Cornwallis in North America
Encyclopedia
Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis
Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis KG , styled Viscount Brome between 1753 and 1762 and known as The Earl Cornwallis between 1762 and 1792, was a British Army officer and colonial administrator...
(1738–1805) was a military officer who served in the British Army
British Army
The British Army is the land warfare branch of Her Majesty's Armed Forces in the United Kingdom. It came into being with the unification of the Kingdom of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. The new British Army incorporated Regiments that had already existed in England...
during the American War of Independence. He is best known for surrendering his army after the 1781 Siege of Yorktown
Siege of Yorktown
The Siege of Yorktown, Battle of Yorktown, or Surrender of Yorktown in 1781 was a decisive victory by a combined assault of American forces led by General George Washington and French forces led by the Comte de Rochambeau over a British Army commanded by Lieutenant General Lord Cornwallis...
, an act that ended major hostilities in North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
and led directly to peace negotiations and the eventual end of the war.
Born into an aristocratic family with a history of public service, Cornwallis was politically opposed to the war, but agreed to serve when it became clear that Britain would require a significant military presence in the Thirteen Colonies
Thirteen Colonies
The Thirteen Colonies were English and later British colonies established on the Atlantic coast of North America between 1607 and 1733. They declared their independence in the American Revolution and formed the United States of America...
. First arriving in May 1776, he participated in the Battle of Sullivan's Island
Battle of Sullivan's Island
The Battle of Sullivan's Island or the Battle of Fort Sullivan was fought on June 28, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, also known as the American War of Independence. It took place near Charleston, South Carolina, during the first British attempt to capture the city from American rebels...
, before joining the main army under General William Howe
William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe
William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe, KB, PC was a British army officer who rose to become Commander-in-Chief of British forces during the American War of Independence...
. He played a notable role in the partially-successful New York and New Jersey campaign
New York and New Jersey campaign
The New York and New Jersey campaign was a series of battles for control of New York City and the state of New Jersey in the American Revolutionary War between British forces under General Sir William Howe and the Continental Army under General George Washington in 1776 and the winter months of 1777...
when George Washington
George Washington
George Washington was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. He led the American victory over Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783, and presided over the writing of...
successfully eluded him after the Battle of the Assunpink Creek and inflicted a decisive defeat on troops left at his rear in the Battle of Princeton
Battle of Princeton
The Battle of Princeton was a battle in which General George Washington's revolutionary forces defeated British forces near Princeton, New Jersey....
.
Cornwallis was also involved in the Philadelphia campaign
Philadelphia campaign
The Philadelphia campaign was a British initiative in the American Revolutionary War to gain control of Philadelphia, which was then the seat of the Second Continental Congress...
(1777–1778), leading a wing of Howe's army, before he became one of the leading figures of the British "southern strategy" to gain control of the southern colonies. In that role he successfully led troops that gained a measure of control and influence in South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...
before heading into North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
. There, despite successes like his victory at the Battle of Camden
Battle of Camden
The Battle of Camden was a major victory for the British in the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War...
, which burnished his reputation, wings of his army were decisively defeated at Kings Mountain
Battle of Kings Mountain
The Battle of Kings Mountain was a decisive battle between the Patriot and Loyalist militias in the Southern campaign of the American Revolutionary War...
and Cowpens
Battle of Cowpens
The Battle of Cowpens was a decisive victory by Patriot Revolutionary forces under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan, in the Southern campaign of the American Revolutionary War...
. After a Pyrrhic victory at Greensboro, North Carolina
Battle of Guilford Court House
The Battle of Guilford Court House was a battle fought on March 15, 1781 in Greensboro, the county seat of Guilford County, North Carolina, during the American Revolutionary War...
, Cornwallis moved his battered army to Wilmington
Wilmington, North Carolina
Wilmington is a port city in and is the county seat of New Hanover County, North Carolina, United States. The population is 106,476 according to the 2010 Census, making it the eighth most populous city in the state of North Carolina...
to rest and resupply.
From Wilmington, Cornwallis, in a move that became a subject of contemporary and historical debate, led his army into Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...
, where he joined with other British troops that had been raiding economic and military targets in that colony. Ineffectually opposed by a smaller Continental Army
Continental Army
The Continental Army was formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775, it was created to coordinate the military efforts of the Thirteen Colonies in...
under the Marquis de Lafayette, he was eventually ordered to establish a well-defended port by General Henry Clinton. Poor communications in the British establishment and French naval superiority over the Chesapeake Bay
Chesapeake Bay
The Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the United States. It lies off the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by Maryland and Virginia. The Chesapeake Bay's drainage basin covers in the District of Columbia and parts of six states: New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and West...
caused him to become entrapped at Yorktown
Yorktown, Virginia
Yorktown is a census-designated place in York County, Virginia, United States. The population was 220 in the 2000 census. It is the county seat of York County, one of the eight original shires formed in colonial Virginia in 1634....
without the possibility of reinforcement; he surrendered after three weeks of siege, on October 17, 1781. He was released on parole, and returned to England in December of that year. He and General Clinton engaged in a highly public exchange after the 1781 campaign in which each sought to deflect blame for its failure.
Background
Charles, Earl CornwallisCharles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis
Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis KG , styled Viscount Brome between 1753 and 1762 and known as The Earl Cornwallis between 1762 and 1792, was a British Army officer and colonial administrator...
was a military officer born into an aristocratic family. His family had a distinguished record of public and military service, and Cornwallis was no exception. Eager for action, he served with the British Army
British Army
The British Army is the land warfare branch of Her Majesty's Armed Forces in the United Kingdom. It came into being with the unification of the Kingdom of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. The new British Army incorporated Regiments that had already existed in England...
in Europe during the Seven Years' War
Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War was a global military war between 1756 and 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and affecting Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines...
, rising to the rank of lieutenant colonel. During those years he also served first in the House of Commons of Great Britain
House of Commons of Great Britain
The House of Commons of Great Britain was the lower house of the Parliament of Great Britain between 1707 and 1801. In 1707, as a result of the Acts of Union of that year, it replaced the House of Commons of England and the third estate of the Parliament of Scotland, as one of the most significant...
, and then, upon his accession to the title of Earl of Cornwallis in 1762, in the House of Lords
House of Lords
The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster....
. He was politically aligned with the Whigs, and was sympathetic to the complaints of the British colonists in North America, voting against the 1765 Stamp Act
Stamp Act 1765
The Stamp Act 1765 was a direct tax imposed by the British Parliament specifically on the colonies of British America. The act required that many printed materials in the colonies be produced on stamped paper produced in London, carrying an embossed revenue stamp...
. When it was repealed the following year, he was one of a few voters against the Declaratory Act
Declaratory Act
The Declaratory Act was a declaration by the British Parliament in 1766 which accompanied the repeal of the Stamp Act 1765. The government repealed the Stamp Act because boycotts were hurting British trade and used the declaration to justify the repeal and save face...
, in which Parliament continued to claim authority over the colonies. Also in 1766, he was given the colonelcy of the 33rd Regiment of Foot. In the following years he continued to argue politically in support of the colonists even as tensions rose between them and the Parliament. When the North ministry
North Ministry
The North Ministry governed the Kingdom of Great Britain from 1770 until 1782. Overseeing in this time the Falklands Crisis, the Gordon Riots and much of the American War of Independence. It was headed by the Tory politician Lord North and served under George III.-Membership:...
rose to power in 1770, Cornwallis adopted a less active voice in politics, and avoided seeking political appointments.
In 1768 he married Jemima Tullekin Jones, the daughter of a regimental colonel. They had two children, a boy and a girl, before Jemima died in 1779, and were by all accounts a happy, devoted couple.
American War of Independence
After the opening skirmishesBattles of Lexington and Concord
The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War. They were fought on April 19, 1775, in Middlesex County, Province of Massachusetts Bay, within the towns of Lexington, Concord, Lincoln, Menotomy , and Cambridge, near Boston...
of the war took place near Boston, Cornwallis put his politics aside and sought active service. Despite of his opposition to the king's colonial policy, Cornwallis had retained King George III's favour, and was rapidly promoted. On September 29, 1775 he was promoted to major general. In November he offered to serve in North America on a proposed expedition to the southern colonies, even though the number of officers that were senior to him in rank meant he was unlikely to get an independent command. This generosity was appreciated by the king and by Lord George Germain
George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville
George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville PC , known as the Hon. George Sackville to 1720, as Lord George Sackville from 1720 to 1770, and as Lord George Germain from 1770 to 1782, was a British soldier and politician who was Secretary of State for America in Lord North's cabinet during the American...
, the secretary of state for the colonies. On January 1, 1776 he was given the rank of lieutenant general in North America. His orders from Lord Germain were to accompany a convoy of troops from Cork, Ireland
Cork (city)
Cork is the second largest city in the Republic of Ireland and the island of Ireland's third most populous city. It is the principal city and administrative centre of County Cork and the largest city in the province of Munster. Cork has a population of 119,418, while the addition of the suburban...
to North America, where he was to join at Cape Fear, North Carolina with General Henry Clinton, who was bringing troops from Boston
Boston
Boston is the capital of and largest city in Massachusetts, and is one of the oldest cities in the United States. The largest city in New England, Boston is regarded as the unofficial "Capital of New England" for its economic and cultural impact on the entire New England region. The city proper had...
for operations in the southern colonies. Clinton arrived at Cape Fear well before the earl, since logistics delayed the convoy's departure, and then bad weather slowed its progress across the Atlantic. Cornwallis expected to have good relations with Clinton; a mutual friend, William Phillips, reported Cornwallis to be "very happy to think he shall serve under an old friend and a man he has so good an opinion of."
These forces then shifted south and participated in the first Siege of Charleston
Battle of Sullivan's Island
The Battle of Sullivan's Island or the Battle of Fort Sullivan was fought on June 28, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, also known as the American War of Independence. It took place near Charleston, South Carolina, during the first British attempt to capture the city from American rebels...
in June 1776. Cornwallis was landed with Clinton's troops on Long Island, where they were unable to cross the deep channel separating the island from Sullivan's Island, where the principal colonial defenses were located. The colonists brought artillery up to oppose any attempted crossing, and the landing was a failure, as was the naval cannonade of Fort Sullivan.
New York campaign
After the failure in South Carolina, Clinton and Cornwallis transported their troops north to serve under William HoweWilliam Howe, 5th Viscount Howe
William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe, KB, PC was a British army officer who rose to become Commander-in-Chief of British forces during the American War of Independence...
in the campaign
New York and New Jersey campaign
The New York and New Jersey campaign was a series of battles for control of New York City and the state of New Jersey in the American Revolutionary War between British forces under General Sir William Howe and the Continental Army under General George Washington in 1776 and the winter months of 1777...
for New York City
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
. In the Battle of Long Island
Battle of Long Island
The Battle of Long Island, also known as the Battle of Brooklyn or the Battle of Brooklyn Heights, fought on August 27, 1776, was the first major battle in the American Revolutionary War following the United States Declaration of Independence, the largest battle of the entire conflict, and the...
, Cornwallis led the reserve division that took part in the successful flanking of the American position on Gowanus Heights. Cornwallis's role in the following weeks was minor; his command was not directly involved in the battles that drove George Washington
George Washington
George Washington was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. He led the American victory over Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783, and presided over the writing of...
across the Hudson River
Hudson River
The Hudson is a river that flows from north to south through eastern New York. The highest official source is at Lake Tear of the Clouds, on the slopes of Mount Marcy in the Adirondack Mountains. The river itself officially begins in Henderson Lake in Newcomb, New York...
and into New Jersey
New Jersey
New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. , its population was 8,791,894. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania and on the southwest by Delaware...
. At the fall of Fort Washington
Battle of Fort Washington
The Battle of Fort Washington was fought in the American Revolutionary War between the United States and Great Britain on November 16, 1776. It was a decisive British victory, forcing the entire garrison of Fort Washington to surrender....
, Cornwallis's troops sealed one of the last escape routes. General Howe then gave Cornwallis his first chance at an independent command, assigning him to capture Fort Lee
Fort Lee, New Jersey
Fort Lee is a borough in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the borough population was 35,345. Located atop the Hudson Palisades, the borough is the western terminus of the George Washington Bridge...
, across the river from Fort Washington. The Americans occupying that fortification were led by Nathanael Greene
Nathanael Greene
Nathanael Greene was a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War. When the war began, Greene was a militia private, the lowest rank possible; he emerged from the war with a reputation as George Washington's most gifted and dependable officer. Many places in the United...
, who would later face Cornwallis in the south, and only barely made their escape. Cornwallis's prizes in the bloodless seizure of the fort included tents, guns, and other military supplies. Washington ended up withdrawing all the way across the Delaware River
Delaware River
The Delaware River is a major river on the Atlantic coast of the United States.A Dutch expedition led by Henry Hudson in 1609 first mapped the river. The river was christened the South River in the New Netherland colony that followed, in contrast to the North River, as the Hudson River was then...
into Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
, with Cornwallis in pursuit until his force reached New Brunswick, New Jersey
New Brunswick, New Jersey
New Brunswick is a city in Middlesex County, New Jersey, USA. It is the county seat and the home of Rutgers University. The city is located on the Northeast Corridor rail line, southwest of Manhattan, on the southern bank of the Raritan River. At the 2010 United States Census, the population of...
. His troops were exhausted from the chase, and his orders from Howe were to go no further. Cornwallis, who was criticized for disobeying or disregarding Clinton's orders in later campaigns, observed that he would have disobeyed Howe's orders if he believed further pursuit would have gained material advantage for the British. Howe joined him on December 6, and led the pursuit to the Delaware with Cornwallis in the van. In his orders of December 14, Howe recognized the successful close of the campaign "much to the honor of his lordship and the officers and soldiers under his command."
Trenton and Princeton
After the New York City campaign and the subsequent occupation of New Jersey by the British army, Cornwallis applied for leave to return home. He was preparing to sail from New York when orders arrived cancelling his leave. Washington's successful surprise attack on TrentonBattle of Trenton
The Battle of Trenton took place on December 26, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, after General George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River north of Trenton, New Jersey. The hazardous crossing in adverse weather made it possible for Washington to lead the main body of the...
on the morning of December 26 demanded a response, and Howe ordered Cornwallis back to New Jersey to deal with Washington.
Princeton, New Jersey
Princeton is a community located in Mercer County, New Jersey, United States. It is best known as the location of Princeton University, which has been sited in the community since 1756...
, where an army of 8,000 came together. Leaving 3,000 men in posts at Princeton and Maidenhead, Cornwallis advanced with the remaining 5,000 down the main road to Trenton early on January 2, where Washington had established a strong position on the south side of the Assunpink Creek
Assunpink Creek
Assunpink Creek is a tributary of the Delaware River in western New Jersey in the United States.Assunpink Creek is born in rural Monmouth County, about a mile north of Clarksburg. Flowing westwards, it soon enters the Assunpink Wildlife Management Area, where it has been dammed to form Rising Sun...
. He rejected advice from the Hessian Colonel Carl von Donop
Carl von Donop
Count Carl Emilius von Donop was a Hessian colonel who fought in the American Revolutionary War.-Origins and ambitions:...
, who proposed a two-column approach that would turn Washington's right flank.
After a running series of skirmishes designed to delay the British march, Cornwallis finally reached Trenton and came upon Washington's position around sunset. In the battle that followed, Cornwallis's forces made three attempts to either cross bridges or ford the creek; all were successfully repulsed. Rather than attempt a nighttime assault across unknown terrain against Washington's position, Cornwallis ordered his troops to camp, noting that he could "bag the fox" in the morning. During the night, however, Washington's forces slipped around his, and successfully attacked the British outpost at Princeton
Battle of Princeton
The Battle of Princeton was a battle in which General George Washington's revolutionary forces defeated British forces near Princeton, New Jersey....
. Although the Continental Army's disengagement was due in large part to Washington's use of deception, including the maintenance of blazing campfires and the presence of a small detachment of troops to keep up camp sounds throughout the night, Cornwallis also neglected to send out sufficient patrols to monitor Washington's activities. When the disappearance of Washington's army was discovered in the morning, Cornwallis immediately gave chase, but his troops only began to arrive two hours after the Princeton troops surrendered. Washington, his forces tired out after the night march and battle, moved north toward Morristown
Morristown, New Jersey
Morristown is a town in Morris County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the town population was 18,411. It is the county seat of Morris County. Morristown became characterized as "the military capital of the American Revolution" because of its strategic role in the...
, while Cornwallis returned to New Brunswick, where the large base had been left garrisoned by a single regiment, and included the British warchest.
Cornwallis remained in New Jersey through the winter, where an ongoing series of skirmishes
Forage War
The Forage War was a partisan campaign consisting of numerous small skirmishes that took place in New Jersey during the American Revolutionary War between January and March 1777, following the battles of Trenton and Princeton...
kept the German and British forces under his command constantly on edge. Persistent attacks on Cornwallis's own regiment, the 33rd, prompted him to plan a significant retaliatory attack. In early spring 1777, Cornwallis surprised Benjamin Lincoln
Benjamin Lincoln
Benjamin Lincoln was an American army officer. He served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War...
's garrison at Bound Brook
Battle of Bound Brook
The Battle of Bound Brook was a surprise attack conducted by British and Hessian forces against a Continental Army outpost at Bound Brook, New Jersey during the American Revolutionary War. The British objective of capturing the entire garrison was not met, although prisoners were taken...
on April 13, very nearly capturing Lincoln. In June, General Howe ordered a movement in force into New Jersey apparently in an attempt to draw Washington into battle from a strong position in the Watchung Mountains
Watchung Mountains
The Watchung Mountains are a group of three long low ridges of volcanic origin, between 400 ft. and 500 ft. high, lying parallel to each other in northern New Jersey in the United States...
. This move failed, although Cornwallis very nearly cut off a portion of Washington's army in the June 26 Battle of Short Hills
Battle of Short Hills
The Battle of Short Hills was a conflict between a Continental Army force commanded by Brigadier General William Alexander , and an opposing British force commanded by Lieutenant General William Howe...
. These engagements had no long-term impact, and Howe withdrew is forces onto naval transports for an expedition to capture Philadelphia.
Philadelphia campaign
General Howe hoped that capturing Philadelphia, the rebel capital, would end the war at a stroke. Cornwallis was given command of the army's light infantry in the campaign, which got underway when the army disembarked at Head of Elk (now Elkton, MarylandElkton, Maryland
The town of Elkton is the county seat of Cecil County, Maryland, United States. The population was 11,893 as of the 2000 census and 14,842 according to current July 2008 census estimates. It is the county seat of Cecil County...
) on 25 August 1777. Advance units of Cornwallis's division were involved in the Battle of Cooch's Bridge
Battle of Cooch's Bridge
The Battle of Cooch's Bridge, also known as the Battle of Iron Hill, was a skirmish fought on September 3, 1777, between American militia and primarily German soldiers serving alongside the British Army during the American Revolutionary War...
on 3 September, as the army began its march northward. At the Battle of Brandywine
Battle of Brandywine
The Battle of Brandywine, also known as the Battle of the Brandywine or the Battle of Brandywine Creek, was fought between the American army of Major General George Washington and the British-Hessian army of General Sir William Howe on September 11, 1777. The British defeated the Americans and...
on 11 September, Howe and Cornwallis led the flanking movement that ultimately forced the Americans from their position. Cornwallis also played an important role in the Battle of Germantown
Battle of Germantown
The Battle of Germantown, a battle in the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War, was fought on October 4, 1777, at Germantown, Pennsylvania between the British army led by Sir William Howe and the American army under George Washington...
on 4 October, bringing up reinforcements late in the battle. When Howe sought to gain control over the Delaware River approaches to Philadelphia, Cornwallis was sent into New Jersey in November to secure Fort Mercer
Fort Mercer
Fort Mercer was one of two forts constructed in 1777 on the Delaware River during the American Revolutionary War, by the Continental Army, under the command of George Washington, to block the approach to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fort Mifflin, on the Pennsylvania side, and Fort Mercer, on the New...
after a failed Hessian assault
Battle of Red Bank
The Battle of Red Bank was a battle of the American Revolutionary War in which a Hessian force was sent to take Fort Mercer on the left bank of the Delaware River just south of Philadelphia, but was decisively defeated by a far inferior force of Colonial defenders...
. The Americans abandoned the fort as his column approached. General Howe then sent Cornwallis to probe Washington's position at White Marsh
Whitemarsh Township, Pennsylvania
Whitemarsh Township is a Home Rule Municipality in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, United States. However, it maintains its former classification of "Township" in its official name. The population was 17,349 at the 2010 census.-History:...
in December; these movements resulted in a series of inconclusive skirmishes
Battle of White Marsh
The Battle of White Marsh or Battle of Edge Hill was a battle of the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought December 5–8, 1777, in the area surrounding Whitemarsh Township, Pennsylvania...
. When the army entered winter quarters in Philadelphia, Cornwallis took his long-delayed leave, sailing for England on 13 December. In addition to spending several months with his devoted wife, he informed the government of affairs in the colonies and visited the families of his colleagues. He sailed from England on 21 April 1778, and arrived in Philadelphia in early June, after a crossing that was much more pleasant than his first in 1776.
During Cornwallis's absence, control of the British forces had passed to Henry Clinton on the resignation of General Howe; as a consequence, Cornwallis was now second in command in North America. After the surrender of John Burgoyne
John Burgoyne
General John Burgoyne was a British army officer, politician and dramatist. He first saw action during the Seven Years' War when he participated in several battles, mostly notably during the Portugal Campaign of 1762....
's army at Saratoga
Battle of Saratoga
The Battles of Saratoga conclusively decided the fate of British General John Burgoyne's army in the American War of Independence and are generally regarded as a turning point in the war. The battles were fought eighteen days apart on the same ground, south of Saratoga, New York...
and the entry of France
Kingdom of France
The Kingdom of France was one of the most powerful states to exist in Europe during the second millennium.It originated from the Western portion of the Frankish empire, and consolidated significant power and influence over the next thousand years. Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King, developed a...
into the war, the British decided to withdraw from Philadelphia to concentrate defenses in New York against the French threat. Cornwallis commanded the rearguard during the overland march from Philadelphia to New York City and played an important role in the Battle of Monmouth
Battle of Monmouth
The Battle of Monmouth was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on June 28, 1778 in Monmouth County, New Jersey. The Continental Army under General George Washington attacked the rear of the British Army column commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton as they left Monmouth Court...
on 28 June 1778. After a surprise attack on the British rearguard, Cornwallis launched a counter-attack which checked the American advance. However, when he then led elite units against an entrenched Continental Army position, it refused to budge, and Cornwallis was forced to withdraw with heavy casualties. Even though Clinton commended Cornwallis for his performance at Monmouth, he eventually came to blame the earl for failing to win the day.
After returning to New York, Cornwallis applied to Clinton for leave to return to England, where his wife was ill. Clinton, believing Cornwallis was well positioned to influence the political leadership to gain additional troops for the war effort, granted the leave, and Cornwallis returned to England in December 1778. Although he spent some time pleading Clinton's case, his wife's illness distracted him. Finding her in "a very weak state indeed", he stayed with her until she died on February 14, 1779. Cornwallis was devastated by the loss, reporting that her death had "effectually destroyed all my hopes of happiness in this world." He eventually decided to return to service in April 1779; in a letter to Clinton he offered to serve either in the southern colonies or the West Indies.
South Carolina
Cornwallis returned to America in July 1779, where he was to play a central role as the lead commander of the British "Southern strategy". At the end of 1779, Clinton and Cornwallis transported a large force south and initiated the second siege of CharlestonSiege of Charleston
The Siege of Charleston was one of the major battles which took place towards the end of the American Revolutionary War, after the British began to shift their strategic focus towards the American Southern Colonies. After about six weeks of siege, Continental Army Major General Benjamin Lincoln...
during the spring of 1780, which resulted in the surrender of the Continental forces under Benjamin Lincoln. Cornwallis and Clinton at first worked closely together during the siege, but their relationship deteriorated. Cracks had formed between the two as early as October 1776, when Cornwallis reported to General Howe critical comments that Clinton made about Howe's conduct at White Plains. Clinton also seemed to believe that one reason for Cornwallis's trips to England was to scheme for an independent command. Cornwallis as second in command held a dormant commission
Dormant commission
A dormant commission is a commission which lies dormant or sleeping until it is triggered by a particular event. The concept appears in the constitutional affairs of Commonwealth realm nations....
and would replace Clinton as commander in chief. He was aware that Clinton wanted to resign, but he did not want to be saddled with a difficult command situation should that occur. Cornwallis consequently avoided advising Clinton as much as possible, in order to avoid responsibility for poor outcomes. The deterioration in their relationship set the stage for some of their communication difficulties that resulted in Cornwallis's eventual surrender at Yorktown. In late April, Clinton detached a force under Cornwallis to ensure that the enemy's communications and supplies were interrupted around the city. Because of this, Cornwallis missed most of the siege bombardment and the surrender in May; forces directed by Cornwallis and led by Banastre Tarleton
Banastre Tarleton
General Sir Banastre Tarleton, 1st Baronet, GCB was a British soldier and politician.He is today probably best remembered for his military service during the American War of Independence. He became the focal point of a propaganda campaign claiming that he had fired upon surrendering Continental...
completed the encirclement of Charleston, skirmishing with the Americans at Monck's Corner
Battle of Monck's Corner
The Battle of Monck's Corner was fought on April 14, 1780, outside the city of Charleston, South Carolina, which was under siege by British forces under the command of General Sir Henry Clinton in the American Revolutionary War. The British Legion, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Banastre...
and Lenud's Ferry
Battle of Lenud's Ferry
The Battle of Lenud's Ferry was a battle of the American Revolutionary War that was fought on May 6, 1780 in present-day Berkeley County, South Carolina...
. After the American surrender Clinton ordered Cornwallis to secure South Carolina's interior, while Clinton organized control of Charleston. Not long after Tarleton defeated Abraham Buford
Abraham Buford
Abraham Buford was a Continental Army officer during the American Revolutionary War, best known as the commanding officer of the American forces at the Battle of Waxhaws.-Biography:...
's Virginia regiments at Waxhaw
Waxhaw massacre
The Battle of Waxhaws took place during the American Revolution on May 29, 1780, near Lancaster, South Carolina, between a Continental Army force led by Abraham Buford and a mainly Loyalist force led by Banastre Tarleton...
, Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis in command in the south.
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...
. Clinton wrote, "I should wish you to assist in operations which will certainly be carried on in the Chesapeake as soon as we are relieve from our apprehension of a superior fleet and the season will admit ..." However, Clinton provided Cornwallis with a relatively modest force of British, German, and provincial (Loyalist) regiments—about 3,000 men—with which to accomplish all of this. The forces he was given to accomplish this were limited by the necessity of keeping a large British force in New York under Clinton to shadow Washington. Cornwallis was expected to recruit more Loyalists, who were believed to be more numerous in the southern colonies.
After the fall of Charleston, Cornwallis set about establishing a British presence throughout South Carolina. Although he successfully established outposts, keeping communication and supply lines open was an ongoing challenge. Supplies not available locally (like uniforms, camp gear, arms, and ammunition) were delivered all too infrequently, and supply ships were frequent targets of local privateers. The weather that summer was rainy, turning the red clay
Ultisols
Ultisols, commonly known as red clay soils, are one of twelve soil orders in the United States Department of Agriculture soil taxonomy. They are defined as mineral soils which contain no calcareous material anywhere within the soil, have less than 10% weatherable minerals in the extreme top layer...
roads of the area into impassable mires. In order to help provide fresh food and forage for his troops, Cornwallis established two commissioners. The first was responsible for administering goods confiscated from Patriots (he avoided confiscating supplies from Loyalists since he depended on them for manpower and intelligence), and the second for administering land that was confiscated. A chronic shortage of hard currency (another supply only infrequently delivered to Charleston) made it difficult to purchase supplies from any source, either Patriot or Loyalist. Cornwallis also attempted to reestablish civil authority under British or Loyalist oversight. Although these attempts met with limited success, they were continually undermined by Patriot activity, both political and military, and the indifferent abuses of British and Loyalist forces. The latter took the form of militia companies that harassed Loyalists, small British units, and supply and communication lines.
In early August, Cornwallis was alerted by Lord Rawdon
Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings
Francis Edward Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings KG PC , styled The Honourable Francis Rawdon from birth until 1762 and as The Lord Rawdon between 1762 and 1783 and known as The Earl of Moira between 1793 and 1816, was an Irish-British politician and military officer who served as...
, the commander of the British garrison at Camden
Camden, South Carolina
Camden is the fourth oldest city in the U.S. state of South Carolina and is also the county seat of Kershaw County, South Carolina, United States. The population was an estimated 7,103 in 2009...
that a new southern Continental Army, this time under the command of Horatio Gates
Horatio Gates
Horatio Lloyd Gates was a retired British soldier who served as an American general during the Revolutionary War. He took credit for the American victory at the Battle of Saratoga – Benedict Arnold, who led the attack, was finally forced from the field when he was shot in the leg – and...
, was approaching from the north.
Cornwallis moved forces to Camden from Charleston, and on August 16 inflicted an embarrassing defeat on Gates at the Battle of Camden
Battle of Camden
The Battle of Camden was a major victory for the British in the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War...
. The relatively untried Continentals in Gates' army were routed, and suffered heavy casualties. This served to keep South Carolina clear of Continental forces, and was a blow to rebel morale. The victory added to his reputation, although the rout of the American rebels had as much to do with the failings of Gates (whose rapid departure from the battlefield was widely noted) as it did the skill of Cornwallis. In London, Cornwallis was perceived as a hero, and was viewed by many there as the right man to lead the British forces to victory over the rebels.
North Carolina
Cornwallis, buoyed by the victory at Camden, then prepared to advance north into North Carolina while militia activity, led by Thomas SumterThomas Sumter
Thomas Sumter nicknamed the "Carolina Gamecock" , was a hero of the American Revolution and went on to become a longtime member of the Congress of the United States.-Early life:Thomas Sumter was born near Charlottesville in Hanover County, Virginia in 1734...
and Francis Marion
Francis Marion
Francis Marion was a military officer who served in the American Revolutionary War. Acting with Continental Army and South Carolina militia commissions, he was a persistent adversary of the British in their occupation of South Carolina in 1780 and 1781, even after the Continental Army was driven...
, continued to harass the troops he left in South Carolina. He detached Patrick Ferguson
Patrick Ferguson
Major Patrick Ferguson was a Scottish officer in the British Army, early advocate of light infantry and designer of the Ferguson rifle. He is best known for his service in the 1780 military campaign of Charles Cornwallis, in which he aggressively recruited Loyalists and harshly treated Patriot...
, his inspector of militia, to raise a company of militia in the hills of North and South Carolina and cover his left flank. Ferguson was zealous in execution of this assignment, raising nearly 1,100 men. However, he angered many colonists by issuing threats to "lay their country waste with fire and sword" if they continued their opposition, and a Patriot militia arose to oppose him. While Ferguson recruited, Cornwallis moved his army to Charlotte, North Carolina
Charlotte, North Carolina
Charlotte is the largest city in the U.S. state of North Carolina and the seat of Mecklenburg County. In 2010, Charlotte's population according to the US Census Bureau was 731,424, making it the 17th largest city in the United States based on population. The Charlotte metropolitan area had a 2009...
, skirmishing
Battle of Charlotte
The Battle of Charlotte was an American Revolutionary War battle fought in Charlotte, North Carolina on September 26, 1780. The battle took place at the Mecklenburg County Court House, which is now the site of the Bank of America tower at Trade and Tryon Streets in downtown Charlotte...
with Patriot forces left there to harass his advance. Ferguson's Loyalists and the Patriot militia, led by a coalition of commanders, clashed at Kings Mountain
Battle of Kings Mountain
The Battle of Kings Mountain was a decisive battle between the Patriot and Loyalist militias in the Southern campaign of the American Revolutionary War...
in early October, two weeks after Cornwallis arrived in Charlotte. The battle was a disaster: Ferguson was killed, and nearly his entire force was killed or captured. Kings Mountain was only about 35 miles (56.3 km) from Charlotte, within Cornwallis's range to assist. The defeat, combined with other failures to raise Loyalist militia and ongoing Patriot activity in South Carolina, prompted Cornwallis to retreat to Winnsboro, South Carolina
Winnsboro, South Carolina
Winnsboro is a town in Fairfield County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 3,599 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Fairfield County. Winnsboro is part of the Columbia, South Carolina Metropolitan Statistical Area....
, where he set up a winter camp. Attempts to capture either Marion or Sumter were repeatedly frustrated. To reinforce his army, he ordered Major General Alexander Leslie, stationed at Portsmouth, Virginia
Portsmouth, Virginia
Portsmouth is located in the Hampton Roads metropolitan area of the U.S. Commonwealth of Virginia. As of 2010, the city had a total population of 95,535.The Norfolk Naval Shipyard, often called the Norfolk Navy Yard, is a historic and active U.S...
, to abandon that outpost and join him in South Carolina.
Valley Forge
Valley Forge in Pennsylvania was the site of the military camp of the American Continental Army over the winter of 1777–1778 in the American Revolutionary War.-History:...
in 1777. The army suffered from a general lack of supplies, but wagons and horses were in particularly short supply, and the earl discovered that his quartermasters were profiteering on the provisioning of those items. The methods by which horses were acquired also served to alienate their Loyalist friends, since the quartermasters were sometimes indiscriminate, seizing horses from Patriots and Loyalists alike. His supply lines were also continually harassed, particularly by Francis Marion. In November he ordered Tarleton out to capture Marion; the two commanders successfully maneuvered themselves out of entrapments laid by the other. Tarleton eventually returned to Cornwallis, reporting that Marion's force had been broken up; several days later, Marion resumed his guerrilla war.
The arrival in North Carolina of a new Continental Army under Major General Nathanael Greene
Nathanael Greene
Nathanael Greene was a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War. When the war began, Greene was a militia private, the lowest rank possible; he emerged from the war with a reputation as George Washington's most gifted and dependable officer. Many places in the United...
in December meant that the army would need to begin campaigning again. Although General Clinton had dispatched Brigadier General Benedict Arnold
Benedict Arnold
Benedict Arnold V was a general during the American Revolutionary War. He began the war in the Continental Army but later defected to the British Army. While a general on the American side, he obtained command of the fort at West Point, New York, and plotted to surrender it to the British forces...
to Virginia to threaten Greene's supply lines, Cornwallis needed to deal with the wily general. Greene had detached Brigadier General Daniel Morgan
Daniel Morgan
Daniel Morgan was an American pioneer, soldier, and United States Representative from Virginia. One of the most gifted battlefield tacticians of the American Revolutionary War, he later commanded troops during the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion.-Early years:Most authorities believe that...
with a light infantry corps to cause trouble in the highlands of South Carolina. Cornwallis sent Tarleton with a sizable force to chase down Morgan. In a tactically brilliant battle
Battle of Cowpens
The Battle of Cowpens was a decisive victory by Patriot Revolutionary forces under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan, in the Southern campaign of the American Revolutionary War...
at Hannah's Cowpens on January 17, 1781, Morgan decisively defeated Tarleton, capturing most of his force. News of the battle so upset the earl that he was reported to snap a sword. He wrote that "[T]he late affair has almost broke my heart", and vowed to recover the prisoners Morgan had taken. Immediately giving chase, he was unable to gain on Morgan, who, although burdened with prisoners, was not burdened by a large baggage train. Cornwallis, in a move calculated to force his army to be able to move faster, ordered most of his baggage train destroyed on January 24. Starting with the personal effects of himself and his officers, he ordered the burning everything except a very minimal set of supplies. Cornwallis's second in command, Charles O'Hara
Charles O'Hara
General Charles O'Hara was a British military officer who served in the Seven Years War, American War of Independence, and French Revolutionary War, and later served as Governor of Gibraltar...
, commented that the move "must ever do the greatest honor to Lord Cornwallis' military reputation".
This move inaugurated what has been called "race to the Dan". The Dan River
Dan River
The Dan River flows in the U.S. states of North Carolina and Virginia. It originates in Patrick County, Virginia, and crosses the state border into Stokes County, North Carolina. It then flows into Rockingham County. From there it goes back into Virginia. It reenters North Carolina near the...
separated Greene's army from his supply bases in Virginia, and Cornwallis wanted to catch Morgan before he and Greene could join forces, or before Greene could reach Virginia. In a rapid series of marches under extremely difficult conditions that tired out both armies, Greene and Morgan reunited their forces, and Greene made it across the flood-swollen Dan on February 13. Cornwallis decided to halt the pursuit, having effectively driven the Continentals from North Carolina, and returned to Hillsboro, where he again attempted to raise Loyalist militia.
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Coldstream Guards
Her Majesty's Coldstream Regiment of Foot Guards, also known officially as the Coldstream Guards , is a regiment of the British Army, part of the Guards Division or Household Division....
. General O'Hara protested the move, but Cornwallis said "This is a necessary evil which we must endure, to arrest the impending destruction." A final charge then broke the Americans, who disengaged, leaving their artillery on the field. Although Cornwallis had won the battle, he had lost a quarter of his army, and the survivors were exhausted.
Cornwallis, his forces reduced by the seemingly endless campaign, then moved to Wilmington
Wilmington, North Carolina
Wilmington is a port city in and is the county seat of New Hanover County, North Carolina, United States. The population is 106,476 according to the 2010 Census, making it the eighth most populous city in the state of North Carolina...
on the coast to resupply. Greene, whose army was still intact after the loss at Guilford Courthouse, crossed into South Carolina, where over the course of several months regained control over most of the state.
Cornwallis received dispatches in Wilmington informing him that another British army under Generals Phillips and Arnold had been sent to Virginia. He finally came to the conclusion that, in spite of orders that limited him to the Carolinas, he would best serve the British cause by going to Virginia to join his army with that of Phillips and Arnold. Writing after the campaign, he explained that he did not feel he could effectively support Lord Rawdon, who he had left in command in South Carolina, and that he would be unable to gain control of North Carolina until Virginia had been pacified. Since he had not received instructions from Clinton in some time, he wrote the general a letter specifically requesting direction: "I am very anxious to receive your Excellency's commands, being as yet totally in the dark as to the intended operations of the summer. I cannot help expressing my wishes that the Chesapeak may become the seat of war [...] North Carolina [...] is the most difficult of provinces to attack." He also wrote to Lord Germain arguing the case for operations in Virginia.
Virginia campaign
Cornwallis marched from Wilmington on April 25, sending orders to Phillips to meet him at Petersburg, VirginiaPetersburg, Virginia
Petersburg is an independent city in Virginia, United States located on the Appomattox River and south of the state capital city of Richmond. The city's population was 32,420 as of 2010, predominantly of African-American ethnicity...
. On his arrival at Petersburg on May 20, he learned that Phillips, an old friend of his, had died a week earlier of a fever. With his arrival and that of fresh troops from New York, the army that came under his command numbered about 7,200. It was opposed by a Continental Army contingent currently at Richmond
Richmond, Virginia
Richmond is the capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia, in the United States. It is an independent city and not part of any county. Richmond is the center of the Richmond Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Greater Richmond area...
under the command of the Marquis de Lafayette. Lafayette's force numbered 3,000, of which about two thirds were militia. He was also expecting to be reinforced soon by additional Continental Army troops from Pennsylvania led by Brigadier General Anthony Wayne
Anthony Wayne
Anthony Wayne was a United States Army general and statesman. Wayne adopted a military career at the outset of the American Revolutionary War, where his military exploits and fiery personality quickly earned him a promotion to the rank of brigadier general and the sobriquet of Mad Anthony.-Early...
.
Chasing Lafayette
Cornwallis, in the absence of instructions from Clinton, sought to execute the orders Clinton had given Phillips. These were to establish a naval station and to engage in raids against economic and military targets, and did not include any organized scheme of offense. Sending General Arnold, who complained of goutGout
Gout is a medical condition usually characterized by recurrent attacks of acute inflammatory arthritis—a red, tender, hot, swollen joint. The metatarsal-phalangeal joint at the base of the big toe is the most commonly affected . However, it may also present as tophi, kidney stones, or urate...
, back to New York, he set out in pursuit of the marquis on May 27. He also sent a letter to Clinton, outlining his preference for Yorktown
Yorktown, Virginia
Yorktown is a census-designated place in York County, Virginia, United States. The population was 220 in the 2000 census. It is the county seat of York County, one of the eight original shires formed in colonial Virginia in 1634....
over Portsmouth as the site of a naval station.
Lafayette, aware that he was not strong enough to oppose Cornwallis, fell back rapidly toward his supply base at Fredericksburg
Fredericksburg, Virginia
Fredericksburg is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia located south of Washington, D.C., and north of Richmond. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 24,286...
. When Cornwallis reached Hanover Court House he stopped the chase, and instead detached Tarleton and John Graves Simcoe
John Graves Simcoe
John Graves Simcoe was a British army officer and the first Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada from 1791–1796. Then frontier, this was modern-day southern Ontario and the watersheds of Georgian Bay and Lake Superior...
on two separate raiding expeditions. Tarleton he sent to raid Charlotteville, where the Virginia legislature was meeting, while he sent Simcoe to Point of Fork, where Baron von Steuben
Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben
Friedrich Wilhelm August Heinrich Ferdinand von Steuben , also referred to as the Baron von Steuben, was a Prussian-born military officer who served as inspector general and Major General of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War...
had a supply depot. Both expeditions were qualified successes; Tarleton very nearly captured Virginia governor Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson was the principal author of the United States Declaration of Independence and the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom , the third President of the United States and founder of the University of Virginia...
at his home of Monticello
Monticello
Monticello is a National Historic Landmark just outside Charlottesville, Virginia, United States. It was the estate of Thomas Jefferson, the principal author of the United States Declaration of Independence, third President of the United States, and founder of the University of Virginia; it is...
, while Simcoe managed to destroy a significant cache of supplies despite being outnumbered by von Steuben's force. While these raids went on, Lafayette and Wayne joined forces, and Lafayette was further reinforced by the arrival of about 600 experienced militia a few days later.
Cornwallis began to slowly move east toward Williamsburg, practically ignoring Lafayette. He periodically detached Simcoe or Tarleton on foraging and raiding expeditions as he went, and his main army reached Williamsburg on June 25. Lafayette, buoyed by his reinforcements, followed the earl, and began sending out detachments of his own light troops to bring at least part of the British army to battle. Learning that Simcoe was foraging behind the main army, Lafayette sent out 600 men to track him down before he could rejoin Cornwallis. These two forces clashed on June 26
Battle of Spencer's Ordinary
The Battle of Spencer's Ordinary was an inconclusive skirmish that took place on 26 June 1781, late in the American Revolutionary War. British forces under Lieutenant Colonel John Graves Simcoe and American forces under Colonel Richard Butler, light detachments from the armies of General Lord...
not far from Williamsburg, and Cornwallis escorted out reinforcements to cover Simcoe's retreat.
Confusing orders
At Williamsburg, Cornwallis received several letters from Clinton. Clinton was upset that Cornwallis had moved into Virginia, and ordered him to establish a suitable fortified point. He also ordered him to return any troops he could spare to New York. (This request, written in mid-June, reflected concern over the movements of the French army from Newport, Rhode IslandNewport, Rhode Island
Newport is a city on Aquidneck Island in Newport County, Rhode Island, United States, about south of Providence. Known as a New England summer resort and for the famous Newport Mansions, it is the home of Salve Regina University and Naval Station Newport which houses the United States Naval War...
to White Plains, New York
White Plains, New York
White Plains is a city and the county seat of Westchester County, New York, United States. It is located in south-central Westchester, about east of the Hudson River and northwest of Long Island Sound...
, and intelligence that General Washington was considering an attack on New York City.) Cornwallis reconnoitered Yorktown, and found it to be inadequate. He informed Clinton that he would move to Portsmouth, embark troops there for Clinton's use, and assess whether Portsmouth was a more suitable location for a naval station.
Cornwallis accordingly began moving his army toward Portsmouth. This necessitated crossing the wide James River
James River
The James River may refer to:Rivers in the United States and their namesakes* James River * James River , North Dakota, South Dakota* James River * James River * James River...
at Jamestown
Jamestown, Virginia
Jamestown was a settlement in the Colony of Virginia. Established by the Virginia Company of London as "James Fort" on May 14, 1607 , it was the first permanent English settlement in what is now the United States, following several earlier failed attempts, including the Lost Colony of Roanoke...
, a move the earl realized would give Lafayette an opportunity to attack. He decided to lay a trap for the marquis, who had come to the same conclusion when he noticed Cornwallis heading for the ferry. Lafayette's advance force, led by General Wayne, walked into the trap
Battle of Green Spring
The Battle of Green Spring took place near Green Spring Plantation in James City County, Virginia during the American Revolutionary War. On July 6, 1781 United States Brigadier General "Mad" Anthony Wayne, leading the advance forces of the Marquis de Lafayette, was ambushed near the plantation by...
, and only just escaped it, suffering 150 casualties.
On July 8 Cornwallis received orders from Clinton directing the troops he was planning to embark for a potential operation against Philadelphia. Upon his arrival at Suffolk
Suffolk, Virginia
Suffolk is the largest city by area in Virginia, United States, and is located in the Hampton Roads metropolitan area. As of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 84,585. Its median household income was $57,546.-History:...
he received further dispatches from Clinton, including some that predated others he had already received. Cornwallis decided to proceed with the embarkation of troops for Philadelphia. By July 20, some of these troops had boarded their transports when fresh orders arrived countermanding those for the Philadelphia expedition. He was now ordered to, if possible, recall any embarked troops, and instead do nothing beyond establishing a fortified naval station. He was "at full liberty to detain all the Troops now in Chesapeak" for the purpose. Cornwallis, after analyzing Portsmouth and several other options, chose Yorktown and Gloucester Point (across the York River
York River (Virginia)
The York River is a navigable estuary, approximately long, in eastern Virginia in the United States. It ranges in width from at its head to near its mouth on the west side of Chesapeake Bay. Its watershed drains an area including portions of 17 counties of the coastal plain of Virginia north...
from Yorktown) as the best of the choices for the station. On August 2, he disembarked his army at Yorktown, and began fortifying the area.
Trapped
While Cornwallis fortified, forces from the West Indies and the allied camp outside New York were preparing to converge on his position. With the arrival of the French fleet under the Comte de GrasseFrançois Joseph Paul de Grasse
Lieutenant Général des Armées Navales François-Joseph Paul, marquis de Grasse Tilly, comte de Grasse was a French admiral. He is best known for his command of the French fleet at the Battle of the Chesapeake, which led directly to the British surrender at Yorktown...
at the end of August, and the arrival General Washington's combined French-American army by late September, Cornwallis was trapped. After the Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
fleet under Admiral Thomas Graves
Thomas Graves, 1st Baron Graves
|-|-...
was defeated by the French at the 5 September Battle of the Chesapeake
Battle of the Chesapeake
The Battle of the Chesapeake, also known as the Battle of the Virginia Capes or simply the Battle of the Capes, was a crucial naval battle in the American War of Independence that took place near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on 5 September 1781, between a British fleet led by Rear Admiral Sir Thomas...
, and the French siege train arrived from Newport, his position became untenable.
On September 6, General Clinton wrote a letter to Cornwallis, telling him to expect reinforcements. Received by Cornwallis on September 14, this letter may have been instrumental in the decision by Cornwallis to remain at Yorktown and not try to fight his way out, despite the urging of Banastre Tarleton to break out against the comparatively weak Lafayette. The British military leadership in New York held a council on September 17 in which they agreed that Cornwallis could not be reinforced until they had regained control of the Chesapeake. Historian Richard Ketchum describes the decision of the council as leaving Cornwallis "dangling in the wind." One day earlier, Cornwallis wrote a desperate plea for help: "I am of the opinion that you can do me no effectual service but by coming directly to this place." Before dispatching the letter on the 17th, Cornwallis added, "If you cannot relieve me very soon, you must prepare to hear the worst".
The siege
Siege of Yorktown
The Siege of Yorktown, Battle of Yorktown, or Surrender of Yorktown in 1781 was a decisive victory by a combined assault of American forces led by General George Washington and French forces led by the Comte de Rochambeau over a British Army commanded by Lieutenant General Lord Cornwallis...
formally got underway on September 28. Despite a late attempt by Cornwallis to escape via Gloucester Point, the siege lines closed in on his positions and the allied cannons wrought havoc in the British camps, and on October 17 he opened negotiations to surrender. On that very day, the British fleet again sailed from New York, carrying 6,000 troops. Still outnumbered by the French fleet, they eventually turned back. A French naval officer, noting the British fleet's departure on October 29, wrote, "They were too late. The fowl had been eaten." Apparently not wanting to face Washington, Cornwallis claimed to be ill on October 19, the day of the surrender, and sent Brigadier General O'Hara in his place to formally surrender his sword. Washington had his second-in-command, Benjamin Lincoln, accept Cornwallis's sword.
Aftermath
Cornwallis returned to Britain with General Arnold, and they were cheered when they landed in England on January 21, 1782. In 1782 Henry LaurensHenry Laurens
Henry Laurens was an American merchant and rice planter from South Carolina who became a political leader during the Revolutionary War. A delegate to the Second Continental Congress, Laurens succeeded John Hancock as President of the Congress...
, a representative to the Continental Congress, was released from the Tower of London
Tower of London
Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, more commonly known as the Tower of London, is a historic castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London, England. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the eastern edge of the City of London by the open space...
in exchange for a promise to effect the release of Cornwallis from his parole. Laurens was unsuccessful in this, and Cornwallis was not formally freed until a preliminary peace was agreed in 1783. His tactics in America, especially during the southern campaign, were a frequent subject of criticism by his political enemies in London, especially General Clinton, who sought to blame Cornwallis for the failures. His dispute with Clinton was particularly public; both men published works critical of the other, and much of their correspondence in 1781 was made public as a result. However Cornwallis retained the confidence of King George III
George III of the United Kingdom
George III was King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of these two countries on 1 January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death...
and the British government.
Later career
In August 1785 Cornwallis attended manoeuvresMilitary exercise
A military exercise is the employment of military resources in training for military operations, either exploring the effects of warfare or testing strategies without actual combat...
in Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
along with the Duke of York where they encountered Frederick the Great and Cornwallis's Virginia opponent, the marquis de Lafayette. In 1786 he was appointed to be Commander-in-Chief of British India
Commander-in-Chief, India
During the period of the British Raj, the Commander-in-Chief, India was the supreme commander of the Indian Army. The Commander-in-Chief and most of his staff were based at General Headquarters, India, and liaised with the civilian Governor-General of India...
and Governor of the Presidency of Fort William, also known as the Bengal Presidency
Bengal Presidency
The Bengal Presidency originally comprising east and west Bengal, was a colonial region of the British Empire in South-Asia and beyond it. It comprised areas which are now within Bangladesh, and the present day Indian States of West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Meghalaya, Orissa and Tripura.Penang and...
. He served in these posts with distinction, enacting administrative reforms in the British East India Company
British East India Company
The East India Company was an early English joint-stock company that was formed initially for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but that ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent and China...
, and made changes to judicial, civil, and revenue administration in the company's territories that had significant long-term consequences. He returned to England in 1794, worn out from the difficult military campaigns of the Third Anglo-Mysore War
Third Anglo-Mysore War
The Third Anglo-Mysore War was a war in South India between the Sultanate of Mysore and the British East India Company and its allies, including the Mahratta Empire and the Nizam of Hyderabad...
, in which he led the first major British defeat of Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan , also known as the Tiger of Mysore, was the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. He was the son of Hyder Ali, at that time an officer in the Mysorean army, and his second wife, Fatima or Fakhr-un-Nissa...
.
After holding administrative posts in London, he was despatched to the Kingdom of Ireland
Kingdom of Ireland
The Kingdom of Ireland refers to the country of Ireland in the period between the proclamation of Henry VIII as King of Ireland by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 and the Act of Union in 1800. It replaced the Lordship of Ireland, which had been created in 1171...
in June 1798 after the Irish Rebellion
Irish Rebellion of 1798
The Irish Rebellion of 1798 , also known as the United Irishmen Rebellion , was an uprising in 1798, lasting several months, against British rule in Ireland...
broke out. In addition to mopping up most of the remnants of the rebellion, Cornwallis was instrumental in convincing the Irish Parliament to pass the Act of Union (1800). This was a critical step in uniting the British and Irish crowns, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom during the period when what is now the Republic of Ireland formed a part of it....
. Cornwallis resigned his posts in Ireland in 1801 after King George refused to support Catholic emancipation
Catholic Emancipation
Catholic emancipation or Catholic relief was a process in Great Britain and Ireland in the late 18th century and early 19th century which involved reducing and removing many of the restrictions on Roman Catholics which had been introduced by the Act of Uniformity, the Test Acts and the penal laws...
.
The king then sent Cornwallis to finalize a peace agreement with Napoleon, and signed the Treaty of Amiens
Treaty of Amiens
The Treaty of Amiens temporarily ended hostilities between the French Republic and the United Kingdom during the French Revolutionary Wars. It was signed in the city of Amiens on 25 March 1802 , by Joseph Bonaparte and the Marquess Cornwallis as a "Definitive Treaty of Peace"...
in March 1802 on behalf of the United Kingdom. In 1805 Cornwallis was again appointed to India. He died not long after his arrival, in October 1805. He is buried in Ghazipur
Ghazipur
Ghazipur , or Ghazipur City, previously spelt Ghazeepore, is a city/town and a municipal corporation and headquarter of Ghazipur district in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is the administrative headquarters of Ghazipur Division and Sub-division...
, the place where he died.