in the Han Dynasty from 156 BC to 141 BC. His reign saw the limit and curtailment of power of feudal princes which resulted in the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC. Emperor Jing managed to crush the revolt and princes were thereafter denied rights...
became emperor in 157 BCE, the rich Principality of Wu was especially domineering.
Liu Pi therefore started a rebellion. The princes participating were:
- Liu Pi, the Prince of Wu
- Liu Wu, the Prince of Chu
- Liu Ang, the Prince of Jiaoxi Xing
- Liu Sui (劉遂), the Prince of Zhao
- Liu Xiongqu (劉雄渠), the Prince of Jiaodong (roughly modern QingdaoQingdao' also known in the West by its postal map spelling Tsingtao, is a major city with a population of over 8.715 million in eastern Shandong province, Eastern China. Its built up area, made of 7 urban districts plus Jimo city, is home to about 4,346,000 inhabitants in 2010.It borders Yantai to the...
, ShandongShandong' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
) - Liu Xian (劉賢), the Prince of Zaichuan (roughly part of modern WeifangWeifangWeifang is a prefecture-level city in central Shandong province, People's Republic of China. It borders Dongying to the northwest, Zibo to the west, Linyi to the southwest, Rizhao to the south, Qingdao to the east, and looks out to the Laizhou Bay to the north.-History:Weifang is a historical city...
, ShandongShandong' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
) - Liu Piguang (劉辟光), the Prince of Jinan (roughly modern JinanJinanJinan is the capital of Shandong province in Eastern China. The area of present-day Jinan has played an important role in the history of the region from the earliest beginnings of civilisation and has evolved into a major national administrative, economic, and transportation hub...
, ShandongShandong' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
)
Two other principalities agreed to join -- Qi (modern central Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
) and Jibei (modern northwestern Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
) -- but neither actually did. Liu Jianglü (劉將閭), the Prince of Qi, changed his mind at the final moment and chose to resist the rebellion forces. Liu Zhi (劉志), the Prince of Jibei, was put under house arrest by the commander of his guards and prevented from joining the rebellion. Three other princes were persuaded to join but either refused or did not actually agree to join -- Liu An (劉安), the Prince of Huainan (roughly modern Lu'an
Lu'an
Lu'an , is a prefecture-level city in western Anhui Province, People's Republic of China, with a population of 5,612,590 inhabitants at 2010 census. Its built up area is home to 1,482,729 inhabitants spread out on 2 urban districts...
, Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
); Liu Ci (劉賜), the Prince of Lujiang (roughly modern Chaohu, Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
); and Liu Bo (劉勃), the Prince of Hengshan (roughly part of modern Lu'an
Lu'an
Lu'an , is a prefecture-level city in western Anhui Province, People's Republic of China, with a population of 5,612,590 inhabitants at 2010 census. Its built up area is home to 1,482,729 inhabitants spread out on 2 urban districts...
, Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
). The princes also requested help from the southern independent kingdoms of Donghai (modern Zhejiang
Zhejiang
Zhejiang is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. The word Zhejiang was the old name of the Qiantang River, which passes through Hangzhou, the provincial capital...
) and Minyue (modern Fujian
Fujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
), and the powerful northern Xiongnu
Xiongnu
The Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
. Donghai and Minyue sent troops to participate in the campaign, but Xiongnu, after initially promising to do so as well, did not.
The seven princes, as part of their political propaganda, claimed that Chao Cuo was aiming to wipe out the principalities, and that they would be satisfied if Chao were executed.
Lülin
LülinLülin
Lülin or Lülin Force refers, as an umbrella term, to one of the two major agrarian rebellion movements against Wang Mang's Xin Dynasty in the modern southern Henan and northern Hubei region who banded together to pool their strengths, and whose collective strength eventually led to the downfall...
' (綠林) or Lülin Force (綠林兵) refers, as an umbrella term, to one of the two major agrarian rebellion movements against Wang Mang
Wang Mang
Wang Mang , courtesy name Jujun , was a Han Dynasty official who seized the throne from the Liu family and founded the Xin Dynasty , ruling AD 9–23. The Han dynasty was restored after his overthrow and his rule marks the separation between the Western Han Dynasty and Eastern Han Dynasty...
's Xin Dynasty
Xin Dynasty
The Xin Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty which lasted from AD 9 to 23. It followed the Western Han Dynasty and preceded the Eastern Han Dynasty....
in the modern southern Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
and northern Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
region who banded together to pool their strengths, and whose collective strength eventually led to the downfall of the Xin Dynasty and the establishment of a temporary reinstatement of the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
in the person of Liu Xuan (Emperor Gengshi
Emperor Gengshi of Han
Emperor Gengshi of Han, ch. 漢更始帝, py. gèng shĭ dì, wg. Keng-Shih-ti, , also known as the Prince of Huaiyang , courtesy name Shenggong , was an emperor of the restored Chinese Han Dynasty following the fall of Wang Mang's Xin...
) as the emperor. Many Lülin leaders became important members of Emperor Gengshi's government, but infighting and incompetence (both of the emperor and his officials) in governing the empire led to the fall of the regime after only two years, paving the way for the eventual rise of Liu Xiu (Emperor Guangwu
Emperor Guangwu of Han
Emperor Guangwu , born Liu Xiu, was an emperor of the Chinese Han Dynasty, restorer of the dynasty in AD 25 and thus founder of the Later Han or Eastern Han...
) of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The name Lülin came from the Lülin Mountains (in modern Yichang
Yichang
Yichang is a prefecture-level city located in Hubei province of the People's Republic of China. It is the second largest city in Hubei province after the province capital, Wuhan. The Three Gorges Dam is located within its administrative area, in Yiling District.-History:In ancient times Yichang...
, Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
), where the rebels had their stronghold for a while.
In 17 CE, the Jing Province (荊州, modern Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
, Hunan
Hunan
' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting...
, and southern Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
) was suffering a famine that was greatly exacerbated by the corruption and incompetence of Xin officials. The victims of the famine were reduced to consuming wild plants, and even those were in short supply, causing the suffering people to attack each other. Two men named Wang Kuang (王匡) and Wang Feng (王鳳), both from Xinshi (新市, in modern Jingmen
Jingmen
Jingmen is a prefecture-level city in Hubei province of the People's Republic of China. Jingmen is within an area where cotton and oil crops are planted. The population of the city is approximately 2,984,000 . The urban area of Jingmen City has a population of about 350,000...
, Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
) became arbiters in some of these disputes, and they became the leaders of the enfamined people. They were later joined by many others, including Ma Wu (馬武), Wang Chang (王常), and Cheng Dan (成丹). Within a few months, 7,000 to 8,000 men gathered together under their commands. They had their base at Lülin Mountain, and their modus operandi was to attack and pillage villages far from the cities for food. This carried on for several years, during which they grew to tens of thousands in size.
Wang sent messengers issuing pardons in hopes of causing these rebels to disband. Once the messengers returned to the Xin capital Chang'an
Chang'an
Chang'an is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xi'an. Chang'an literally means "Perpetual Peace" in Classical Chinese. During the short-lived Xin Dynasty, the city was renamed "Constant Peace" ; yet after its fall in AD 23, the old name was restored...
, some honestly reported that the rebels gathered because the harsh laws made it impossible for them to make a living and therefore they were forced to rebel. Some, in order to flatter Wang Mang, told him that these were simply evil resistors who needed to be killed, or that this was a temporary phenomenon. Wang listened to those who flattered him and generally relieved those who told the truth from their posts. Further, Wang made no further attempts to pacify the rebels, but instead decided to suppress them by force. In reality, the rebels were forced into rebellion to survive, and they were hoping that eventually, when the famine was over, they could return home to farm. As a result, they never dared to attack cities.
In 21 CE, the governor of Jing Province mobilized 20,000 soldiers to attack the Lülin rebels, and a battle was pitched at Yundu (雲杜), a major victory for the rebles, who killed thousands of government soldiers and captured their food supply and arms. When the governor tried to retreat, his retreat route was temporarily cut off by Ma Wu, but Ma Wu allowed him to escape, not wanting to offend the government more than the rebels have done already. Instead, the Lülin rebels roved near the area, capturing many women, and then returning to the Lülin Mountain. By this point, they had 50,000 men.
Chimei
ChimeiChimei
Chimei refers, as an umbrella term, to one of the two major agrarian rebellion movements against Wang Mang's Xin Dynasty, initially active in the modern Shandong and northern Jiangsu regions, that eventually led to Wang Mang's downfall by draining his resources, allowing the leader of the other...
(赤眉) refers, as an umbrella term, to one of the two major agrarian rebellion movements against Wang Mang
Wang Mang
Wang Mang , courtesy name Jujun , was a Han Dynasty official who seized the throne from the Liu family and founded the Xin Dynasty , ruling AD 9–23. The Han dynasty was restored after his overthrow and his rule marks the separation between the Western Han Dynasty and Eastern Han Dynasty...
's Xin Dynasty
Xin Dynasty
The Xin Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty which lasted from AD 9 to 23. It followed the Western Han Dynasty and preceded the Eastern Han Dynasty....
, initially active in the modern Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
and northern Jiangsu
Jiangsu
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
region, that eventually led to Wang Mang's downfall by draining his resources, allowing the leader of the other movement (the Lülin
Lülin
Lülin or Lülin Force refers, as an umbrella term, to one of the two major agrarian rebellion movements against Wang Mang's Xin Dynasty in the modern southern Henan and northern Hubei region who banded together to pool their strengths, and whose collective strength eventually led to the downfall...
), Liu Xuan (Emperor Gengshi of Han
Emperor Gengshi of Han
Emperor Gengshi of Han, ch. 漢更始帝, py. gèng shĭ dì, wg. Keng-Shih-ti, , also known as the Prince of Huaiyang , courtesy name Shenggong , was an emperor of the restored Chinese Han Dynasty following the fall of Wang Mang's Xin...
) to overthrow Wang and temporarily establish an incarnation of the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
under him. Eventually, Chimei forces would overthrow Emperor Gengshi and place their own Han descendant puppet, Emperor Liu Penzi
Liu Penzi
Liu Penzi was a puppet "emperor" placed on the Han Dynasty throne temporarily by the Chimei agrarian rebels after the collapse of the Xin Dynasty, from 25 to 27. Liu Penzi and his 2 brothers were forced into the Chimei to be child soldiers. When Chimei submitted the new Emperor Gengshi of Han,...
, on the throne briefly, before the Chimei leaders' incompetence in ruling the territories under their control, which matched their brilliance on the battlefield, to cause the people to rebel against them, forcing them to try to withdraw home. When their path was blocked off by Liu Xiu (Emperor Guangwu)'s newly established Eastern Han regime, they surrendered to him.
Circa 17 CE, due to Wang Mang's incompetence in ruling -- particularly in his implementation of his land reform policy -- and a major Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
flood affecting the modern Shandong and northern Jiangsu regions, the people who could no longer subsist on farming were forced into rebellion to try to survive. The rebellions were numerous and fractured.
Yellow Turban Rebellion
The Yellow Turban RebellionYellow Turban Rebellion
The Yellow Turban Rebellion, also translated as Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a peasant revolt that broke out in 184 AD in China during the reign of Emperor Ling of the Han Dynasty...
, sometimes also translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a 184 CE peasant rebellion against Emperor Lingdi of the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
of China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
. It is named for the color of the scarves which the rebels wore around their heads. The rebels were associated with secret Taiping Taoist societies and the rebellion marked an important point in the history of Taoism. The rebellion is the opening event in the Chinese literary classic
Four Great Classical Novels
The Four Great Classical Novels, or the Four Major Classical Novels of Chinese literature, are the four novels commonly regarded by scholars to be the greatest and most influential of pre-modern Chinese fiction. Dating from the Ming and Qing dynasties, they are well known to most Chinese readers...
Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, written by Luo Guanzhong in the 14th century, is a Chinese historical novel based on the events in the turbulent years near the end of the Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history, starting in 169 and ending with the reunification of the land in...
.
A major cause of the Yellow Turban Rebellion was an agrarian crisis, in which famine forced many farmers and former military settlers in the north to seek employment in the south, where large landowners took advantage of the labor surplus and amassed large fortunes. The situation was further aggravated by smaller floods along the lower course of the Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
. Further pressure was added on the peasants by high taxes imposed on them in order to build fortifications along the Silk Road
Silk Road
The Silk Road or Silk Route refers to a historical network of interlinking trade routes across the Afro-Eurasian landmass that connected East, South, and Western Asia with the Mediterranean and European world, as well as parts of North and East Africa...
and garrisons against foreign infiltrations and invasions. From 170 CE on, landlords and peasants formed irregular armed bands, setting the stage for class conflict.
At the same time, the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
showed internal weakness. The power of the landowners had been a problem for a long time already (s. Wang Mang
Wang Mang
Wang Mang , courtesy name Jujun , was a Han Dynasty official who seized the throne from the Liu family and founded the Xin Dynasty , ruling AD 9–23. The Han dynasty was restored after his overthrow and his rule marks the separation between the Western Han Dynasty and Eastern Han Dynasty...
), but in the run-up to the Yellow Turban Rebellion, the court eunuchs in particular gained considerably in influence on the emperor, which they abused to enrich themselves. Ten of the most powerful eunuchs formed a group known as The Ten Regular Attendants and the emperor referred to one of them (Zhang Rang
Zhang Rang
Zhang Rang was a eunuch of the late Han Dynasty, who served Emperor Ling of Han; he was also the leader of the Ten regular attendants , a group of court eunuchs who held great influence in the Han imperial court...
) as his "foster father". Consequently, the government was widely regarded as corrupt and incapable and against this backdrop, the famines and floods were seen as an indication that a decadent emperor had lost his mandate of heaven
Mandate of Heaven
The Mandate of Heaven is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers. It is similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings, in that both sought to legitimaze rule from divine approval; however, unlike the divine right of kings, the Mandate of...
.
The Yellow Turban Rebellion was led by Zhang Jiao
Zhang Jiao
Zhang Jue was the leader of the Yellow Turban rebels during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was said to be a follower of Taoism and a sorcerer. His name is sometimes read as Zhang Jiao, since the Chinese character of Zhang's given name can be read as either "Jiao" or "Jue"...
(who is referred to as Zhang Jue in the Robert Moss' English translation of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, written by Luo Guanzhong in the 14th century, is a Chinese historical novel based on the events in the turbulent years near the end of the Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history, starting in 169 and ending with the reunification of the land in...
) and his
two younger brothers Zhang Bao
Zhang Bao
Zhang Bao may refer to:*Zhang Bao , a Yellow Turban rebel leader*Zhang Bao , son of Shu Han general Zhang Fei...
and Zhang Liang
Zhang Liang (Yellow Turban)
Zhang Liang was a Yellow Turban rebel leader during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was a younger brother of Zhang Jiao and Zhang Bao, the other two key leaders of the rebellion. He was said to be an able general. It is said that Zhang Liang is the grandson of Zhang Daoling...
, who were born in the Ju Lu district of the Ye Prefecture. The brothers had founded a taoist
Taoism
Taoism refers to a philosophical or religious tradition in which the basic concept is to establish harmony with the Tao , which is the mechanism of everything that exists...
religious sect in Shandong
Province
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
. They considered themselves followers of the "Way of Supreme Peace" (Tai Ping Dao) and venerated the deity Huang-Lao
Huang-Lao
Huang-Lao or Huanglao was the most influential Chinese school of thought in the early 2nd-century BCE Han Dynasty, and is generally interpreted as encompassing Daoism and Legalism...
, who according to Zhang Jiao had given him a sacred book called the Crucial Keys to the Way of Peace (Tai Ping Yao Shu). Zhang Jiao was said to be a sorcerer
Magic (paranormal)
Magic is the claimed art of manipulating aspects of reality either by supernatural means or through knowledge of occult laws unknown to science. It is in contrast to science, in that science does not accept anything not subject to either direct or indirect observation, and subject to logical...
and styled himself as the "Great Teacher". The sect propagated the principles of equal rights of all peoples and equal distribution of land; when the rebellion was proclaimed, the sixteen-word slogan was created by Zhang Jiao: 苍天已死，黄天当立，岁在甲子，天下大吉 ("The Blue Sky (ie. the Han Dynasty) has perished, the Yellow Sky (ie. the rebellion) will soon rise; in this year of Jia Zi
Chinese calendar
The Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar, incorporating elements of a lunar calendar with those of a solar calendar. It is not exclusive to China, but followed by many other Asian cultures as well...
, let there be prosperity in the world!")
Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion
The Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion (五斗米道 pinyin: Wudoumidao wg: Wu-Tou-Mi-Tao) was a religious rebellion at the end of the Han DynastyHan Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
(206 BCE – 220 CE) instigated by Taoist
Taoism
Taoism refers to a philosophical or religious tradition in which the basic concept is to establish harmony with the Tao , which is the mechanism of everything that exists...
leader Zhang Daoling
Zhang Daoling
Zhang Ling , style name Fuhan , was an Eastern Han Dynasty Taoist hermit who founded the Way of the Celestial Masters sect of Taoism, which is also known as the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice....
's grandson Zhang Lu. The name of the rebellion refers to the five pecks that were paid to the Taoist church for either cures (Zhang Daoling was a faith healer
Faith Healer
Faith Healer is a play by Brian Friel about the life of faith healer Francis Hardy as monologued through the shifting memories of Hardy, his wife, Grace, and stage manager, Teddy.-Synopsis:...
) or church dues. The rebellion became an example for the popular rebellions later instigated against dynastic governments.
Early in the 2nd Century CE, Zhang Daoling, the progenitor of the Taoist Church, used his popularity as a faith healer and religious leader to organize a theological movement against the Han Dynasty from the widespread poverty and corruption that oppressed the peasants under the Han. He gathered many followers from the Sichuan
Sichuan
' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu...
area by not only providing a source of hope for the disparaged, but also by reforming religious practices into a more acceptable format. This created one of the first organized religious movements in China.
In 184 CE, his grandson and the successor of his son Zhang Heng
Zhang Heng
Zhang Heng was a Chinese astronomer, mathematician, inventor, geographer, cartographer, artist, poet, statesman, and literary scholar from Nanyang, Henan. He lived during the Eastern Han Dynasty of China. He was educated in the capital cities of Luoyang and Chang'an, and began his career as a...
, Zhang Lu, revolted against the Han Dynasty and created his own state, Zhang Han. This state continued for over 30 years until Zhang Lu's defeat and surrender to the general Cao Cao
Cao Cao
Cao Cao was a warlord and the penultimate chancellor of the Eastern Han Dynasty who rose to great power during the dynasty's final years. As one of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms period, he laid the foundations for what was to become the state of Cao Wei and was posthumously titled...
. After Zhang Lus's surrender, he relocated to the Han court where he continued to live until the Han Dynasty changed to the Wei
Cao Wei
Cao Wei was one of the states that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period. With the capital at Luoyang, the state was established by Cao Pi in 220, based upon the foundations that his father Cao Cao laid...
. Zhang Lu then used his own popularity as a religious leader to lend legitimacy to the new Wei court, proclaiming that the Wei court had inherited divine authority from the Tao church, as well as from Confucian laws.
An Shi Rebellion
The An Shi RebellionAn Shi Rebellion
The An Lushan Rebellion took place in China during the Tang Dynasty from CE December 16, 755 to CE February 17, 763, beginning when general An Lushan declared himself emperor, establishing the rival Yan Dynasty in Northern China...
occurred in China, during the Tang Dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
, from 756 to 763. It is also known as the Tianbao Rebellion (天寶之亂), because An Lushan
An Lushan
An Lushan was a general who rebelled against the Tang Dynasty in China.His name was also transcribed into Chinese as Āluòshān or Gáluòshān ,...
started it in the 14th year of the namesake era. The alternative term An Lushan Rebellion neglected the participation of Shi Siming
Shi Siming
Shi Siming , or Shi Sugan , was a general of the Chinese Tang Dynasty who followed his childhood friend An Lushan in rebelling against Tang, and who later succeeded An Lushan's son An Qingxu as emperor of the Yan state that An Lushan established.-Background:It is not known when Shi Sugan was born,...
(史思明), a subordinate of An Lushan and later leader of the rebellion after murdering An Lushan's son An Qingxu
An Qingxu
An Qingxu , né An Renzhi , was a son of An Lushan, a general of the Chinese Tang Dynasty who rebelled and took imperial title of his own state of Yan. An Qingxu serves as the Prince of Jin from 756 - 757, and later killed his father and took imperial title for himself. He was eventually defeated...
(安慶緒).
The rebellion spanned the reigns of three emperors. The first emperor, Xuanzong, escaped to Sichuan
Sichuan
' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu...
(幸蜀). Xuanzong's army demanded the death of an official, Yang Guozhong
Yang Guozhong
Yang Guozhong , né Yang Zhao , was an official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, serving as a chancellor late in the reign of Emperor Xuanzong...
, and his cousin, Lady Yang (楊貴妃). Emperor Suzong (唐肅宗), (3rd or 4th) son of Xuanzong, was proclaimed emperor by the accompanying army and eunuchs while another group of local officials and Confucian literati proclaimed another prince at Jinling (today Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
).
The rebellion was suppressed during the reign of Daizong by generals Pugu Huaien (僕固懷恩), Guo Ziyi
Guo Ziyi
Guo Ziyi , formally Prince Zhongwu of Fenyang , was a general during the Tang Dynasty who ended the An Shi Rebellion, and participated in expeditions against the peoples of Huihe and Tubo...
and Li Guangbi
Li Guangbi
Li Guangbi , formally Prince Wumu of Linhuai , was a general of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, of ethnic Khitan ancestry, who was instrumental in Tang's suppression of the Anshi Rebellion.- Background :...
(李光弼). Although successful at suppressing the rebellion, the Tang Dynasty was badly weakened by it and in its remaining years was troubled by persistent warlordism. The death toll of the rebellion according to various sources, including suppression and famine, is estimated to be about 36 million, which was the highest death toll
Death Toll
Death Toll is a 2008 action film starring DMX, Lou Diamond Phillips, Leila Arcieri and Keshia Knight Pulliam, written and produced by Daniel Garcia of the rap group Kane & Abel and directed by Phenomenon...
for any event for nearly 1200 years, until World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
surpassed it with over 62 million deaths.
Red Turban Rebellion
The Red Turban Rebellion (Chinese: 紅巾起義 Hóngjīn Qǐyì) was an uprising against the Mongols. Since the 1340s, the Mongol-ruled Yuan Dynasty was experiencing problems. The Yellow River flooded constantly, and other natural disasters also occurred. At the same time, the Yuan Dynasty required considerable military expenditure to maintain its vast empire. This was solved mostly through additional taxation that fell mainly on the Han Chinese population which constituted the lowest two castes in the four castes of the people under the Yuan Dynasty much influenced by the White Lotus Society members that targeted the ruling Yuan Dynasty.Li Zicheng's Rebellion
A peasant rebellion led by Li Zicheng aiming at the overthrow of the Ming Dynasty and leading to the establishment of the Qing DynastyQing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
. Li Zicheng began recruiting troops in Xi'an, Shaanxi province, and later went on and gained power throughout north east China. From 1620, towards the end of emperor Wan Li's reign, the social and economic conditions provided by the Ming were becoming more and more severe. Li Zicheng didn't become emperor, but he paved the way for the rising of the new Qing dynasty, after overthrowing the Ming emperor. The Qin troops, arriving from north east (originally from Manchuria) were allied by Wu Sangui, one of the powerful Ming generals, an alliance which eventually lead to the defeat of Li Zicheng, though the impact of his rebellion were tremendous.
Revolt of the Three Feudatories
The Three Feudatories (Chinese: 三藩 pinyin: sān fàn) were territories in southern China bestowed by the early ManchuManchu
The Manchu people or Man are an ethnic minority of China who originated in Manchuria . During their rise in the 17th century, with the help of the Ming dynasty rebels , they came to power in China and founded the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which...
rulers on three Chinese generals (Wu Sangui
Wu Sangui
Wu Sangui was a Ming Chinese general who was instrumental in the succession of rule to the Qing Dynasty in 1644...
, Geng Jingzhong, and Shang Zhixin). In the second half of the 17th century, these generals revolted against the Manchu Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
. This rebellion came as the Qing rulers were establishing themselves after their conquest of China in 1644, and was the last serious threat to their imperium until the 19th century conflicts that ultimately brought about the end of the dynasty in 1912. The Revolt was followed by almost a decade of civil war which extended across the breadth of China.
In 1655, the Qing government granted Wu Sangui, a man to whom they were indebted for the conquest of China, both civil and military authority over the province of Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
. In 1662, after the execution of Zhu Youlang, the last Ming
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
claimant to the throne, Wu was given jurisidiction also over Guizhou
Guizhou
' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :...
. In the next decade he consolidated his power and by 1670 his influence had spread to include much of Hunan
Hunan
' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting...
, Sichuan
Sichuan
' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu...
, Gansu
Gansu
' is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.It lies between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, and Shaanxi to the east...
and even Shaanxi
Shaanxi
' is a province in the central part of Mainland China, and it includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River in addition to the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of this province...
. Two other powerful defected military leaders also developed similar powers: Shang Zhixin in Guangdong
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
and Geng Jingzhong in Fujian
Fujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
. They ruled their "feudatories" as their own domains and the Qing court had virtually no control over the provinces in the south and southwest.
By 1672 the young Kangxi Emperor
Kangxi Emperor
The Kangxi Emperor ; Manchu: elhe taifin hūwangdi ; Mongolian: Энх-Амгалан хаан, 4 May 1654 –20 December 1722) was the fourth emperor of the Qing Dynasty, the first to be born on Chinese soil south of the Pass and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, from 1661 to 1722.Kangxi's...
had determined that the feudatories were a threat to the Manchu regime. In 1673 Shang Zhixin submitted a memorial
Memorial
A memorial is an object which serves as a focus for memory of something, usually a person or an event. Popular forms of memorials include landmark objects or art objects such as sculptures, statues or fountains, and even entire parks....
requesting permission to retire and in August of the same year a similar request arrived from Wu Sangui, designed to test the court's intentions. Kangxi went against the majority view in the Council of Princes and High Officials and accepted the request. News of Wu's rebellion reached Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
in January 1674.
White Lotus Rebellion
The White Lotus Rebellion was a Chinese anti-ManchuAnti-Qing sentiment
thumb|[[Sun Yat-sen]], one of the leaders of the [[Xinhai Revolution]] which overthrew the Qing dynasty in 1912. Photo taken in 1907Anti-Qing sentiment refers to a sentiment principally held in China against the Manchu ruling during Qing Dynasty , which was often resented for being foreign and...
uprising that occurred during the Ch'ing dynasty. It broke out (1796) among impoverished settlers in the mountainous region that separates Sichuan
Sichuan
' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu...
province from Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
and Shaanxi
Shaanxi
' is a province in the central part of Mainland China, and it includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River in addition to the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of this province...
provinces. It apparently began as a tax
Tax
To tax is to impose a financial charge or other levy upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state such that failure to pay is punishable by law. Taxes are also imposed by many subnational entities...
protest
Protest
A protest is an expression of objection, by words or by actions, to particular events, policies or situations. Protests can take many different forms, from individual statements to mass demonstrations...
led by the White Lotus Society
White Lotus
White Lotus was a type of Buddhist sectarianism that appealed to many Han Chinese, who found solace in worship of the "Unborn or Eternal Venerable Mother" , who was to gather all her children at the millennium into one family....
, a secret religious society that forecast the advent of the Buddha Maitreya
Maitreya
Maitreya , Metteyya , or Jampa , is foretold as a future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. In some Buddhist literature, such as the Amitabha Sutra and the Lotus Sutra, he or she is referred to as Ajita Bodhisattva.Maitreya is a bodhisattva who in the Buddhist tradition is to appear on...
, advocated restoration of the native Chinese Ming dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
, and promised personal salvation
Salvation
Within religion salvation is the phenomenon of being saved from the undesirable condition of bondage or suffering experienced by the psyche or soul that has arisen as a result of unskillful or immoral actions generically referred to as sins. Salvation may also be called "deliverance" or...
to its followers.
At first, the Ch'ing administration, under the control of Heshen
Heshen
Heshen or Hešen , from the Manchu Niohuru clan, was a Manchu official of the Qing Dynasty, a favourite of the Qianlong Emperor. Born Shanbao , his given name was later changed to Heshen. His courtesy name was Zhizhai . He was a member of the Plain Red Banner, as well as one of the most corrupt...
, sent inadequate and inefficient imperial forces to suppress the ill-organized rebels. On assuming effective power in 1799, however, Emperor Jiaqing
Jiaqing Emperor
The Jiaqing Emperor was the seventh emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, and the fifth Qing emperor to rule over China, from 1796 to 1820....
(reigned 1796-1820) overthrew the Heshen clique and gave support to the efforts of the more vigorous Manchu commanders as a way of restoring discipline and morale. A systematic program of pacification followed in which the populace was resettled in hundreds of stockaded villages and organized into militia by the name of tuanlian
Tuanlian
Tuanlian Localised militia begun in Zhou Dynasty, offered self-defense for the civilians. In May 1645, Ming rebel leader Li Zicheng was killed by tuanlian of local land owners in Hubei province....
. In its last stage, the Ch'ing suppression policy combined pursuit and extermination of rebel guerrilla
Guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare and refers to conflicts in which a small group of combatants including, but not limited to, armed civilians use military tactics, such as ambushes, sabotage, raids, the element of surprise, and extraordinary mobility to harass a larger and...
bands with a program of amnesty
Amnesty
Amnesty is a legislative or executive act by which a state restores those who may have been guilty of an offense against it to the positions of innocent people, without changing the laws defining the offense. It includes more than pardon, in as much as it obliterates all legal remembrance of the...
for deserters. Although the Manchu finally crushed (1804) the rebellion, the myth of the military invincibility of the Manchu was shattered, perhaps contributing to the greater frequency of rebellions in the 19th century.
Taiping Rebellion
The Taiping RebellionTaiping Rebellion
The Taiping Rebellion was a widespread civil war in southern China from 1850 to 1864, led by heterodox Christian convert Hong Xiuquan, who, having received visions, maintained that he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ, against the ruling Manchu-led Qing Dynasty...
(太平天國, 1851–1864) was the second bloodiest conflict in history, a clash between the forces of Imperial China and those inspired by a Hakka
Hakka people
The Hakka , sometimes Hakka Han, are Han Chinese who speak the Hakka language and have links to the provincial areas of Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan and Fujian in China....
Prophet named Hong Xiuquan
Hong Xiuquan
Hong Xiuquan , born Hong Renkun, style name Huoxiu , was a Hakka Chinese who led the Taiping Rebellion against the Qing Dynasty, establishing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom over varying portions of southern China, with himself as the "Heavenly King" and self-proclaimed brother of Jesus Christ.-Early...
, a Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
convert who had claimed that he was the brother of Jesus Christ. Most accurate sources put the total deaths at about 20 million civilians
Civilian casualties
Civilian casualties is a military term describing civilian or non-combatant persons killed, injured, or imprisoned by military action. The description of civilian casualties includes any form of military action regardless of whether civilians were targeted directly...
and army personnel, although some claim the death toll was much higher (as many as 50 million according to at least one source.http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/GENOCIDE.ENCY.HTM). There are reports that "Some historians have estimated that the combination of natural disaster
Natural disaster
A natural disaster is the effect of a natural hazard . It leads to financial, environmental or human losses...
s combined with the political insurrections may have cost on the order of 200 million Chinese lives between 1850–1865 http://www.shangri-la-river-expeditions.com/willdowns/china/gonggashan1.html". That figure is generally thought to be an exaggeration, as it is approximately half the estimated population of China in 1851.http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/china/geog/population.htm#2b The rebellion is named after the revolutionaries' proclaimed Heavenly Kingdom of Taiping ' onMouseout='HidePop("92032")' href="/topics/Pinyin">pinyin
Pinyin
Pinyin is the official system to transcribe Chinese characters into the Roman alphabet in China, Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan. It is also often used to teach Mandarin Chinese and spell Chinese names in foreign publications and used as an input method to enter Chinese characters into...
: Tàipíng Tiānguó, Wade-Giles
Wade-Giles
Wade–Giles , sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a romanization system for the Mandarin Chinese language. It developed from a system produced by Thomas Wade during the mid-19th century , and was given completed form with Herbert Giles' Chinese–English dictionary of 1892.Wade–Giles was the most...
: T'ai-p'ing T'ien-kuo, lit. "Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace"), which lasted as long as the revolution.
Hong Xiuquan
Hong Xiuquan
Hong Xiuquan , born Hong Renkun, style name Huoxiu , was a Hakka Chinese who led the Taiping Rebellion against the Qing Dynasty, establishing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom over varying portions of southern China, with himself as the "Heavenly King" and self-proclaimed brother of Jesus Christ.-Early...
gathered his support in a time of considerable turmoil. The country had suffered a series of natural disaster
Natural disaster
A natural disaster is the effect of a natural hazard . It leads to financial, environmental or human losses...
s, economic problems and defeats at the hands of the Western powers, problems that the ruling Qing dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
did little to lessen. Anti-Manchu
Manchu
The Manchu people or Man are an ethnic minority of China who originated in Manchuria . During their rise in the 17th century, with the help of the Ming dynasty rebels , they came to power in China and founded the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which...
sentiment was strongest in the south, and it was these disaffected that joined Hong. The sect extended into militarism
Militarism
Militarism is defined as: the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests....
in the 1840s, initially against banditry. The persecution of the sect was the spur for the struggle to develop into guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare and refers to conflicts in which a small group of combatants including, but not limited to, armed civilians use military tactics, such as ambushes, sabotage, raids, the element of surprise, and extraordinary mobility to harass a larger and...
and then into full-blown war.
The revolt began in Guangxi
Guangxi
Guangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
Province. In early January 1851, a ten-thousand-strong rebel army routed the Imperial troops at the town of Jintian (Jintian Uprising
Jintian Uprising
The Jintian Uprising was an armed revolt formally declared by Hong Xiuquan on 11 February 1851 during the late Qing Dynasty. The uprising was named after Jintian , the place where it took place...
). The Imperial forces attacked but were driven back. In August 1851, Hong then declared the establishment of the Heavenly Kingdom of Taiping with himself as absolute ruler. The revolt spread northwards with great rapidity. 500,000 Taiping soldiers took Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
in March 1853, killing 30,000 Imperial soldiers and slaughtering thousands of civilians. The city became the movement's capital and was renamed Tiānjīn (in Wade-Giles
Wade-Giles
Wade–Giles , sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a romanization system for the Mandarin Chinese language. It developed from a system produced by Thomas Wade during the mid-19th century , and was given completed form with Herbert Giles' Chinese–English dictionary of 1892.Wade–Giles was the most...
: T'ang-chun) (Heavenly Capital).
Du Wenxiu Rebellion
The Du Wenxiu Rebellion (1856 - 1872) was a separatist movement of the Hui peopleHui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
, Chinese Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
s, against the imperial Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
in western Yunnan Province, China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
. It was part of a wave of Hui unrest during the Qing Dynasty.
The leader of the rebellion was Du Wenxiu (杜文秀; pinyin
Pinyin
Pinyin is the official system to transcribe Chinese characters into the Roman alphabet in China, Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan. It is also often used to teach Mandarin Chinese and spell Chinese names in foreign publications and used as an input method to enter Chinese characters into...
: Dù Wénxiù) (1823 - 1872), an ethnic Hui
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
born in Yongcheng
Yongcheng
-External links:*...
. He became the Sultan of Dali
Dali, Yunnan
Dali City is a county-level city in and the seat of the Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture, northwestern Yunnan province of Southwest China.-History:...
. He was beheaded by Qing troops after his death. His body is entombed in Xiadui.
The rebellion successfully captured the city of Dali
Dali, Yunnan
Dali City is a county-level city in and the seat of the Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture, northwestern Yunnan province of Southwest China.-History:...
, which became the base for the rebels' operations, and declared themselves a separate political entity from China. The rebels identified their nation as Pingnan Guo (平南国 The Pacified Southern Nation); their leader Sulayman ibn `Abd ar-Rahman, known as Du Wenxiu [originally Yang Xiu]) (d. 1873) was styled Qa´id Jami al-Muslimin ('Leader of the Community of Muslims'), but is usually referred to in foreign sources as Sultan) and ruled 1856 - 26 December 1872.
The rebellion sieged the city of Kunming
Kunming
' is the capital and largest city of Yunnan Province in Southwest China. It was known as Yunnan-Fou until the 1920s. A prefecture-level city, it is the political, economic, communications and cultural centre of Yunnan, and is the seat of the provincial government...
multiple times (in 1857, 1861, 1863 and 1868), briefly taking the city in 1863. Later, as the Qing troops began to gain the upperhand versus the rebellion, the rebellion sent a letter to Queen Victoria
Victoria of the United Kingdom
Victoria was the monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she used the additional title of Empress of India....
, asking the British Empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
for formal recognition and for military assistance; the fledgling state was turned down by the British. The rebellion was eventually suppressed by Qing troops, who killed and decapitated the 'sultan'.
The brutal suppression led to many Huis fleeing to neighboring countries bordering Yunnan. Surviving Huis escaped to Burma, Thailand
Thailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
and Laos
Laos
Laos Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west...
, forming the basis of a minority Chinese Hui population in those nations.
Hundreds of thousands of Hui people
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
were massacred or died in these purges.
The rebellion had a significant negative impact on the Burmese Konbaung Dynasty
Konbaung dynasty
The Konbaung Dynasty was the last dynasty that ruled Burma from 1752 to 1885. The dynasty created the second largest empire in Burmese history, and continued the administrative reforms begun by the Toungoo dynasty, laying the foundations of modern state of Burma...
. After losing lower Burma to the British, Burma lost access to vast tracts of rice-growing land. Not wishing to upset China, the Burmese kingdom agreed to refuse trade with the Hui rebels in accordance with China's demands. Without the ability to import rice
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
from China, Burma was forced to import rice from the British. In addition, the Burmese economy had relied heavily on cotton
Cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective capsule, around the seeds of cotton plants of the genus Gossypium. The fiber is almost pure cellulose. The botanical purpose of cotton fiber is to aid in seed dispersal....
exports to China, and suddenly lost access to the vast Chinese market.
Nien Rebellion
The Nien RebellionNien Rebellion
The Nien Rebellion was an armed uprising that took place in northern China from 1851 to 1868, contemporaneously with Taiping Rebellion in South China...
was a large armed uprising that took place in northern China from 1851 to 1868. The rebellion failed to topple the Qing dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
, but caused immense economic devastation and loss of life that became one of the major long-term factors in the collapse of the Qing regime.
The Nien movement was formed in the late 1840s by Zhang Luoxing/Zhang Lexing, and by 1851 numbered approximately 40,000. Unlike the Taiping
Taiping Rebellion
The Taiping Rebellion was a widespread civil war in southern China from 1850 to 1864, led by heterodox Christian convert Hong Xiuquan, who, having received visions, maintained that he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ, against the ruling Manchu-led Qing Dynasty...
movement, though, the Nien initially had no clear goals or objectives aside from criticism of the Qing government. However, the Nien were provoked into taking direct action against the Imperial regime following a series of ecological disasters. In 1851, the massive Huang He river burst its banks, flooding hundreds of thousands of square miles and causing immense loss of life. The Qing government slowly began clearing up after the disaster, but were unable to provide effective aid as government finances had been drained during a recent war with Great Britain and the ongoing slaughter of the Taiping rebellion
Taiping Rebellion
The Taiping Rebellion was a widespread civil war in southern China from 1850 to 1864, led by heterodox Christian convert Hong Xiuquan, who, having received visions, maintained that he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ, against the ruling Manchu-led Qing Dynasty...
. The damage created by the disaster had still not been repaired when, in 1855, the river burst its banks again, drowning thousands and devastating the fertile province of Jiangsu
Jiangsu
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
. At the time, the Qing government was trying to negotiate a deal with the European powers, and as state finances had been so severely depleted, the regime was unable to provide effective relief aid. This enraged the Nien movement, who blamed the Europeans for contributing to China's troubles, and increasingly viewed the Qing government as incompetent and cowardly in the face of the Western powers.
In 1855, Zhang Luoxing took direct action by launching attacks against government troops in central China. By the summer, the fast-moving Nien cavalry
Cavalry
Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
, well-trained and fully equipped with modern firearms, had cut the lines of communication between Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
and the Qing armies fighting the Taiping rebels in the south. Qing forces were badly overstretched as rebellions broke out across China, allowing the Nien armies to conquer large tracts of land and gain control over economically vital areas. The Nien fortified their captured cities and used them as bases to launch cavalry attacks against Qing troops in the countryside, prompting local towns to fortify themselves against Nien raiding parties. This resulted in constant fighting which devastated the previously rich provinces of Jiangsu
Jiangsu
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
and Hunan
Hunan
' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting...
.
In early 1856, the Qing government sent the Mongol
Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest...
General Senggelinqin, who had recently crushed a large Taiping army, to defeat the Nien. Senggelinqin's army captured several fortified cities and destroyed most of the Nien infantry, and killed Zhang Luoxing himself in an ambush. However, the Nien movement survived as Taiping commanders arrived to take control of the Nien forces, and the bulk of the Nien cavalry remained intact. Senggelinqin's infantry-based army could not stop the fast moving cavalry from devastating the countryside and launching surprise attacks on Imperial troops. In 1865, Senggelinqin and his bodyguards were ambushed by Nien troops and killed, depriving the government of its best military commander. The Qing regime sent General Zeng Guofan
Zeng Guofan
Zeng Guofan was an eminent Han Chinese official, military general, and devout Confucian scholar of the late Qing Dynasty in China....
to take command of Imperial forces, providing him with modern artillery and weapons, purchased from the Europeans at extortionate prices. Zeng's army set about building canals and trenches to hem in the Nien cavalry - an effective but slow and expensive method. Zeng is removed from the post after Nien broke one of his defense fronts. General Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang or Li Hung-chang , Marquis Suyi of the First Class , GCVO, was a leading statesman of the late Qing Empire...
and General Zuo Zongtang
Zuo Zongtang
Zuo Zongtang , spelled Tso Tsung-t'ang in Wade-Giles and known simply as General Tso in the West, was a Chinese statesman and military leader in the late Qing Dynasty....
are in charge of the suppression. In late 1866, Nien split into two, east Nien stayed in the central China and west Nien sneaked close to Beijing. By late 1867, Li's and Zuo's troops had recaptured most Nien territory, and in early 1868, the movement was crushed by the combined forces of the government's troops and the Ever Victorious Army
Ever Victorious Army
The Ever Victorious Army was the name given to an imperial army in late-19th–century China. The Ever Victorious Army fought for the Qing Dynasty against the rebels of the Nien and Taiping Rebellions....
.
Hui Minorities' War
The Hui Minorities' War is the modern term used by the People's Republic of China for what used to be called the Dungan Revolt or Muslim Rebellion (回變). The latter term is sometimes used to refer to the Du Wenxiu Rebellion in Yunnan as well. It was an uprising by members of the HuiHui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
minority
Minority group
A minority is a sociological group within a demographic. The demographic could be based on many factors from ethnicity, gender, wealth, power, etc. The term extends to numerous situations, and civilizations within history, despite the misnomer of minorities associated with a numerical statistic...
from the Shaanxi
Shaanxi
' is a province in the central part of Mainland China, and it includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River in addition to the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of this province...
(陝西), Gansu
Gansu
' is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.It lies between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, and Shaanxi to the east...
(甘肅) and Ningxia
Ningxia
Ningxia, formerly transliterated as Ningsia, is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Located in Northwest China, on the Loess Plateau, the Yellow River flows through this vast area of land. The Great Wall of China runs along its northeastern boundary...
(寧夏) provinces of China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
between 1862 and 1877.
Chinese Muslims had been traveling to West Asia for many years prior to the Hui Minorities' War. Some of them had adopted radical Sufi Islamic teachings referred to as New Teachings. There had been attempted risings by followers of these New Teachings in 1781 and 1783. In 1862 the prestige of the Qing dynasty was low and their armies were busy elsewhere. In 1867 the Qing government sent one of their best officials, Zuo Zongtang
Zuo Zongtang
Zuo Zongtang , spelled Tso Tsung-t'ang in Wade-Giles and known simply as General Tso in the West, was a Chinese statesman and military leader in the late Qing Dynasty....
(左宗棠), a hero of the suppression of the Taiping Rebellion, to Shaanxi
Shaanxi
' is a province in the central part of Mainland China, and it includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River in addition to the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of this province...
. His forces were ordered to help put down the Nian Rebellion and he was not able to deal with the Muslim rebels until December 1868. Zuo's approach was to rehabilitate the region by promoting agriculture, especially cotton and grain as well as supporting orthodox Confucian education. Due to the poverty of the region Zuo had to rely on financial support from outside the North-West. After building up enough grain reserves to feed his army, Zuo attacked the most important Muslim leader, Ma Hualong
Ma Hualong
Ma Hualong , was the fifth leader of the Jahriyya, a Dungan Sufi order in northwestern China. From the beginning of the Dungan Revolt in 1862, until his surrender and death in 1871, he was one of the main leaders of the revolt.-Biography:Ma Hualong became the leader of the Jahriyya ca...
. Ma was besieged in the city of Jinjibao for sixteen months before surrendering in March 1871. Zuo sentenced Ma and over eighty of his officials to death by slicing
Death by a thousand cuts
Slow slicing , also translated as the slow process, the lingering death, or death by a thousand cuts , was a form of execution used in China from roughly AD 900 until its abolition in 1905. In this form of execution, the condemned person was killed by using a knife to methodically remove portions...
. Thousands of Muslims were exiled to different parts of China. Despite repeated offers of amnesty, many Muslims continued to resist until the fall of Suzhou in Gansu
Gansu
' is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.It lies between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, and Shaanxi to the east...
.
The failure of the uprising in 1873 led to some immigration of Hui people
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
into Imperial Russia. The descendants of the immigrants continue to live in the border region of Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan , officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country in Central Asia and Eastern Europe. Ranked as the ninth largest country in the world, it is also the world's largest landlocked country; its territory of is greater than Western Europe...
, Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan , officially the Republic of Uzbekistan is a doubly landlocked country in Central Asia and one of the six independent Turkic states. It shares borders with Kazakhstan to the west and to the north, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to the east, and Afghanistan and Turkmenistan to the south....
, and Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan , officially the Kyrgyz Republic is one of the world's six independent Turkic states . Located in Central Asia, landlocked and mountainous, Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the southwest and China to the east...
.
Second Hui Minorities' War
Muslim rebels revolted a second time against Qing in 1895. They were defeated by loyalist Muslim troops.Boxer Rebellion
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
s, an unknown number of rebels, their sympathizers and other Chinese were killed in the revolt and its suppression.
First Opium War
The First Anglo-Chinese War , known popularly as the First Opium War or simply the Opium War, was fought between the United Kingdom and the Qing Dynasty of China over their conflicting viewpoints on diplomatic relations, trade, and the administration of justice...
broke out, and China was defeated by Britain
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom during the period when what is now the Republic of Ireland formed a part of it....
. In view of the weakness of the Qing government, Britain and other nations such as France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
and Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
started to exert influence over China. Due to their inferior army and navy, the Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
was forced to sign many agreements which became known as the "Unequal Treaties
Unequal Treaties
“Unequal treaty” is a term used in specific reference to a number of treaties imposed by Western powers, during the 19th and early 20th centuries, on Qing Dynasty China and late Tokugawa Japan...
". These include the Treaty of Nanking
Treaty of Nanking
The Treaty of Nanking was signed on 29 August 1842 to mark the end of the First Opium War between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Qing Dynasty of China...
(1842), the Treaty of Aigun
Treaty of Aigun
The Treaty of Aigun was a 1858 treaty between the Russian Empire, and the empire of the Qing Dynasty, the sinicized-Manchu rulers of China, that established much of the modern border between the Russian Far East and Manchuria , which is now known as Northeast China...
(1858), the Treaty of Tientsin
Treaty of Tientsin
Several documents known as the "Treaty of Tien-tsin" were signed in Tianjin in June 1858, ending the first part of the Second Opium War . The Second French Empire, United Kingdom, Russian Empire, and the United States were the parties involved...
(1858), the Convention of Peking
Convention of Peking
The Convention of Peking or the First Convention of Peking is the name used for three different unequal treaties, which were concluded between Qing China and the United Kingdom, France, and Russia.-Background:...
(1860), the Treaty of Shimonoseki
Treaty of Shimonoseki
The Treaty of Shimonoseki , known as the Treaty of Maguan in China, was signed at the Shunpanrō hall on April 17, 1895, between the Empire of Japan and Qing Empire of China, ending the First Sino-Japanese War. The peace conference took place from March 20 to April 17, 1895...
(1895), and the Second Convention of Peking (1898).
Such treaties were regarded as grossly unfair by many Chinese. They had always considered themselves to be superior to foreigners, but their prestige was sorely damaged by the treaties, as foreigners were perceived to receive special treatment compared to Chinese. Rumours circulated of foreigners committing crimes as a result of agreements between foreign and the Chinese governments over how foreigners in China should be prosecuted. In Guizhou
Guizhou
' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :...
, local officials were reportedly shocked to see a cardinal
Cardinal (Catholicism)
A cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical official, usually an ordained bishop, and ecclesiastical prince of the Catholic Church. They are collectively known as the College of Cardinals, which as a body elects a new pope. The duties of the cardinals include attending the meetings of the College and...
using a sedan chair decorated in the same manner as one reserved for the governor. The Catholic Church's prohibition on some Chinese rituals and traditions were another issue of contention. Thus in the late 19th century such feelings increasingly resulted in civil disobedience
Civil disobedience
Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a government, or of an occupying international power. Civil disobedience is commonly, though not always, defined as being nonviolent resistance. It is one form of civil resistance...
and violence towards both foreigners and Chinese Christians.
The rebellion was initiated by a society known as the Righteous Harmony Society (義和拳) or in contemporary English parlance, "Boxers", a group which initially opposed, but later reconciled itself, to China's ruling Manchu
Manchu
The Manchu people or Man are an ethnic minority of China who originated in Manchuria . During their rise in the 17th century, with the help of the Ming dynasty rebels , they came to power in China and founded the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which...
Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
. The Boxer rebellion was concentrated in northern China where the European powers had begun to demand territorial, rail and mining concessions. Imperial Germany responded to the killing of two missionaries in Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
province in November 1897 by seizing the port of Qingdao
Qingdao
' also known in the West by its postal map spelling Tsingtao, is a major city with a population of over 8.715 million in eastern Shandong province, Eastern China. Its built up area, made of 7 urban districts plus Jimo city, is home to about 4,346,000 inhabitants in 2010.It borders Yantai to the...
. A month later a Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
n naval squadron took possession of Lushun, in southern Liaoning
Liaoning
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the northeast of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "辽" , a name taken from the Liao River that flows through the province. "Níng" means "peace"...
. Britain and France followed, taking possession of Weihai
Weihai
Weihai is a city in eastern Shandong Province, People's Republic of China. It is the easternmost prefecture-level city of the province and a major seaport. Between 1898 and 1930, the town was a British colony known as Weihaiwei or the Weihai Garrison , and sometimes as Port Edward...
and Zhanjiang
Zhanjiang
Zhanjiang , formerly known as Tsamkong, Tsankiang, Fort-Bayard, and Kwang-Chou-Wan, is a prefecture-level city at the southwestern end of Guangdong province of Southern China, facing the island of Hainan to the south....
respectively.
Xinhai Revolution
The Xinhai RevolutionXinhai Revolution
The Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution, also known as Revolution of 1911 or the Chinese Revolution, was a revolution that overthrew China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing , and established the Republic of China...
or Hsinhai Revolution was a republican
Republicanism
Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic, where the head of state is appointed by means other than heredity, often elections. The exact meaning of republicanism varies depending on the cultural and historical context...
revolution
Revolution
A revolution is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short period of time.Aristotle described two types of political revolution:...
which overthrew China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
's ruling Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
, which was also known as the Manchu
Manchu
The Manchu people or Man are an ethnic minority of China who originated in Manchuria . During their rise in the 17th century, with the help of the Ming dynasty rebels , they came to power in China and founded the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which...
Dynasty
Dynasty
A dynasty is a sequence of rulers considered members of the same family. Historians traditionally consider many sovereign states' history within a framework of successive dynasties, e.g., China, Ancient Egypt and the Persian Empire...
, and the establishment of the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
. The revolution had ended the monarchy
Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
which had a history for 4000 years in China and replaced it with a republic
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
, with democratic
Democracy
Democracy is generally defined as a form of government in which all adult citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Ideally, this includes equal participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law...
ideals. The ensuing revolutionary war lasted from October 10, 1911 and ended upon the formation of the Republic of China on February 12, 1912. Since 1911 is a Xinhai Year in the sexagenary cycle
Sexagenary cycle
The Chinese sexagenary cycle , also known as the Stems-and-Branches , is a cycle of sixty terms used for recording days or years. It appears, as a means of recording days, in the first Chinese written texts, the Shang dynasty oracle bones from the late second millennium BC. Its use to record years...
of Chinese calendar
Chinese calendar
The Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar, incorporating elements of a lunar calendar with those of a solar calendar. It is not exclusive to China, but followed by many other Asian cultures as well...
, Xinhai Revolution had got its present name.
The revolution began with the armed Wuchang Uprising
Wuchang Uprising
The Wuchang Uprising began with the dissatisfaction of the handling of a railway crisis. The crisis then escalated to an uprising where the revolutionaries went up against Qing government officials. The uprising was then assisted by the New Army in a coup against their own authorities in the city...
and the spread of republican insurrection through the southern provinces, and culminated in the abdication
Abdication
Abdication occurs when a monarch, such as a king or emperor, renounces his office.-Terminology:The word abdication comes derives from the Latin abdicatio. meaning to disown or renounce...
of the Xuantong Emperor after lengthy negotiations between rival Imperial and Republican regimes based in Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
and Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
respectively.
The Revolution inaugurated a period of struggle over China's eventual constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
al form, which saw two brief monarchical restorations and successive periods of political fragmentation before the Republic
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
's final establishment.
Today, the Xinhai Revolution is commemorated in Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
as Double Ten Day
Double Ten Day
Double Ten Day is the national day of the Republic of China and celebrates the start of the Wuchang Uprising of October 10, 1911, which led to the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in China and establishment of the Republic of China on January 1, 1912...
(雙十節). In addition, numerous overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Greater China Area . People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese....
also celebrate Double Ten Day and events are usually held in Chinatown
Chinatown
A Chinatown is an ethnic enclave of overseas Chinese people, although it is often generalized to include various Southeast Asian people. Chinatowns exist throughout the world, including East Asia, Southeast Asia, the Americas, Australasia, and Europe. Binondo's Chinatown located in Manila,...
s across the world.