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Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
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The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908-1922) began with the watershed event of Young Turk Revolution and ended with the partitioning of the Empire by the victorious sides of the World War I in the early part of the 20th century.
uly 1908 in a few short weeks the Young Turk Revolution changed the political structure of Empire.
Abdul Hamid's regime which lasted more than 35 years and the former autocratic system developed under his control were destroyed.
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The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908-1922) began with the watershed event of Young Turk Revolution and ended with the partitioning of the Empire by the victorious sides of the World War I in the early part of the 20th century.
Establishment of Constitutional Era, 1908
In July 1908 in a few short weeks the Young Turk Revolution changed the political structure of Empire.
Abdul Hamid's regime which lasted more than 35 years and the former autocratic system developed under his control were destroyed. The Armenians, Roman Catholic Syrians, Greeks of the Archipelago, and Bulgarians of Macedonia forgot Empire inaugurationed the new fraternity and progress. There was a unification theme and groups which fought against each other wished to work out the salvation of a common country. Heads of Macedonian bands (ITRO) fraternized with the members of the "Committee of Union and Progress"; Greeks and Bulgarians embraced one another under the second biggest party "Liberal Union". The Bulgarian federalist wing welcomed in the revolution and later joined mainstream political life as the Bulgarian section of People's Federative Party (Ottoman Empire). Even, some of its leaders like Sandanski and Chernopeev participated in the march on Istanbul to depose the "attempt to dismantle constitution (Countercoup (1909))". The former centralist formed the Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs and like the PFP participated in Ottoman elections. Armenians which formed "Armenakan", "Social Democrat Hunchakian Party" (Hunchakian ) and "Armenian Revolutionary Federation" (Dashnak or Tashnag) begin to work openly as there was no Abdul Hamid's pressure on them.
Reorganization
Young Turk Revolution, which had support from the British, gave a way to a new political system. The influence of Germany was not as dominant as Abdul Hamid's regime. The new political system revolutionized the administration of the Empire; a new radical renovation period established. The civil commissioners of Abdul Hamid's system, the officers of the gendarmerie of Abdul Hamid's system, the European members of the financial commission, the Ottoman Public Debt Administration which was establisted under Abdul Hamid's system, were gradually disappeared.
Aligned with the revolution's institutions becoming stable, the foreign relations (schemes of relations) of the Empire took Europe by surprise. Russia—supported by England and France, who thought the moment had come, for the governing of the Straits to be improved in the favor of the European powers. Their influence in Abdul Hamid's Porte — which was not enough - rejected the compensation. The new regime absolutely refused.
Dissatisfaction with constitutional regime
Once the first enthusiasm had passed with little progress, dissatisfaction with the
new regime became evident as early as 1909. The theme of unification did not last long. The newly established political system assumed that the citizens of the Empire could unite under one flag which represent the Ottomanism (tr:Osmanli , Osmanlis)). The process of replacing the monarchic institutions with constitutional institutions and electoral policies was neither as simple nor as bloodless as the regime change itself. The periphery of the Empire continued to splinter under the pressures of local revolutions.
Due to Abdul Hamid's policies, equilibrium between Muslims and Christians was impossible to reach. Overburdened with religious and ethnic strife, the new government had little ability to solve the problems of the empire.
Cretan union with Greece, 1908
- For the history of the Cretan before 1908 look for the History of Crete
Just after the revolution (1908), the Cretan deputies declared union with Greece by taking advantage of revolution as well as the timing of Zaimis's vacation away from the island. The 1908 left the issue unsolved between the Empire and Cretans. In 1909 after the parliament elected the governing structure, CUP decided that if order was maintained and the rights of Muslims were respected issue would be solved with negotiations.
Albanians and Latin Alphabet, 1909
Albanians of Tirana and Elbassan were one of the first groups that joined to the constitutional movement. However, due to shifting national borders in the Balkans, the Albanians had been marginalized as a nationless people. The most significant factor uniting the Albanians, their spoken language, lacked a standard literary form and even a standard alphabet. Each of the three available choices, the Latin, Cyrillic, and Arabic scripts, implied different political and religious orientations opposed by one or another element of the population. In July 1908, a month after a Young Turk rebellion in Macedonia supported by an Albanian uprising in Kosovo and Macedonia escalated into widespread insurrection and mutiny within the imperial army, Sultan Abdül Hamid II agreed to demands by the Young Turks to restore constitutional rule. Many Albanians participated in the Young Turks uprising, hoping that it would gain their people autonomy within the empire. The Young Turks lifted the Ottoman ban on Albanian-language schools and on writing the Albanian language. As a consequence, Albanian intellectuals meeting in Bitola in 1908 chose the Latin alphabet as a standard script.
The new government also appealed for Islamic solidarity to break the Albanians' unity and used the Muslim clergy to try to impose the Arabic alphabet. The Albanians refused to submit to the Young Turks' campaign to "Ottomanize" them by force.
Attempt to dismantle constitution, 1909
After nine months into the new government, discontent found expression in a fundamentalist movement which attempted to dismantle the Second Constitutional Era and revert it with a monarchy under Sultan Abdul Hamid II. The Sultan's countercoup gained traction when he promised to restore the Caliphate, eliminate secular policies, and restore the rule of Islamic law.
The "31 March Incident" rebelled against the countercoup. On April 13 1909, Abdul Hamid II was finally removed from the throne, and Mehmed V became the Sultan. The constitution granted by the Sultan Mehmed V, 5 August 1909, proclaimed the equality of all subjects in the matter of taxes, military service (allowing Christians into the military for the first time), and political rights. The new constitution was perceived as a big step for the establishment of a common law for all subjects. The position of Sultan was greatly reduced to a figurehead, while still retaining some constitutional powers, such as the ability to declare war.
The new constitution, aimed to bring more sovereignty to the public, could not address certain public services, such as the ottoman public debt, the Ottoman Bank or Ottoman Public Debt Administration because of their international character. The same held true of most of the companies which were formed to execute public works such as Baghdad Railway, tobacco and cigarette trades of two French companies the "Regie Compagnie interessee des tabacs de l'empire Ottoman", and "Narquileh tobacco".
Italian War, 1911
Italy declared war on the Empire on September 29 1911, demanding the turnover of Tripoli and Cyrenaica. The empire's response was weak so Italian forces took those areas on November 5 of that year (this act was confirmed by an act of the Italian Parliament on February 25 1912). Although minor, the war was an important precursor of World War I as it sparked nationalism in the Balkan states. Seeing how easily the Italians had defeated the disorganized Ottomans, the members of the Balkan League attacked the Empire before the war with Italy had ended.
Balkan Wars, 1912–1913
The three new Balkan states formed at the end of the 19th century and Montenegro, sought additional territories from the Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace, behind their nationalistic arguments. The incomplete emergence of these nation-states on the fringes of the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century set the stage for the Balkan Wars. On October 10 12 the collective note of the powers was handed in at Constantinople. CUP responded to demands of European powers on reforms in Macedonia on October 14. But before further action could be taken war broke out. While Powers were asking Empire to reform Macedonia, under the encouragement of Russia, a series of agreements were concluded: between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912, between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912, and Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria respectively in October 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically called for the partition of Macedonia which resulted in the First Balkan War. In 1913 a nationalist uprising broke out in Albania, and on October 8, the Balkan League, consisting of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria, mounted a joint attack on the Ottoman Empire, starting the First Balkan War. The Second Balkan War soon followed. Albania declared independence on November 28, Empire agreed to a ceasefire on December 2, and its territory losses were finalized in 1913 in the treaties of London and Bucharest. Albania became independent, and the Empire lost almost all of its European territory (Kosovo, Sanjak of Novi Pazar, Macedonia and western Thrace) to the four allies.
Cession of Kuwait, 1913
The Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913 was a short-lived agreement signed in July 1913 between the Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI and the British over several issues. However it was the issue over the status of Kuwait that came to be the only long-lived result, as its outcome was formal independence for Kuwait.
During World War I, the Ottoman Empire was financially crippled and the invading British forces invalidated the Anglo-Ottoman Convention, declaring Kuwait to be an "independent sheikdom under British protectorate."
Cession of Albania, 1913
Albania had been under Ottoman rule from around 1478. When Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece laid claim to Albanian-populated lands during Balkan Wars, the Albanians declared independence.
The European Great Powers endorsed an independent Albania in 1913, after the Second Balkan War leaving outside the Albanian border more than half of the Albanian population and their lands, that were partitioned between Montenegro,Serbia and Greece. They were assisted by Aubrey Herbert, a British MP who passionately advocated their cause in London. As a result, Herbert was offered the crown of Albania, but was dissuaded by the British prime minister, H. H. Asquith, from accepting. Instead the offer went to William of Wied, a German prince who accepted and became sovereign of the new Principality of Albania.
The young state, however, collapsed within weeks of the outbreak of World War I.
Before the War, 1914
In early 1914 the Ottoman Government was concerned with three main issues. The first was improving relations with Bulgaria; the second was to encourage support from the Germans, and the third was to settle negotiations with Europe about the Armenian reform.
In regard to the first, Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria showed sympathy to one another because they suffered as a result of the territories lost with the Balkan Wars (1912-1913). They also had bitter relations with Greece. It was natural and beneficial for them to work for the development of policies that enable to gain better positions in the region.
In regard to the second, there were three military missions active at the turn of 1914. These were British Naval Mission led by Admiral Limpus, French Gendarme Mission led by General Moujen, and German Military Mission led by Goltz. German Military Mission become the most important among these three. The history of German military relations went back to 1912. Grand Vizier the Sait Halim Pasha and Minister of War Ahmet Izzet Pasha was instrumental in developing the initial relations. Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz to establish the initial mission. General Goltz served two periods in within two years. In the early 1914, the Minister of War was a former military attache to Berlin, Enver Pasha, was at the helm. About the same time, General Otto Liman von Sanders, was nominated to the command of the 1st Army. 1st Army was the biggest which was located in the European side. General Liman von Sanders and Enver Pasha practically shared the commander-in-chief position.
In regard to the third, an Armenian reform package was negotiated with Russia. Russia, the protector of Armenians and acting on behalf of the Great Powers, was instrumental of introduction of reforms to the Armenian citizens of the empire. Armenian reform package, which was solidified in February 1914, was based on the arrangements nominally made in 1878. According to this arrangement the inspectors general, whose powers and duties constituted the key to the question, were to be named for a period of ten years, and their engagement was not to be revocable during that period.
Capitulations & Public Debt
When the Capitulations were first established it was supposed that foreign assistance could benefit the Empire. Capitulations stipulated that the privileges was based on religion. The intercourse of the Christian world with the Mohammedan world was founded upon different principles. Foreigners had secured many privileges or "capitulations" that they could not be brought under local jurisdiction, but were subject only to the codes of justice of their own countries, administered through their own consular courts. As a result, almost all the business of the country was in the hands of non-Muslim people — Armenians, Greeks, Jews, Italians, French, Germans, and English, which were under non-ottoman (local) jurisdiction. Wherever mines have been developed, railroads or irrigation works constructed, foreign capital and foreign brains have been chiefly responsible. This system produced and environment which he Muslim's of the Empire stayed poor, and the standard of education for this group never increased. And so it would, if it were not that foreigners occupy a privileged position in the country. In fact, citizens of Great Britain, Italy, France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary were in many respects in a separate class from Muslim citizens, whether Turks, Greeks, Armenians, or Jews. The Empire also perceived the capitulations as a reason for corruption. Officials, representing different jurisdictions, sought bribes at every opportunity, withheld the proceeds of a vicious and discriminatory tax system, ruined every struggling industry by graft, and fought against every show of independence on the part of Empire's many subject peoples. A citizen of any of the great powers was practically exempt from the payment of income taxes and several other kinds of taxes to which the Turk was subject. He was immune from search, could secure passports from his own consul, and could be tried in courts of his own nationality. All these special privileges together constituted a body of privileges known as "Capitulations." On September 10 1915, Talat Pasha abolished the "Capitulations", which the capitulation holders refused to recognize her action.
Ottoman public debt was part of a larger schemes of political control, through which the commercial interests of the world had seek to gain advantages that may not be to Empire's interest. The total pre-war debt of Empire was $716,000,000. France had 60 percent of the total, Germany was 20 percent, and Great Britain was 15 percent. The debt was administered by a Ottoman Public Debt Administration and its power was extended to the Imperial Ottoman Bank (Central bank). Debt Administration controlled many of the important revenues of the empire. The Council had power every financial affairs. It's control even extended to determine the tax on live stock in districts. Siding with Germany, with the minimum dept holder put the Empire in the position to pay its dept or even pay a war indemnity.
World War I, 1914–1918
At the outbreak of the war Ottoman government declared neutrality with the "Notification of Neutrality" on August 18. On September 10 the Grand Vizier annulled the Capitulations, which ended the special privileges they granted to foreign nationals. On September 28 the straits were closed to naval traffic. Straits were vital for the communications between the Western Allies and Russia. On October 19, a German battlecruiser, the Goeben, and a German light cruiser, the Breslau was received by Ottoman officials. Along an agreement with the German military mission, the Committee of Union and Progress did not discharge the crews of these ships. On October 21, six hundred more German officers reported to arrive along the military mission. On October 29 Allies presented a note to Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha that they had an agreement with Egypt and any hostility towards Egypt will be treated as declaration of war.
On October 29, after the Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau, Breslau bombarded the Black Sea port of Theodosia. On November 2 Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha expressed regret to Allies for the operations of the navy. Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs Sergey Sazonov said it is too late and Russia considered this raid as an act of war. The Cabinet tried to explain that hostilities were begun without its sanction by German officers serving in the navy. Allies insisted on the reparation to Russia, the dismissal of German officers from the Goeben and Breslau, and the internment of the German ships until the end of the war. But before Ottoman government responded Great Britain and France declared war on Ottoman Empire on November 5. CUP's official Declaration of War came on November 14.
There were objective reasons for government's choice. Initially government, especially minster of state Talaat Pasha, had looked Britain as a side. But Britain had not maintained an isolated position in Europe. Russia was the pivotal point. When Britain was drawn into the Triple Entente and began to cultivate relations with Russia, Porte became distrustful. The Porte had gradually drifted, with opposition from the parliament, into close political relations with Germany. The relationship between Great Britain and France had encouraged Italy to seize Tripoli. Russian designs on straits (to open waters from its black sea ports) were well known, and these conditions put Great Britain, France, and Russia against Germany. Porte's policy would naturally incline toward dependence on the Berlin. Berlin-Ottoman alliance promised to isolate Russia. Ottoman-German alliance was negotiated. In exchange for money and future control over Russian territory, the Ottoman Government abandoned a neutral position and sided with Germany.
The Empire fall into a disorder with the deceleration of war along the Germany. On November 11 a conspiracy discovered in Istanbul against Germans and CUP, which some of the CUP leaders were shot. This followed the November 12 revolt in Adrlanople against German military mission. On November 13 a bomb exploded in Enver Pasha's palace, which killed five German officers but missed the Enver Pasha. These events followed on November 18 more Anti-German plots. Committees formed around the country to rid country siding Germany. Army and navy officers protested against assumption of authority by Germans. On December 4 widespread riots throughout the country. On December 13 Anti-war demonstration by women in Konak and Erzerum. Throughout December CUP dealt with mutiny among soldiers in barracks and among naval crews. The head of German Military Mission Field Marshal von der Goltz had a conspiracy against his life.
Empire with Russia
Ottoman's entrance to war greatly increased the Triple Entente's military burdens. Russia had to fight on the Caucasus Campaign alone and Persian Campaign along with the Great Britain.
Ismail Enver Pasha was set off for the Battle of Sarikamis (Caucasus Campaign), with the intention of recapturing Batum and Kars, overrunning Georgia and occupying north-western Persia and the oil fields. Fighting the Russians in the Caucasus, however, the Ottomans lost ground—and over 100,000 soldiers—in a series of battles.
The 1917 Russian revolution gave the Ottomans a chance to regain these areas, but continued British offensives ultimately proved to be too much.
Empire with British & France
Great Britain was obliged to defend India and her southern Persian oil territory by undertaking the Mesopotamian campaign. She had also to protect Egypt against the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. These campaigns strained Allied resources and relieved Germany.
Initially Ahmed Djemal Pasha was ordered to gather an army in Palestine with which to threaten the Suez Canal. In response, Allies—including the newly formed Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ("ANZACs")—opened another front with the Battle of Gallipoli.
The Ottomans were eventually defeated due to key attacks by the British general Edmund Allenby.
Empire with Armenia
In 1917 the regular Russian Caucasus Army deserted the frontline. In 1918, the Dashnaks of Armenian national liberation movement declared the Democratic Republic of Armenia through the Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians (unified form of Armenian National Councils) with the dissolution of Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. Tovmas Nazarbekian became the first Commander-in-chief of DRA. With the Tovmas Nazarbekian becoming the Commander-in-chief of the whole Armenian state, Andranik Toros Ozanian took command of war zone within Ottoman Empire.
The Armenian soldiers under Russian Empire, Armenian volunteer units, realigned themselves under the command of General Tovmas Nazarbekian, with Dro as a civilian commissioner. The frontline had three main divisions: Movses Silikyan, Adrianic and Mikhail Areshian. Another regular unit was under Colonel Korganian. There were Armenian partisian guerrilla detachments accompanying these main units. The line from Van to Erzincan was organized through these units.
In April 1918 the Ottoman 3th Army finally went on the offensive. In early May, 1918, the Ottoman army faced with the newly declared Democratic Republic of Armenia. The conflict led to the Battle of Sardarapat, the Battle of Kara Killisse (1918), and the Battle of Bash Abaran. Although the Armenians managed to inflict a defeat on the Ottomans at the Battle of Sardarapat, the Ottoman army won the later battle and scattered the Armenian army. The Republic of Armenia was forced to sign the Treaty of Batum in June, 1918. However throughout the summer of 1918, Armenians in the mountainous Karabag region, under the leadership of Andranik Toros Ozanian, established the Republic of Mountainous Armenia and resisted the Ottoman 3th army. In July, Ottomans faced with the Centrocaspian Dictatorship at the Battle of Baku, with the goal of taking Baku on the Caspian Sea.
Empire in Home front
Ottoman Empire dealt with the Arab Revolt. Sharif Hussein ibn Ali rebelled against the Ottoman rule during the Arab Revolt of 1916. An exchange of letters with British High Commissioner Henry McMahon convinced him that his assistance on the side of the Triple Entente would be rewarded by an Arab empire encompassing the entire span between Egypt and Persia, with the exception of imperial possessions and interests in Kuwait, Aden, and the Syrian coast. Hussein was the official leader of the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans.
During World War I, the Ottoman government also faced difficulties on the home front, including isolated Armenian rebellions in eastern Anatolia that led to an order for the Tehcir Law of June 1, 1915 to February 8, 1916 (deportation) of Armenians from the region. Some academics define the deportations as the Armenian Genocide. This view is disputed by the Turkish Government, which maintains that most of the Armenian mortalities were the result of conditions that had effect on World War I casualties, and the civil war within the historical roots of the region, which pushed Armenian and Muslim populations, back-and-forth within the war zone. Turkish authorities also claim that deportations (Tehcir Law) were not the main contribution to total Armenian mortality during World War I and the claims for an organized crime against the Armenians, by Teskilati Mahsusa or the special organization were also in dispute, even if the very bad conditions of the Armenians (also some Muslims) were not.
Armistice, October 30, 1918
The armed conflicts were ended with the Armistice of Mudros.
The WWI years were a disaster to Ottoman Empire. The land loss was enormous, human loss was bigger, which Ottoman Muslim casualties was only one part of the story. The former Breslau was sunk by a mine at the entrance to the Dardanelles, on January 20 1919. The battle cruiser Goeben was beached by British warships on the same day.
Partitioning of the Empire
The initial peace agreement with the Ottoman Empire was the Armistice of Mudros. This was followed by Occupation of Istanbul. The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire brought international conflicts which were discussed during the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. The peace agreement, Treaty of Sevres, was signed by the Ottoman Empire and Allies.
The Treaty of Sèvres presented one of the thorniest problems before the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. The text of the treaty with Ottomans was not made public until May, 1920. Contrary to general expectations, Sultanate was not terminated and allowed to retain Istanbul and a small strip of territory around the city. The shores of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles planned to be internationalized, so that the gates of the Black Sea kept open. The interior of Asia Minor (Anatolia), the first seat of Ottoman power six centuries ago, continues to be under Turkish sovereignty.
The United Kingdom obtained virtually everything it had sought—according to the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement made together with France in 1916, while the war was still going on—from the empire's partition. Its terms were admittedly severe, and they were widely criticized as vindictive. The subsequent years showed that it was also impracticable. Sèvres was the end of the Ottoman Empire.
Question of the CUP
Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) was the ruling party during this period. Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919–1920 were courts-martials, which the leadership of the CUP and selected former officials were court-martialled with/including the charges of subversion of the constitution, wartime profiteering, and the massacres of both Greeks and Armenians. The courts-martial became a stage for political battles. The trials helped the Liberal Union root out the CUP from the political arena.
Question of the Sultanate
Treaty of Sèvres was destined never to be ratified. Elections were held throughout Anatolia and with the participation of some parliamentarians, who had escaped from Istanbul, a new government was formed in Ankara. The rest of the story is the Turkish War of Independence.The Treaty of Lausanne announced the new Turkish State internationally. This new state gave the 'coup de grâce' to the Ottoman state, in 1922, with the overthrow of Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin by the new republican assembly of Turkey.
Question of the Caliphate
Besides the control of the physical lands, another question of importance was originated from the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman Caliphs never claimed to be religious descendant of the Prophet but they were nonetheless an important authority figure within the Ottoman Empire. Muslims of India and of Anatolia supported and recognized the Ottoman caliphate for instance. As Sultans of the Empire, the Ottoman rulers had a very strong position, but the Sultan of Morocco, the Mahdists of the Egyptian Sudan, the Senussi in the Libyan Desert, the Wahabis in central Arabia, never acknowledged the title of Caliph as being higher than the Sultans' as the leader of state. Such recognition was also not given by the Arabs of the Hedjaz, Palestine, and Syria, which contain the holy places of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem.
The last official remnant of the empire—the title of caliphate—was constitutionally abolished on 3 March 1924. With the abolishment of the Ottoman Caliphate by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, throughout the country from Mecca to Aleppo, the Ottoman Caliph's name was replaced in the Friday liturgy by that of Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, the hereditary guardian of the holy cities of the Hedjaz, who is referred to as "The Commander of the Faithful".
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