Berber kings of Roman-era Tunisia
Encyclopedia
During the Second Punic War
(218-201) Rome entered into alliance with Masinissa
, son of a Berber king. Masinissa had been driven out of his ancestral realm by a Carthage-backed Berber rival. At the defeat of Carthage Masinissa (r.202-148), a "friend of the Roman people", became King of Numidia for fifty years. For seven generations his line of kings continued its relationship with an increasingly powerful Roman state.
During this era, the Berbers ruled over many cities as well as extensive lands; the peoples under their governance enjoyed a general prosperity. Municipal and civic affairs were organized using a combination of Punic and Berber political traditions. One descendant king, a grandson of Masinissa, Jugurtha
(r.118-105), successfully attacked his cousin kings, who were also allies of Rome; thus he became Rome's enemy during a long struggle. In the Roman civil wars after the fall of the Roman Republic
(44 BC), Berber kings were courted for their military support by the contending political factions. Thereafter, Berber kings continued to reign, but had become merely clients of Imperial Rome
.
One such Berber king married the daughter of Cleopatra of Egypt. Yet he and his son, the last two Berber kings (reigns: 25 BC-40 AD), were not accepted by many of their own Berber subjects. During this period, Roman settlers increasingly were taking for their own use as farms, the traditional pasture lands of transhumant Berber tribes. Then the Romans were challenged, however, but not by these Berber kings.
The commoner Tacfarinas
raised a revolt in defense of Berber rights to the land. Tacfarinas became a great tribal chief as a result of his insurgency (17-24 AD) against Rome.
Previously Carthage had enjoyed fabled wealth through commerce. Accordingly the Punic city-state had once exerted great economic influence on the surrounding Berber polities and peoples. Yet Carthage directly ruled only an ample territory adjacent to the city, and its developed network of trading posts. These Punic enclaves were situated at short intervals along the Mediterranean coast of Africa from Tripolitania
westward. Thus the majority of Berbers, although within a commercial sphere dominated by Carthage, had been living in territories outside its direct political control.
Comparatively little history is known of the most ancient Berber peoples. Their inscriptions and artifacts do offer us clues and hints. The few surviving writings of Carthage, however, shed little light. Starting with the Punic Wars, Berbers are mentioned in surviving works of classical Greek and Roman authors. These sources provide occasional details in descriptions of Berber events.
During the three Punic Wars, Rome directly entered into permanent relations with the Berber people
. In the third war's aftermath, however, Rome turned its attention to the eastern Mediterranean. Then the fall of the Roman Republic
(510-44 BC) led to the Roman civil wars
, whose intermittent military actions and political strife worked to amplify the significance of the Berber kings. Amid the oscillating demands and shifting fortunes, Berber alliances were sought by rival Roman factions. Hence Berber relations with Rome became multivalent and fluid, characterized variously as, e.g., working alliance, functional ambivalence, partisan hostility, veiled maneuvering, fruitful intercourse. Yet during these years of Roman civil conflict, the political status of the Berber kings continued to erode. From that of independent sovereign
(Masinissa), the kings had become long-term allies; later their alliance
was required, eventually the kings were reduced to
.
When the last of these civil wars came to an end, there commenced the long reign of Augustus
(31 BC to 14 AD). Roman-Berber state-to-state relations were redefined. Berber kings then reigned adjacent to a triumphant Roman dominion which spanned the entire Mediterranean. Roman relation to the Berbers had thus evolved to that of patron
to client. Later in 40 AD, the last allied Berber kingdom was absorbed by the Empire. Thereafter, probably a majority of the Berber peoples lived within the political boundaries of the Roman world.
who then controlled two capitals, to the west Siga (near modern Oran
) and to the east Cirta
(modern Constantine
); and (3) the Massyli (south of Cirta, west and south of nearby Carthage) ruled by Gala [Gaia], father of Masinissa
. Massyli and eastern Masaesyli later were joined to become Numidia
, located in historic Tunisia. Here Masiniassa ruled and reigned. Following the Second Punic War, both Roman and Hellenic
states gave Masinissa the honors befitting an admired king.
Many prosperous cities were governed by the Berbers. A bilingual (Punic and Berber) urban inscription has been found, which concerns 2nd-century-BC Numidia, specifically from the ancient city of Thugga (modern Dougga, Tunisia), located inland from Carthage about 100 kilometers. The inscription indicates a complex city administration, with the Berber title GLD (cognate to modern Berber Aguellid, or paramount tribal chief
) designating the ruling municipal officer. This top position apparently rotated among the selected members of the leading Berber families. Since the Numidian titles of the offices mentioned (GLD, MSSKWI, GZBI, GLDGIML) were here not translated into Punic but left in a Berber language, it suggests an indigenous development. [These municipal titles are given using letters that represent only the consonant sounds, i.e., without indicating the vowel sounds, which is characteristic also of ancient Phoenician and other Semitic scripts (e.g., Aramaic).]
(c.240-148) was for many decades both well known and well regarded at Rome. He was the first and the most important of the early Berber leaders to undertake major relations with the Roman state. His family became what may be considered the royal house of Numidia
and vicinity for eight generations. A biligual inscription (in Punic and Libyan) from the city of Thugga, made a few years after his death, commences:
Masinissa was in Hispania
for several years early during the Second Punic War
(218-201), as a young commander of cavarlry for Carthage. There Masinissa had met discreetly with the Roman general Scipio
; eventually he went over to Rome. At the death of his father King Gala [Gaia], Masinissa returned home to Massyli, fighting against usurpers for the throne. Then a neighboring Berber king Syphax
invaded; Masinissa escaped to continue fighting from the countryside. When Scipio's armies later landed in Africa, Masinissa and his cavalry joined him. At the Battle of Zama
in 202, Masinissa led the right wing of Numidian cavalry for the Romans under Scipio Africanus
. At battle the cavalry while engaged in fighting had disappeared from Scipio's view. At a crucial moment Masinissa's Numidian and Roman cavalry suddenly returned to attack the Punic army and gain victory. Hannibal's defeat here ended the long conflict.
The ancient Roman writer Livy
(59 BC-AD 17) in his history of Rome, Ab urbe condita
, digresses a half-dozen pages to tell of Masinissa's personal career, turbulent and colorful, up to the Roman victory.
(Image temporarily disconnected): File:GM Massinissa.png|thumb|150px|right|Masinissa
(c.240-148).]]
In his history of Rome Ab urbe condita, Livy
(59-AD 17) provides some indication of the character and career of the Masinissa
the Berber king, during the era of the Second Punic War
. Livy tells us of Masinissa's early military services to Carthage and of his victory with Carthage over the Masaesyli led by Syphax; next, of his leading cavalry units for Carthage against Rome in Hispania
. Masinissa then switches sides to ally with Rome, and personally meets with Scipio Africanus
the celebrated Roman general in Hispania. Next follows the death of his father Gala the King of the Massyli, his return home where an usurpation takes over the kingdom of the Massyli, and subsequently his life as a guerilla leader in the mountains of Africa. By persistent struggle Masinissa regains his kingdom; but quickly comes an invasion by Syphax
who defeats him and takes over the Massyli kingdom, after which Masinissa escapes into the bush. Later, his forces find the army of Scipio who has landed in Africa; in battle they defeat an army of Carthage. Syphax is captured; Masinissa's envoys meet with the Roman Senate. Hannibal, recalled from Italy to defend Carthage
, fights the Battle of Zama
(202 BC) against the Roman army under Scipio, with Masinissa leading the cavalry on Scipio's right wing. Following victory, Masinissa is restored to his Massyli kingdom, then called Numidia
, where he will rule for fifty years.
That the Roman author Livy admired Masinissa is clear from his many favorable comments about the Berber king (constantissima fides). A modern Latin scholar summarizes here, citing Livy's Ab urbe condita:
Regarding Sophoniba, her story provides a perspective on the rivalry between the two kings, Syphax
of Masaesyli (west Numidia) and Masinissa of Massyli (east Numidia). Her story also sheds light on the relationship between Carthage and the Berbers, with particular reference to Rome. Livy
(59 BC-AD 17), the Roman historian, presents a rather detailed portrait of these circumstaces, especially events following the defeat of her husband Syphax. Such details may shed light on the personality of Masinissa, or at least on the world in which he lived. Yet ancient historians were not unfamiliar with propaganda and their readers expected them to recreate scenes, giving memorable, probable versions of what might have happened.
Sophoniba was the young and beautiful daughter of Hasdrubal Gisco
, a leading general of Carthage. To secure allegiance of the Berber kingdom of Massyli, she was pledged to Masinissa, but as he turned to Rome, she instead was given to his rival, the Berber king Syphax of neighboring Masaesyli, for similar purpose. Syphax then invaded Massyli, forcing Masinissa to flee. As the Second Punic War
neared its climax (which would be at Zama), Scipio
was landing his Roman armies in Africa, where Masinissa joined him. Syphax then quickly met defeat, with Masinissa triumphant. Here then, Sophoniba's attentions win the affection of Masinissa, and his allegiance; he quickly marries her, to present the Romans with a fait accompli. Days later Scipio persuades him that the politics of the Rome-Carthage conflict make his marriage to Sophoniba impossible; she must be taken to Rome. Sophoniba speaks with Masinissa, saying there is a bond between Carthaginian and Berber, both of Africa, as against Rome; reluctantly accepting that their marriage must end, she pleads with him that she not be humiliated. Masinissa agrees and gives her poison, which she takes. Hers may be compared to Dido's suicide 650 years earlier, but there Dido died to avoid marriage to the Mauretani
Berber leader Hiarbus. Here, however, Sophoniba married first Syphax, then Masinissa; it was not the Berber husband she refused; she rejected the ordeal of being paraded in a Roman triumph
.
A modern historian characterizes Masinissa, noting in particular his "tremendous ideal" of uniting the Berber peoples, which would motivate many of his actions during his long reign:
The isle of Delos was long famous as a cultural center of Ancient Greece
, where its deities and acclaimed mortals were honored. The three statues of Masinissa at Delos mentioned were erected on behalf of the kingdom of Bithynia
in Anatolia
, the isle of Rhodes
, and the city of Athens
. The Numidian king Masinissa was "treated, by the Romans as well as the Carthaginians, with all the honour due to Hellenistic monarchs." "He was a hero on a large scale." "As an established king, [Masinissa] carefully cultivated the image of the perfect Hellenistic monarch through his coinage and the participation of at least one of his sons in the Panathenaic games
."
After the Battle of Zama
(202), Masinissa became famous and was held in high esteem as a friend of the Roman people. For fifty years he ruled as King of Numidia
(lands west of Carthage) until his death in 148. During his reign farming and trade prospered, and the vital pulse of Berber culture quickened. Government institutions were established, evidently having an independent Berber origin, althouogh informed by Punic civil traditions; indeed, Masinissa now encouraged the cultural influence of Carthage. "The state, the life of the cites, art, religion, writing--all underwent a rapid process of Punicization." The language used at court was Punic. "He successfully developed agriculture and commerce, and encouraged the spread of Punic civilization."
Yet Masinissa also cultivated a grand vision in which he would unite all the Berbero-Libyan peoples from the frontiers of Egypt to the Atlantic. His expanionist actions became directed mainly against the surviving city-state of Carthage. Eventually Masinissa's aggressive designs managed to accomplish several major acquisitions of lands previously held by Carthage, not only at the proximous border of Numidia and Carthage, but extending also well south of Punic territory, in fact encompassing Mediterranean seaports in Tripolitania
to the east of Carthage. Indeed, his last war against Carthage turned out to be a prelude to the Third Punic War
(149-146). Here, Rome intervened and eventually besieged Carthage, and by Rome Carthage was destroyed.
A not altogether novel view would say bluntly that "Rome destroyed Carthage to prevent Masinissa from seizing it and becoming a Mediterranean power." Confronting the Roman siege, Carthage entrusted the defense of the city to one Hasdrubal
, a grandson of Masinissa. Accordingly, suspicions arose among the Romans about the elderly yet still able king, now in his nineties.
The ancient Numidian king died during this Third Punic War. The Greek historian Polybius
(c.200-118) wrote for him high praise in his Histories, what might be regarded as an obituary
for the celebrated Berber leader:
Yet Polybius continues: "Scipio
arrived in Cirta
two days after the king's death and set everything in order." One may interpret this closing remark as a sign of the great affection and care given this long-term friend of Rome, or merely as an important Roman politician-soldier's prudent attention to state interests after the death of a very important ally in time of war, or both. Livy
gives the Roman view of the king's character when he imagines Hasdrubal
saying of the young Numidian: "Masinissa was a man of far loftier spirit and far greater ability than had ever been seen in anyone of his nation. ...he had often given evidence to friends and enemies alike of a valour rare amongst men."
Micipsa
, Mastanabal, and Gulussa were Masinissa's three sons, among whom he divided his kingdom of Numidia, but only Micipsa endured; his two brothers soon fell victim to disease. Micipsa's reign lasted thirty years (148-118). Maicipsa continued the alliance with Rome, during which Numidia enjoyed relative peace and prosperity. His own two sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, were raised for the throne, but when still young they were joined by their older cousin Jugurtha, Mastanabal's illegitimate son. Jugurtha
's evident talents became a cause of concern to Micipsa, who then sent him to Hispania to serve the Romans in their war against Numantia
, which ended in 133. As a warrior Jugurtha performed very well, winning great favor among the Roman commanders, one of whom, Scipio Aemilianus, wrote a favorable letter to Micipsa. Upon his return Micipsa adopted Jugurtha and made him co-heir with his own two young sons. Sallust
's rendering of Scipio's letter:
At Micipsa's death in 118, the three became rulers of adjacent lands carved out of Numidia. Yet Jugurtha's suspicions were soon aroused. He had Hiempsal killed; then defeated Adherbal in battle. Rome intervened and, due to bribes paid by Jugurtha, merely caused the lands to be divided again. Eventually Jugurtha again attacked Adherbal, besieging him in the city of Cirta
. Rome again sent its agents to broker a settlement. But in 112 Jugurtha accepted the city's terms of surrender; nonetheless Adherbal was tortured and killed, and Italian traders there slaughtered. Jugurtha became King of all Numidia. Whether or not he then intended to "unite all the Berbers in a patriotic war" following the vision of Masinissa (see above) is uncertain.
To the west of Numidia was the Berber Kingdom of Mauretania
(in modern Algeria
), under the reign of Bocchus I
. Jugurtha married his daughter. Farther west Tingis (modern Tangier) was the capital of another Berber realm, comprising western Mauretania, under its King Bogud
, brother of Bocchus I. To the south of Numidia and Mauritania and Africa Province, lay the lands of the Berber Gaetulia
ns, who were not politically united. On these lands Berber pastoralist managed their flocks, and in lean years would naturally seek better paturage. A major advantage sought by Rome in its Numidian alliance was leverage in dealing with the other Berbers, in order to continue the peace. "[T]he policy of Rome appears to have been to co-opt the tribal leaders, and through them to control the tribes."
Africa Province became the scene of military actions involving key Roman leaders toward the end of the Roman Republic
(c.510-44 BC). Here Numidia played a significant rôle. That "a political and military importance was given to this state, such as no other client-state of Rome ever possessed... is shown by the share of Numidia in the civil wars of Rome." This appears to follow Livy's assessment of Masinissa given above. A modern Maghribi historian puts it differently: "The Berber princes let themselves be drawn into alliances with the leaders of the warring Roman factions." As a side result, Roman soldiers serving came to know first hand the fertile agricultural lands of the Province, where many as veterans would arrange to retire.
Jugurtha
(r.118-105), the Berber King of Numidia (to the west of the Province) and grandson of the revered king Masinissa
(r.202-148), became well known to his Roman allies. In part due to the favors he gave to Roman politicians, Jugurtha had managed to enlarge the scope of his power; yet eventually his dealings resulted in a notorious bribery scandal at Rome. Jugurtha's assassinations of his regal cousins, his military aggression and overreach, and his slaughter of Italian traders at Cirta
, led to war with Rome.
The war's prosecution involved the hands-on participation of two controversial Roman political and military leaders. Gaius Marius
celebrated his triumph
due to his success in finishing Rome's long war against Jugurtha. A wealthy novus homo
and populares, Marius was the first Roman general to enlist proletari (landless citizens) into his army; as a politician he was chosen Consul
an unprecedented seven times (107, 104-100, 86), but his career ended badly. On the opposing side politically, the optimate Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, later Consul (88, 80), and Dictator
(82-79), had served as quaestor
under Marius here in Numidia. In 106 Sulla bravely had persuaded Bocchus I
of Mauritania to hand over Jurgurtha, which ended the war. This conflict was later (c. 40 BC) described by the ancient Roman political writer Sallust
(86-35), in his well-known monograph Belum Jugurthinum
.
Thereafter Hiempsal II
(r.106-60) became king of Numidia (being a nephew of Jugurtha). During an armed phase of political-economic struggle for Rome between populares
then led by Marius and optimates
under Sulla, Hiempsal II
apparently favored the aristocratic Sulla. In 88 BC after Sulla's army entered Rome nearly unopposed, the aging Marius was forced to flee, landing in Africa for asylum. King Hiempsal welcomed Marius, but decided to hold his guest prisoner. Marius sensed the danger and effected his escape.
Later Hiempsal lost his crown for several years. The populares being led by Marius and Cinna
, allies of Cinna deposed Hiempsal favor of "a Numidian pretender named Iarbus". But Cinna was killed, and a shift in the Roman struggle favored the optimate Sulla who emerged victorious in November of 82. Marius committed suicide. Sulla sent the young Pompey
to Numidia to restore Hiempsal to the throne.
Decades later, the Numidian King Juba I (r.60-46) played a significant rôle in Rome's civil wars
, now being contested between Pompey
and Julius Caesar
. Juba I was king by descent (being in the line of the famous Masinissa (240-148), per Jugurtha, by Jugurtha's half-brother Gauda (king, 106-88), by Gauda's son Hiempsal II
(king thereafter), who was father of Juba I). In 47 BC, Julius Caesar and his forces landed in Africa in pursuit of Pompey's remnant army, which was headquartered at Utica
near Carthage. There they enjoyed the support of Juba I.
With Juba I at Utica was Cato 'Uticensis'
, praetor
in 54, a political leader of Caesar's optimate opponents. Cato was widely admired. Caesar's victory nearby at the Battle of Thapsus
almost put an end to this Roman civil war. Cato committed suicide by his sword. Juba I lost his kingdom and also committed suicide. Caesar annexed Numidia for Rome.
The Berber kings of Mauretania
, Bocchus II
of the east (roughly the modern Algerian coast), and his brother Bogud of the west (capital at Tingi, modern Tangier), both had favored Julius Caesar (100-44), while Juba I had opposed him (see above). Both had significantly aided Caesar's campaigns: Bogud fought with Caesar in the second Hispanic War; and in Africa, Bocchus II captured the Numidian capital city of Cirta
from Juba I. In the final Roman civil war (c. 34-30), the contest lay between Octavius and Marcus Antonius
. Bocchus II favored Octavius, Julius Caesar's adopted son, later renowned as Augustus; but Bogud inclined to Antonius. The victory of Augustus cost Bogud his kingdom. Before Bocchus II died, he had willed his kingdom to Rome.
Augustus
(imperial rule, 31 BC to AD 14) controlled the Roman state following the civil wars that marked the end of the Republic
(c.510-44). He established a quasi-constitutional regime known as the Principate
, commonly included as the first phase of the Empire
. Roman actions in Africa throughout their period of civil wars are subjected to harsh criticism by a modern Maghribi historian, Abdallah Laroui, who notes the cummulative lands lost by Berbers to Romans, and how the Romans had steadily steered events to their benefit.
About 26 BC, Augustus at Rome moved to "restore" the Berber royal line of Masinissa, by installing Juba II
(son of Juba I) on the throne—yet not as King of Numidia, but of Mauritania
(west of Numidia). Captured as a youth, raised and educated at Rome, a personal friend of Augustus, Juba II transparently became a client king of the Empire. "[A]n artificial monarchy: imposed by Rome on an area which his family had never governed." Juba II as "a Greek man of letters" wrote books on the culture and history of Africa, including one very popular about Arabia, writings unfortunately lost. He married well: Cleopatra Selene II, the daughter of Marcus Antonius, consul (44, 34) and triumvir (43-38, 37-33), and Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic Queen of Egypt; she was also raised at Rome. Their new capital of Greco-Roman style was established on the coast, Iol Caesarea. Intended to serve as a buffer between Roman Africa and Berber tribes south of the frontier, Juba II was never accepted by the more tribal among the kingdom's Gaetulia
n Berbers; many of them not only resisted taxation but joined an anti-Roman insurgency. Yet he did enjoy a long reign (r.25 BC - AD 23) under Roman sponsorship and support.
The unpopular reign of his son Ptolemy [Ptolemaeus] (r.23-40) provoked an increase in active Berber support for the rebel Tacfarinas (see below). Ptolemy himself assisted the armed forces of the Roman governor of Numidia against this wide-scale insurgency (17-24). Later, in 40 on a visit to Rome, Ptolemy was assassinated by order of the notorious Emperor Caligula. Following his death, the Gaetulians of Mauritania rebelled, which Rome eventually quelled. Ptolemy's kingdom and other lands to the west were annexed by the Empire as the Provinces of Mauritania Caesaria
(approximately the central and western coast of modern Algeria), and Mauritania Tingitana (northern Morocco). Thus ended, in its seventh generation, the line of Masinissa.
. Eventually he led a large tribal confederacy, with assistance from neighboring Berber kingdoms, which for many years sustained a major conflict against Rome.
Events of the insurgency of Tacfarinas
, which persisted during the years 17 to 24, and of the Roman campaign against him, appear in the well-known Annals
of the Roman historian Tacitus
(c.55-c.117). Parallels have been drawn to a previous Roman campaign in Numidia against Jugurtha
(r.118-105) the Berber king, recorded by the Roman historian Sallust
. It has been long alleged that both historians allow ancient Roman political concerns to distort and obscure the reality of the Berber situation and the Berber leaders.
Tacfarinas, as a commoner of Numidia
, served for a time in the Roman Army occupying its imperial Africa Province
, but he later deserted. His loyalty lay with his tribe the Musulamii
, pastoralists who practiced transhumance
, i.e., wintering their herds in the dryer south, but in summer moving the livestock in herds northward to better watered lands.
Throughout the Empire news of the fertile soils of Africa eventually spread, as if an invitation to people looking for agricultural opportunities. Accordingly, many ordinary Italians and various peoples of the Empire immigrated here to work and live; the wealthy sent agents with investment funds to purchase and manage the land; those with political influence might be similarly favored. Ownership of public land was considered Roman by right of conquest
; for local private real estate, citizens had to pay the Roman stipendium tax.
Lands of the north, formerly open to summer seasonal grazing, began to be taken and transformed into farms. Hence it would happen that in late spring tribes of pastoral
Berbers would arrive where they considered their customary grazing lands
to be, only to be told that the land was now entirely owned by another, a planter, who refused them permission to graze and water their herds. The new, often large, agricultural operations
produced grain for export, which quickly became highly profitable. The two opposing sides became thus became firmly committed each to their interests.
In the countryside Tacfarinas
raised and led an armed revolt. At first the Romans dismissed him as a bandit. Using Roman methods, Tacfarinas trained the tribal warriors into military formations, and his initial success made him tribal chief. Other Berber tribes from Numidia and Mauretania
joined. The Roman Army
, tasked to defeat him, offered battle. Tacfarinas accepted, but was routed. The next year Tacfarinas began attacking and looting the new settlers and villages, as told in the account given by Tacitus
. Then the insurgents surrounded a Roman regular battalion, who abandoned its commander, yet survived the battle though disgraced; this battalion was later decimated as punishment by the Roman governor. Grown wealthy with loot, Tacfarinas set up a permanent base. There he was attacked and defeated by the Romans; but he escaped into the desert.
Tacfarinas raised new forces from the countryside, although now offering to negotiate: land for peace. "The Numidian leader took up arms to force the all-powerful emperor to recognize his people's right to land." The Emperor Tiberius
became furious at this no-account commoner, who in offering terms acted like a king. Instead the Romans offered pardon to rebels who surrendered; they also set up counter-insurgency style operations, with many strategic forts and small armed patrols, which checked the rebels for awhile. Tiberius, misperceiving the situation, awarded the Roman commander a victory triumph
in the year 22. Nonetheless, Tacfarinas renewed the fight as strong as ever. He led the forces of his tribe, together with allies from Numidia and Mauretania, with additional assistance from the Berber Garamentes. Tacfarinas also spread persuasive anti-Roman propanganda. In the year 24, however, following field intelligence, Roman forces surprised the secret camp of Tacfarinas who died fighting. In the south of Africa Province, smaller-scale Berber insurgencies continued, off and on, hot and cold, for centuries.
Places:
People:
Second Punic War
The Second Punic War, also referred to as The Hannibalic War and The War Against Hannibal, lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean. This was the second major war between Carthage and the Roman Republic, with the participation of the Berbers on...
(218-201) Rome entered into alliance with Masinissa
Masinissa
Masinissa — also spelled Massinissa and Massena — was the first King of Numidia, an ancient North African nation of ancient Libyan tribes. As a successful general, Masinissa fought in the Second Punic War , first against the Romans as an ally of Carthage an later switching sides when he saw which...
, son of a Berber king. Masinissa had been driven out of his ancestral realm by a Carthage-backed Berber rival. At the defeat of Carthage Masinissa (r.202-148), a "friend of the Roman people", became King of Numidia for fifty years. For seven generations his line of kings continued its relationship with an increasingly powerful Roman state.
During this era, the Berbers ruled over many cities as well as extensive lands; the peoples under their governance enjoyed a general prosperity. Municipal and civic affairs were organized using a combination of Punic and Berber political traditions. One descendant king, a grandson of Masinissa, Jugurtha
Jugurtha
Jugurtha or Jugurthen was a King of Numidia, , born in Cirta .-Background:Until the reign of Jugurtha's grandfather Masinissa, the people of Numidia were semi-nomadic and indistinguishable from the other Libyans in North Africa...
(r.118-105), successfully attacked his cousin kings, who were also allies of Rome; thus he became Rome's enemy during a long struggle. In the Roman civil wars after the fall of the Roman Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
(44 BC), Berber kings were courted for their military support by the contending political factions. Thereafter, Berber kings continued to reign, but had become merely clients of Imperial Rome
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
.
One such Berber king married the daughter of Cleopatra of Egypt. Yet he and his son, the last two Berber kings (reigns: 25 BC-40 AD), were not accepted by many of their own Berber subjects. During this period, Roman settlers increasingly were taking for their own use as farms, the traditional pasture lands of transhumant Berber tribes. Then the Romans were challenged, however, but not by these Berber kings.
The commoner Tacfarinas
Tacfarinas
Tacfarinas was a Numidian deserter from the Roman army who led his own Musulamii tribe and a loose and changing coalition of other Ancient Libyan tribes in a war against the Romans in North Africa during the rule of emperor Tiberius .Although Tacfarinas' personal motivation is unknown, it is...
raised a revolt in defense of Berber rights to the land. Tacfarinas became a great tribal chief as a result of his insurgency (17-24 AD) against Rome.
Rome and the Berber kings
In the third and final Punic war (149-146), Roman forces lay siege to the great city of Carthage. When it fell to the Romans the great city had become mostly a burning ruin, ending in tragedy the long rivalry between the two major powers of the western Mediterranean. Rome annexed Carthage and its immediate vicinity. Surrounding territories remained in Berber hands, specifically in those of King Masinissa, an ally of Rome. Thereafter, independent Berber kings were courted by Rome.Previously Carthage had enjoyed fabled wealth through commerce. Accordingly the Punic city-state had once exerted great economic influence on the surrounding Berber polities and peoples. Yet Carthage directly ruled only an ample territory adjacent to the city, and its developed network of trading posts. These Punic enclaves were situated at short intervals along the Mediterranean coast of Africa from Tripolitania
Tripolitania
Tripolitania or Tripolitana is a historic region and former province of Libya.Tripolitania was a separate Italian colony from 1927 to 1934...
westward. Thus the majority of Berbers, although within a commercial sphere dominated by Carthage, had been living in territories outside its direct political control.
During the three Punic Wars, Rome directly entered into permanent relations with the Berber people
Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
. In the third war's aftermath, however, Rome turned its attention to the eastern Mediterranean. Then the fall of the Roman Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
(510-44 BC) led to the Roman civil wars
Roman civil wars
There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the late Republic. The most famous of these are the war in the 40s BC between Julius Caesar and the optimate faction of the senatorial elite initially led by Pompey and the subsequent war between Caesar's successors, Octavian and Mark Antony in...
, whose intermittent military actions and political strife worked to amplify the significance of the Berber kings. Amid the oscillating demands and shifting fortunes, Berber alliances were sought by rival Roman factions. Hence Berber relations with Rome became multivalent and fluid, characterized variously as, e.g., working alliance, functional ambivalence, partisan hostility, veiled maneuvering, fruitful intercourse. Yet during these years of Roman civil conflict, the political status of the Berber kings continued to erode. From that of independent sovereign
Sovereign
A sovereign is the supreme lawmaking authority within its jurisdiction.Sovereign may also refer to:*Monarch, the sovereign of a monarchy*Sovereign Bank, banking institution in the United States*Sovereign...
(Masinissa), the kings had become long-term allies; later their alliance
Alliance
An alliance is an agreement or friendship between two or more parties, made in order to advance common goals and to secure common interests.See also military alliance and business alliance.-International relations:...
was required, eventually the kings were reduced to
Patronage in ancient Rome
Patronage was the distinctive relationship in ancient Roman society between the patronus and his client . The relationship was hierarchical, but obligations were mutual. The patronus was the protector, sponsor, and benefactor of the client...
.
When the last of these civil wars came to an end, there commenced the long reign of Augustus
Augustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
(31 BC to 14 AD). Roman-Berber state-to-state relations were redefined. Berber kings then reigned adjacent to a triumphant Roman dominion which spanned the entire Mediterranean. Roman relation to the Berbers had thus evolved to that of patron
Patronus
Patronus may refer to:* the patronus or patron in ancient Roman society; see Patronage in ancient Rome* the apparition produced by the Patronus Charm in the Harry Potter series of books and movies...
to client. Later in 40 AD, the last allied Berber kingdom was absorbed by the Empire. Thereafter, probably a majority of the Berber peoples lived within the political boundaries of the Roman world.
Nature of the Berber regimes
Circa 220 BC, three large kingdoms had arisen among the Berbers. These Berbers, independent yet markedly influenced by Punic civilization, had nonetheless endured, their culture surviving during the long reign of Carthage. West to east the kingdoms were: (1) the Mauri (in modern Morocco) under king Baga; (2) the Masaesyli (in north Algeria) under SyphaxSyphax
Syphax was a king of the ancient Algerian tribe Masaesyli of western Numidia during the last quarter of the 3rd century BC. His story is told in Livy's Ab Urbe Condita .-Biography:...
who then controlled two capitals, to the west Siga (near modern Oran
Oran
Oran is a major city on the northwestern Mediterranean coast of Algeria, and the second largest city of the country.It is the capital of the Oran Province . The city has a population of 759,645 , while the metropolitan area has a population of approximately 1,500,000, making it the second largest...
) and to the east Cirta
Cirta
Cirta was the capital city of the ancient Kingdom of Numidia in northern Africa . Its strategically important port city was Russicada...
(modern Constantine
Constantine, Algeria
Constantine is the capital of Constantine Province in north-eastern Algeria. It was the capital of the same-named French département until 1962. Slightly inland, it is about 80 kilometres from the Mediterranean coast, on the banks of Rhumel river...
); and (3) the Massyli (south of Cirta, west and south of nearby Carthage) ruled by Gala [Gaia], father of Masinissa
Masinissa
Masinissa — also spelled Massinissa and Massena — was the first King of Numidia, an ancient North African nation of ancient Libyan tribes. As a successful general, Masinissa fought in the Second Punic War , first against the Romans as an ally of Carthage an later switching sides when he saw which...
. Massyli and eastern Masaesyli later were joined to become Numidia
Numidia
Numidia was an ancient Berber kingdom in part of present-day Eastern Algeria and Western Tunisia in North Africa. It is known today as the Chawi-land, the land of the Chawi people , the direct descendants of the historical Numidians or the Massyles The kingdom began as a sovereign state and later...
, located in historic Tunisia. Here Masiniassa ruled and reigned. Following the Second Punic War, both Roman and Hellenic
Hellenic
Hellenic is a synonym for Greek and may refer to:* Hellenic languages* Hellenic Airlines* Hellenic College, a liberal arts college in Brookline, Massachusetts* Hellenic College of London* Hellenic FC, a football club in South Africa...
states gave Masinissa the honors befitting an admired king.
Many prosperous cities were governed by the Berbers. A bilingual (Punic and Berber) urban inscription has been found, which concerns 2nd-century-BC Numidia, specifically from the ancient city of Thugga (modern Dougga, Tunisia), located inland from Carthage about 100 kilometers. The inscription indicates a complex city administration, with the Berber title GLD (cognate to modern Berber Aguellid, or paramount tribal chief
Tribal chief
A tribal chief is the leader of a tribal society or chiefdom. Tribal societies with social stratification under a single leader emerged in the Neolithic period out of earlier tribal structures with little stratification, and they remained prevalent throughout the Iron Age.In the case of ...
) designating the ruling municipal officer. This top position apparently rotated among the selected members of the leading Berber families. Since the Numidian titles of the offices mentioned (GLD, MSSKWI, GZBI, GLDGIML) were here not translated into Punic but left in a Berber language, it suggests an indigenous development. [These municipal titles are given using letters that represent only the consonant sounds, i.e., without indicating the vowel sounds, which is characteristic also of ancient Phoenician and other Semitic scripts (e.g., Aramaic).]
Masinissa, and Syphax
The Berber King MasinissaMasinissa
Masinissa — also spelled Massinissa and Massena — was the first King of Numidia, an ancient North African nation of ancient Libyan tribes. As a successful general, Masinissa fought in the Second Punic War , first against the Romans as an ally of Carthage an later switching sides when he saw which...
(c.240-148) was for many decades both well known and well regarded at Rome. He was the first and the most important of the early Berber leaders to undertake major relations with the Roman state. His family became what may be considered the royal house of Numidia
Numidia
Numidia was an ancient Berber kingdom in part of present-day Eastern Algeria and Western Tunisia in North Africa. It is known today as the Chawi-land, the land of the Chawi people , the direct descendants of the historical Numidians or the Massyles The kingdom began as a sovereign state and later...
and vicinity for eight generations. A biligual inscription (in Punic and Libyan) from the city of Thugga, made a few years after his death, commences:
"The citizens Thugga have built this temple to king Masinissa, son of the king Gaia, son of the sufete Zilasan, in the year ten of Micipsa." Here the office translated "king" was written GLD (cognate to modern Berber "agellid" [paramount tribal chief]). The throne came to Masinissa in a roundabout way (father to uncle to cousin to him). The "sufete" (HebrewHebrew languageHebrew is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Culturally, is it considered by Jews and other religious groups as the language of the Jewish people, though other Jewish languages had originated among diaspora Jews, and the Hebrew language is also used by non-Jewish groups, such...
: Shophet) was a Punic title often translated as "judge" as in the biblical Book of JudgesBook of JudgesThe Book of Judges is the seventh book of the Hebrew bible and the Christian Old Testament. Its title describes its contents: it contains the history of Biblical judges, divinely inspired prophets whose direct knowledge of Yahweh allows them to act as decision-makers for the Israelites, as...
, Hebrew being a sister Semitic language to PunicPunic languageThe Punic language or Carthagian language is an extinct Semitic language formerly spoken in the Mediterranean region of North Africa and several Mediterranean islands, by people of the Punic culture.- Description :...
. King MicipsaMicipsaMicipsa was the eldest legitimate son of Masinissa, the King of Numidia, in the Ancient Algerian Maghreb of North Africa. He became the King of Numidia.-Early life:...
was the son of Masinissa.
Hispania
Another theory holds that the name derives from Ezpanna, the Basque word for "border" or "edge", thus meaning the farthest area or place. Isidore of Sevilla considered Hispania derived from Hispalis....
for several years early during the Second Punic War
Second Punic War
The Second Punic War, also referred to as The Hannibalic War and The War Against Hannibal, lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean. This was the second major war between Carthage and the Roman Republic, with the participation of the Berbers on...
(218-201), as a young commander of cavarlry for Carthage. There Masinissa had met discreetly with the Roman general Scipio
Scipio Africanus
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus , also known as Scipio Africanus and Scipio the Elder, was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic...
; eventually he went over to Rome. At the death of his father King Gala [Gaia], Masinissa returned home to Massyli, fighting against usurpers for the throne. Then a neighboring Berber king Syphax
Syphax
Syphax was a king of the ancient Algerian tribe Masaesyli of western Numidia during the last quarter of the 3rd century BC. His story is told in Livy's Ab Urbe Condita .-Biography:...
invaded; Masinissa escaped to continue fighting from the countryside. When Scipio's armies later landed in Africa, Masinissa and his cavalry joined him. At the Battle of Zama
Battle of Zama
The Battle of Zama, fought around October 19, 202 BC, marked the final and decisive end of the Second Punic War. A Roman army led by Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus defeated a Carthaginian force led by the legendary commander Hannibal...
in 202, Masinissa led the right wing of Numidian cavalry for the Romans under Scipio Africanus
Scipio Africanus
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus , also known as Scipio Africanus and Scipio the Elder, was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic...
. At battle the cavalry while engaged in fighting had disappeared from Scipio's view. At a crucial moment Masinissa's Numidian and Roman cavalry suddenly returned to attack the Punic army and gain victory. Hannibal's defeat here ended the long conflict.
The ancient Roman writer Livy
Livy
Titus Livius — known as Livy in English — was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people. Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Chapters from the Foundation of the City," covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC...
(59 BC-AD 17) in his history of Rome, Ab urbe condita
Ab urbe condita
Ab urbe condita is Latin for "from the founding of the City ", traditionally set in 753 BC. AUC is a year-numbering system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years...
, digresses a half-dozen pages to tell of Masinissa's personal career, turbulent and colorful, up to the Roman victory.
(Image temporarily disconnected): File:GM Massinissa.png|thumb|150px|right|Masinissa
Masinissa
Masinissa — also spelled Massinissa and Massena — was the first King of Numidia, an ancient North African nation of ancient Libyan tribes. As a successful general, Masinissa fought in the Second Punic War , first against the Romans as an ally of Carthage an later switching sides when he saw which...
(c.240-148).]]
In his history of Rome Ab urbe condita, Livy
Livy
Titus Livius — known as Livy in English — was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people. Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Chapters from the Foundation of the City," covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC...
(59-AD 17) provides some indication of the character and career of the Masinissa
Masinissa
Masinissa — also spelled Massinissa and Massena — was the first King of Numidia, an ancient North African nation of ancient Libyan tribes. As a successful general, Masinissa fought in the Second Punic War , first against the Romans as an ally of Carthage an later switching sides when he saw which...
the Berber king, during the era of the Second Punic War
Second Punic War
The Second Punic War, also referred to as The Hannibalic War and The War Against Hannibal, lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean. This was the second major war between Carthage and the Roman Republic, with the participation of the Berbers on...
. Livy tells us of Masinissa's early military services to Carthage and of his victory with Carthage over the Masaesyli led by Syphax; next, of his leading cavalry units for Carthage against Rome in Hispania
Hispania
Another theory holds that the name derives from Ezpanna, the Basque word for "border" or "edge", thus meaning the farthest area or place. Isidore of Sevilla considered Hispania derived from Hispalis....
. Masinissa then switches sides to ally with Rome, and personally meets with Scipio Africanus
Scipio Africanus
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus , also known as Scipio Africanus and Scipio the Elder, was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic...
the celebrated Roman general in Hispania. Next follows the death of his father Gala the King of the Massyli, his return home where an usurpation takes over the kingdom of the Massyli, and subsequently his life as a guerilla leader in the mountains of Africa. By persistent struggle Masinissa regains his kingdom; but quickly comes an invasion by Syphax
Syphax
Syphax was a king of the ancient Algerian tribe Masaesyli of western Numidia during the last quarter of the 3rd century BC. His story is told in Livy's Ab Urbe Condita .-Biography:...
who defeats him and takes over the Massyli kingdom, after which Masinissa escapes into the bush. Later, his forces find the army of Scipio who has landed in Africa; in battle they defeat an army of Carthage. Syphax is captured; Masinissa's envoys meet with the Roman Senate. Hannibal, recalled from Italy to defend Carthage
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
, fights the Battle of Zama
Battle of Zama
The Battle of Zama, fought around October 19, 202 BC, marked the final and decisive end of the Second Punic War. A Roman army led by Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus defeated a Carthaginian force led by the legendary commander Hannibal...
(202 BC) against the Roman army under Scipio, with Masinissa leading the cavalry on Scipio's right wing. Following victory, Masinissa is restored to his Massyli kingdom, then called Numidia
Numidia
Numidia was an ancient Berber kingdom in part of present-day Eastern Algeria and Western Tunisia in North Africa. It is known today as the Chawi-land, the land of the Chawi people , the direct descendants of the historical Numidians or the Massyles The kingdom began as a sovereign state and later...
, where he will rule for fifty years.
That the Roman author Livy admired Masinissa is clear from his many favorable comments about the Berber king (constantissima fides). A modern Latin scholar summarizes here, citing Livy's Ab urbe condita:
"Masinissa is in fact a foreigner with almost all the Roman virtues. He is religious, for he tells Scipio that he was awaiting any chance to [leave Carthage for Rome] which 'the kindness of the immortal gods offered'. As a general he shows forethought, but also boldness. At Scipio's command, he controls his wayward passions by administering poison to Sophoniba [wife of Syphax]. Above all, his valour is conspicuous; even at age ninety-two, just before the Third Punic War, he leads his army to defeat the Carthaginians. Masinissa is one of Livy's great heroes, and throughout the fourth decade [Livy's books XXX to XL] he is mentioned in speeches as an example to the peoples of the East of all that a king-ally should be. HasdrubalHasdrubal GiscoHasdrubal Gisco or Hasdrubal son of Gisco was a Carthaginian general who fought against Rome in Iberia and North Africa during the Second Punic War. He should not be confused with Hasdrubal Barca, the brother of Hannibal....
is made to say: 'There is greater talent of nature and mind in Masinissa that in any previous member of his race.' And Livy calls him 'by far the greatest king of his day'."
Regarding Sophoniba, her story provides a perspective on the rivalry between the two kings, Syphax
Syphax
Syphax was a king of the ancient Algerian tribe Masaesyli of western Numidia during the last quarter of the 3rd century BC. His story is told in Livy's Ab Urbe Condita .-Biography:...
of Masaesyli (west Numidia) and Masinissa of Massyli (east Numidia). Her story also sheds light on the relationship between Carthage and the Berbers, with particular reference to Rome. Livy
Livy
Titus Livius — known as Livy in English — was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people. Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Chapters from the Foundation of the City," covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC...
(59 BC-AD 17), the Roman historian, presents a rather detailed portrait of these circumstaces, especially events following the defeat of her husband Syphax. Such details may shed light on the personality of Masinissa, or at least on the world in which he lived. Yet ancient historians were not unfamiliar with propaganda and their readers expected them to recreate scenes, giving memorable, probable versions of what might have happened.
Hasdrubal Gisco
Hasdrubal Gisco or Hasdrubal son of Gisco was a Carthaginian general who fought against Rome in Iberia and North Africa during the Second Punic War. He should not be confused with Hasdrubal Barca, the brother of Hannibal....
, a leading general of Carthage. To secure allegiance of the Berber kingdom of Massyli, she was pledged to Masinissa, but as he turned to Rome, she instead was given to his rival, the Berber king Syphax of neighboring Masaesyli, for similar purpose. Syphax then invaded Massyli, forcing Masinissa to flee. As the Second Punic War
Second Punic War
The Second Punic War, also referred to as The Hannibalic War and The War Against Hannibal, lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean. This was the second major war between Carthage and the Roman Republic, with the participation of the Berbers on...
neared its climax (which would be at Zama), Scipio
Scipio Africanus
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus , also known as Scipio Africanus and Scipio the Elder, was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic...
was landing his Roman armies in Africa, where Masinissa joined him. Syphax then quickly met defeat, with Masinissa triumphant. Here then, Sophoniba's attentions win the affection of Masinissa, and his allegiance; he quickly marries her, to present the Romans with a fait accompli. Days later Scipio persuades him that the politics of the Rome-Carthage conflict make his marriage to Sophoniba impossible; she must be taken to Rome. Sophoniba speaks with Masinissa, saying there is a bond between Carthaginian and Berber, both of Africa, as against Rome; reluctantly accepting that their marriage must end, she pleads with him that she not be humiliated. Masinissa agrees and gives her poison, which she takes. Hers may be compared to Dido's suicide 650 years earlier, but there Dido died to avoid marriage to the Mauretani
Mauretania
Mauretania is a part of the historical Ancient Libyan land in North Africa. It corresponds to present day Morocco and a part of western Algeria...
Berber leader Hiarbus. Here, however, Sophoniba married first Syphax, then Masinissa; it was not the Berber husband she refused; she rejected the ordeal of being paraded in a Roman triumph
Roman triumph
The Roman triumph was a civil ceremony and religious rite of ancient Rome, held to publicly celebrate and sanctify the military achievement of an army commander who had won great military successes, or originally and traditionally, one who had successfully completed a foreign war. In Republican...
.
A modern historian characterizes Masinissa, noting in particular his "tremendous ideal" of uniting the Berber peoples, which would motivate many of his actions during his long reign:
"Masinissa, who was thirty-seven years old at Zama, preserved his vigour into a ripe old age: at eighty-eight he still commanded his army in battle, mounting his horse unaided and riding bareback. But he had other outstanding qualities besides physical vigour. Fearless and unscrupulous, diplomatic and masterful, he conceived the tremendous ideal of welding the native tribes of North Africa into a nation. He successfully developed agriculture and commerce, and encouraged the spread of Punic civilization. His fame soon exceeded the confines of Africa; he cultivated relations with the Greek world, and at DelosDelosThe island of Delos , isolated in the centre of the roughly circular ring of islands called the Cyclades, near Mykonos, is one of the most important mythological, historical and archaeological sites in Greece...
at least three statues were erected in his honour. Throughout he remained a faithful ally of Rome... ."
The isle of Delos was long famous as a cultural center of Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
, where its deities and acclaimed mortals were honored. The three statues of Masinissa at Delos mentioned were erected on behalf of the kingdom of Bithynia
Bithynia
Bithynia was an ancient region, kingdom and Roman province in the northwest of Asia Minor, adjoining the Propontis, the Thracian Bosporus and the Euxine .-Description:...
in Anatolia
Anatolia
Anatolia is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey...
, the isle of Rhodes
Rhodes
Rhodes is an island in Greece, located in the eastern Aegean Sea. It is the largest of the Dodecanese islands in terms of both land area and population, with a population of 117,007, and also the island group's historical capital. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within...
, and the city of Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
. The Numidian king Masinissa was "treated, by the Romans as well as the Carthaginians, with all the honour due to Hellenistic monarchs." "He was a hero on a large scale." "As an established king, [Masinissa] carefully cultivated the image of the perfect Hellenistic monarch through his coinage and the participation of at least one of his sons in the Panathenaic games
Panathenaic Games
The Panathenaic Games were held every four years in Athens in Ancient Greece since 566 BC. They continued into the third century AD. These Games incorporated religious festival, ceremony , athletic competitions, and cultural events hosted within a stadium.-Religious festival:The games were part of...
."
After the Battle of Zama
Battle of Zama
The Battle of Zama, fought around October 19, 202 BC, marked the final and decisive end of the Second Punic War. A Roman army led by Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus defeated a Carthaginian force led by the legendary commander Hannibal...
(202), Masinissa became famous and was held in high esteem as a friend of the Roman people. For fifty years he ruled as King of Numidia
Numidia
Numidia was an ancient Berber kingdom in part of present-day Eastern Algeria and Western Tunisia in North Africa. It is known today as the Chawi-land, the land of the Chawi people , the direct descendants of the historical Numidians or the Massyles The kingdom began as a sovereign state and later...
(lands west of Carthage) until his death in 148. During his reign farming and trade prospered, and the vital pulse of Berber culture quickened. Government institutions were established, evidently having an independent Berber origin, althouogh informed by Punic civil traditions; indeed, Masinissa now encouraged the cultural influence of Carthage. "The state, the life of the cites, art, religion, writing--all underwent a rapid process of Punicization." The language used at court was Punic. "He successfully developed agriculture and commerce, and encouraged the spread of Punic civilization."
Tripolitania
Tripolitania or Tripolitana is a historic region and former province of Libya.Tripolitania was a separate Italian colony from 1927 to 1934...
to the east of Carthage. Indeed, his last war against Carthage turned out to be a prelude to the Third Punic War
Third Punic War
The Third Punic War was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Roman Republic...
(149-146). Here, Rome intervened and eventually besieged Carthage, and by Rome Carthage was destroyed.
A not altogether novel view would say bluntly that "Rome destroyed Carthage to prevent Masinissa from seizing it and becoming a Mediterranean power." Confronting the Roman siege, Carthage entrusted the defense of the city to one Hasdrubal
Hasdrubal the Boeotarch
-Biography:Little is known about Hasdrubal the Boeotarch, the general who lost the Third Punic War to Scipio Aemilianus, Consul of the Roman Republic at the Siege of Carthage in 146 BC...
, a grandson of Masinissa. Accordingly, suspicions arose among the Romans about the elderly yet still able king, now in his nineties.
"Masinissa caused slight anxiety. It was a grandson of his that was organizing the defense of Carthage, and the king himself, who saw the fruits of his ambitions now snatched from his grasp, was somewhat cold when asked for assistance; when later he proffered it, he was told abruptly that the Romans would let him know when they needed help."
The ancient Numidian king died during this Third Punic War. The Greek historian Polybius
Polybius
Polybius , Greek ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 220–146 BC in detail. The work describes in part the rise of the Roman Republic and its gradual domination over Greece...
(c.200-118) wrote for him high praise in his Histories, what might be regarded as an obituary
Obituary
An obituary is a news article that reports the recent death of a person, typically along with an account of the person's life and information about the upcoming funeral. In large cities and larger newspapers, obituaries are written only for people considered significant...
for the celebrated Berber leader:
"Massanissa, the king of the Numidians in Africa, one of the best and most fortunate men of our time, reigned for over sixty years, enjoying excellent health and attaining a great age, for he lived till ninety. ... And he could also continue to ride hard by night and day without feeling any the worse. [When] he died, he left a son of four years old... besides nine other sons. Owing to the affectionate terms they were all on he kept his kingdom during his whole life free from all plots and from any taint of domestic discord. But his greatest and most godlike achievement was this. While Numidia had previously been a barren country thought to be naturally incapable of producing crops, he first and alone proved that it was as capable as any other country of bearing all kinds of crops... . It is only proper and just to pay this tribute to his memory on his death."
Yet Polybius continues: "Scipio
Scipio Aemilianus Africanus
Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Numantinus , also known as Scipio Aemilianus or Scipio Africanus the Younger, was a leading general and politician of the ancient Roman Republic...
arrived in Cirta
Cirta
Cirta was the capital city of the ancient Kingdom of Numidia in northern Africa . Its strategically important port city was Russicada...
two days after the king's death and set everything in order." One may interpret this closing remark as a sign of the great affection and care given this long-term friend of Rome, or merely as an important Roman politician-soldier's prudent attention to state interests after the death of a very important ally in time of war, or both. Livy
Livy
Titus Livius — known as Livy in English — was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people. Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Chapters from the Foundation of the City," covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC...
gives the Roman view of the king's character when he imagines Hasdrubal
Hasdrubal Gisco
Hasdrubal Gisco or Hasdrubal son of Gisco was a Carthaginian general who fought against Rome in Iberia and North Africa during the Second Punic War. He should not be confused with Hasdrubal Barca, the brother of Hannibal....
saying of the young Numidian: "Masinissa was a man of far loftier spirit and far greater ability than had ever been seen in anyone of his nation. ...he had often given evidence to friends and enemies alike of a valour rare amongst men."
Micipsa, Jugurtha, Hiempsal
Micipsa
Micipsa was the eldest legitimate son of Masinissa, the King of Numidia, in the Ancient Algerian Maghreb of North Africa. He became the King of Numidia.-Early life:...
, Mastanabal, and Gulussa were Masinissa's three sons, among whom he divided his kingdom of Numidia, but only Micipsa endured; his two brothers soon fell victim to disease. Micipsa's reign lasted thirty years (148-118). Maicipsa continued the alliance with Rome, during which Numidia enjoyed relative peace and prosperity. His own two sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, were raised for the throne, but when still young they were joined by their older cousin Jugurtha, Mastanabal's illegitimate son. Jugurtha
Jugurtha
Jugurtha or Jugurthen was a King of Numidia, , born in Cirta .-Background:Until the reign of Jugurtha's grandfather Masinissa, the people of Numidia were semi-nomadic and indistinguishable from the other Libyans in North Africa...
's evident talents became a cause of concern to Micipsa, who then sent him to Hispania to serve the Romans in their war against Numantia
Siege of Numantia
The Celtiberian oppidum of Numantia was attacked more than once by Roman forces, but the Siege of Numantia refers to the culminating and pacifying action of the long-running Numantine War between the forces of the Roman Republic and those of the native population of Hispania Citerior. The...
, which ended in 133. As a warrior Jugurtha performed very well, winning great favor among the Roman commanders, one of whom, Scipio Aemilianus, wrote a favorable letter to Micipsa. Upon his return Micipsa adopted Jugurtha and made him co-heir with his own two young sons. Sallust
Sallust
Gaius Sallustius Crispus, generally known simply as Sallust , a Roman historian, belonged to a well-known plebeian family, and was born at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines...
's rendering of Scipio's letter:
"Your nephew Jugurtha has distinguished himself in the Numantine War above everyone else, which I'm sure will give you pleasure. I hold him in affection for his services and will do all I can to make him equally esteemed by the Roman Senate and People. As your friend I congratulate you personally; you have in him a man worthy of yourself and of his grandfather Masinissa."
At Micipsa's death in 118, the three became rulers of adjacent lands carved out of Numidia. Yet Jugurtha's suspicions were soon aroused. He had Hiempsal killed; then defeated Adherbal in battle. Rome intervened and, due to bribes paid by Jugurtha, merely caused the lands to be divided again. Eventually Jugurtha again attacked Adherbal, besieging him in the city of Cirta
Cirta
Cirta was the capital city of the ancient Kingdom of Numidia in northern Africa . Its strategically important port city was Russicada...
. Rome again sent its agents to broker a settlement. But in 112 Jugurtha accepted the city's terms of surrender; nonetheless Adherbal was tortured and killed, and Italian traders there slaughtered. Jugurtha became King of all Numidia. Whether or not he then intended to "unite all the Berbers in a patriotic war" following the vision of Masinissa (see above) is uncertain.
To the west of Numidia was the Berber Kingdom of Mauretania
Mauretania
Mauretania is a part of the historical Ancient Libyan land in North Africa. It corresponds to present day Morocco and a part of western Algeria...
(in modern Algeria
Algeria
Algeria , officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria , also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.In terms of land area, it is the largest country in Africa and the Arab...
), under the reign of Bocchus I
Bocchus I
Bocchus was a king of Mauretania about 110 BC and designated by historians as Bocchus I. He was also the father-in-law of Jugurtha, with whom he made war against the Romans. He delivered Jugurtha to the Romans in 106 BC....
. Jugurtha married his daughter. Farther west Tingis (modern Tangier) was the capital of another Berber realm, comprising western Mauretania, under its King Bogud
Bogud
Bogud, son of King Bocchus of Mauretania , was joint king of Mauretania with his elder brother Bocchus II, with Bocchus ruling east of the Mulucha River and his brother west...
, brother of Bocchus I. To the south of Numidia and Mauritania and Africa Province, lay the lands of the Berber Gaetulia
Gaetulia
Gaetuli was the Romanised name of an ancient Berber tribe inhabiting Getulia, covering the desert region south of the Atlas Mountains, bordering the Sahara. Other sources place Getulia in pre-Roman times along the Mediterranean coasts of what is now Algeria and Tunisia, and north of the Atlas...
ns, who were not politically united. On these lands Berber pastoralist managed their flocks, and in lean years would naturally seek better paturage. A major advantage sought by Rome in its Numidian alliance was leverage in dealing with the other Berbers, in order to continue the peace. "[T]he policy of Rome appears to have been to co-opt the tribal leaders, and through them to control the tribes."
Africa Province became the scene of military actions involving key Roman leaders toward the end of the Roman Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
(c.510-44 BC). Here Numidia played a significant rôle. That "a political and military importance was given to this state, such as no other client-state of Rome ever possessed... is shown by the share of Numidia in the civil wars of Rome." This appears to follow Livy's assessment of Masinissa given above. A modern Maghribi historian puts it differently: "The Berber princes let themselves be drawn into alliances with the leaders of the warring Roman factions." As a side result, Roman soldiers serving came to know first hand the fertile agricultural lands of the Province, where many as veterans would arrange to retire.
Jugurtha
Jugurtha or Jugurthen was a King of Numidia, , born in Cirta .-Background:Until the reign of Jugurtha's grandfather Masinissa, the people of Numidia were semi-nomadic and indistinguishable from the other Libyans in North Africa...
(r.118-105), the Berber King of Numidia (to the west of the Province) and grandson of the revered king Masinissa
Masinissa
Masinissa — also spelled Massinissa and Massena — was the first King of Numidia, an ancient North African nation of ancient Libyan tribes. As a successful general, Masinissa fought in the Second Punic War , first against the Romans as an ally of Carthage an later switching sides when he saw which...
(r.202-148), became well known to his Roman allies. In part due to the favors he gave to Roman politicians, Jugurtha had managed to enlarge the scope of his power; yet eventually his dealings resulted in a notorious bribery scandal at Rome. Jugurtha's assassinations of his regal cousins, his military aggression and overreach, and his slaughter of Italian traders at Cirta
Cirta
Cirta was the capital city of the ancient Kingdom of Numidia in northern Africa . Its strategically important port city was Russicada...
, led to war with Rome.
The war's prosecution involved the hands-on participation of two controversial Roman political and military leaders. Gaius Marius
Gaius Marius
Gaius Marius was a Roman general and statesman. He was elected consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. He was also noted for his dramatic reforms of Roman armies, authorizing recruitment of landless citizens, eliminating the manipular military formations, and reorganizing the...
celebrated his triumph
Roman triumph
The Roman triumph was a civil ceremony and religious rite of ancient Rome, held to publicly celebrate and sanctify the military achievement of an army commander who had won great military successes, or originally and traditionally, one who had successfully completed a foreign war. In Republican...
due to his success in finishing Rome's long war against Jugurtha. A wealthy novus homo
Novus homo
Homo novus was the term in ancient Rome for a man who was the first in his family to serve in the Roman Senate or, more specifically, to be elected as consul...
and populares, Marius was the first Roman general to enlist proletari (landless citizens) into his army; as a politician he was chosen Consul
Roman consul
A consul served in the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic.Each year, two consuls were elected together, to serve for a one-year term. Each consul was given veto power over his colleague and the officials would alternate each month...
an unprecedented seven times (107, 104-100, 86), but his career ended badly. On the opposing side politically, the optimate Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, later Consul (88, 80), and Dictator
Roman dictator
In the Roman Republic, the dictator , was an extraordinary magistrate with the absolute authority to perform tasks beyond the authority of the ordinary magistrate . The office of dictator was a legal innovation originally named Magister Populi , i.e...
(82-79), had served as quaestor
Quaestor
A Quaestor was a type of public official in the "Cursus honorum" system who supervised financial affairs. In the Roman Republic a quaestor was an elected official whereas, with the autocratic government of the Roman Empire, quaestors were simply appointed....
under Marius here in Numidia. In 106 Sulla bravely had persuaded Bocchus I
Bocchus I
Bocchus was a king of Mauretania about 110 BC and designated by historians as Bocchus I. He was also the father-in-law of Jugurtha, with whom he made war against the Romans. He delivered Jugurtha to the Romans in 106 BC....
of Mauritania to hand over Jurgurtha, which ended the war. This conflict was later (c. 40 BC) described by the ancient Roman political writer Sallust
Sallust
Gaius Sallustius Crispus, generally known simply as Sallust , a Roman historian, belonged to a well-known plebeian family, and was born at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines...
(86-35), in his well-known monograph Belum Jugurthinum
Jugurthine War
The Jugurthine War takes its name from the Berber king Jugurtha , nephew and later adopted son of Micipsa, King of Numidia.-Jugurtha and Numidia:...
.
Thereafter Hiempsal II
Hiempsal II
Hiempsal II was a king of Numidia. He was the son of Gauda, half-brother of Jugurtha, and was the father of Juba I.In 88 BC, after the triumph of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, when Gaius Marius and his son fled from Rome to Africa, Hiempsal received them with apparent friendliness, his real intention...
(r.106-60) became king of Numidia (being a nephew of Jugurtha). During an armed phase of political-economic struggle for Rome between populares
Populares
Populares were aristocratic leaders in the late Roman Republic who relied on the people's assemblies and tribunate to acquire political power. They are regarded in modern scholarship as in opposition to the optimates, who are identified with the conservative interests of a senatorial elite...
then led by Marius and optimates
Optimates
The optimates were the traditionalist majority of the late Roman Republic. They wished to limit the power of the popular assemblies and the Tribunes of the Plebs, and to extend the power of the Senate, which was viewed as more dedicated to the interests of the aristocrats who held the reins of power...
under Sulla, Hiempsal II
Hiempsal II
Hiempsal II was a king of Numidia. He was the son of Gauda, half-brother of Jugurtha, and was the father of Juba I.In 88 BC, after the triumph of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, when Gaius Marius and his son fled from Rome to Africa, Hiempsal received them with apparent friendliness, his real intention...
apparently favored the aristocratic Sulla. In 88 BC after Sulla's army entered Rome nearly unopposed, the aging Marius was forced to flee, landing in Africa for asylum. King Hiempsal welcomed Marius, but decided to hold his guest prisoner. Marius sensed the danger and effected his escape.
Later Hiempsal lost his crown for several years. The populares being led by Marius and Cinna
Cinna
Cinna was a cognomen that distinguished a patrician branch of the gens Cornelia, particularly in the late Roman Republic.Prominent members of this family include:...
, allies of Cinna deposed Hiempsal favor of "a Numidian pretender named Iarbus". But Cinna was killed, and a shift in the Roman struggle favored the optimate Sulla who emerged victorious in November of 82. Marius committed suicide. Sulla sent the young Pompey
Pompey
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, also known as Pompey or Pompey the Great , was a military and political leader of the late Roman Republic...
to Numidia to restore Hiempsal to the throne.
Juba, Bocchus, Juba, Ptolemy
Caesar's civil war
The Great Roman Civil War , also known as Caesar's Civil War, was one of the last politico-military conflicts in the Roman Republic before the establishment of the Roman Empire...
, now being contested between Pompey
Pompey
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, also known as Pompey or Pompey the Great , was a military and political leader of the late Roman Republic...
and Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
. Juba I was king by descent (being in the line of the famous Masinissa (240-148), per Jugurtha, by Jugurtha's half-brother Gauda (king, 106-88), by Gauda's son Hiempsal II
Hiempsal II
Hiempsal II was a king of Numidia. He was the son of Gauda, half-brother of Jugurtha, and was the father of Juba I.In 88 BC, after the triumph of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, when Gaius Marius and his son fled from Rome to Africa, Hiempsal received them with apparent friendliness, his real intention...
(king thereafter), who was father of Juba I). In 47 BC, Julius Caesar and his forces landed in Africa in pursuit of Pompey's remnant army, which was headquartered at Utica
Utica, Tunisia
Utica is an ancient city northwest of Carthage near the outflow of the Medjerda River into the Mediterranean Sea, traditionally considered to be the first colony founded by the Phoenicians in North Africa...
near Carthage. There they enjoyed the support of Juba I.
Juba I had long held a personal animus against Julius Caesar dating back to an incident when Caesar was praetorPraetorPraetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, usually in the field, or the named commander before mustering the army; and an elected magistratus assigned varied duties...
(62 BC) in Africa; the story is related by the ancient Roman writer SuetoniusSuetoniusGaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was a Roman historian belonging to the equestrian order in the early Imperial era....
and regarded King Hiempsal II, father of Juba I. Caesar judged as unfair and oppressive the King's treatment of his noble vassal Masintha and effectively interfered, not without physical altercation between Caesar and Juba I.
With Juba I at Utica was Cato 'Uticensis'
Cato the Younger
Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis , commonly known as Cato the Younger to distinguish him from his great-grandfather , was a politician and statesman in the late Roman Republic, and a follower of the Stoic philosophy...
, praetor
Praetor
Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, usually in the field, or the named commander before mustering the army; and an elected magistratus assigned varied duties...
in 54, a political leader of Caesar's optimate opponents. Cato was widely admired. Caesar's victory nearby at the Battle of Thapsus
Battle of Thapsus
The Battle of Thapsus took place on April 6, 46 BC near Thapsus . The Republican forces of the Optimates, led by Quintus Caecillius Metellus Scipio, clashed with the veteran forces loyal to Julius Caesar.-Prelude:...
almost put an end to this Roman civil war. Cato committed suicide by his sword. Juba I lost his kingdom and also committed suicide. Caesar annexed Numidia for Rome.
The Berber kings of Mauretania
Mauretania
Mauretania is a part of the historical Ancient Libyan land in North Africa. It corresponds to present day Morocco and a part of western Algeria...
, Bocchus II
Bocchus II
Bocchus II was king of Mauretania. Son of Bocchus I , who was dead in 49 BC, in the early years of Bocchus reign, Mauretania was jointly ruled between Bocchus and his younger brother Bogud, with Bocchus ruling east of the Mulucha River and his brother west. As enemies of the senatorial party,...
of the east (roughly the modern Algerian coast), and his brother Bogud of the west (capital at Tingi, modern Tangier), both had favored Julius Caesar (100-44), while Juba I had opposed him (see above). Both had significantly aided Caesar's campaigns: Bogud fought with Caesar in the second Hispanic War; and in Africa, Bocchus II captured the Numidian capital city of Cirta
Cirta
Cirta was the capital city of the ancient Kingdom of Numidia in northern Africa . Its strategically important port city was Russicada...
from Juba I. In the final Roman civil war (c. 34-30), the contest lay between Octavius and Marcus Antonius
Mark Antony
Marcus Antonius , known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and general. As a military commander and administrator, he was an important supporter and loyal friend of his mother's cousin Julius Caesar...
. Bocchus II favored Octavius, Julius Caesar's adopted son, later renowned as Augustus; but Bogud inclined to Antonius. The victory of Augustus cost Bogud his kingdom. Before Bocchus II died, he had willed his kingdom to Rome.
Augustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
(imperial rule, 31 BC to AD 14) controlled the Roman state following the civil wars that marked the end of the Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
(c.510-44). He established a quasi-constitutional regime known as the Principate
Principate
The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, after which it was replaced with the Dominate. The Principate is characterized by a concerted effort on the part of the Emperors to preserve the...
, commonly included as the first phase of the Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
. Roman actions in Africa throughout their period of civil wars are subjected to harsh criticism by a modern Maghribi historian, Abdallah Laroui, who notes the cummulative lands lost by Berbers to Romans, and how the Romans had steadily steered events to their benefit.
Juba II
Juba II or Juba II of Numidia was a king of Numidia and then later moved to Mauretania. His first wife was Cleopatra Selene II, daughter to Greek Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and Roman triumvir Mark Antony.-Early life:Juba II was a prince of Berber descent from North Africa...
(son of Juba I) on the throne—yet not as King of Numidia, but of Mauritania
Mauretania
Mauretania is a part of the historical Ancient Libyan land in North Africa. It corresponds to present day Morocco and a part of western Algeria...
(west of Numidia). Captured as a youth, raised and educated at Rome, a personal friend of Augustus, Juba II transparently became a client king of the Empire. "[A]n artificial monarchy: imposed by Rome on an area which his family had never governed." Juba II as "a Greek man of letters" wrote books on the culture and history of Africa, including one very popular about Arabia, writings unfortunately lost. He married well: Cleopatra Selene II, the daughter of Marcus Antonius, consul (44, 34) and triumvir (43-38, 37-33), and Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic Queen of Egypt; she was also raised at Rome. Their new capital of Greco-Roman style was established on the coast, Iol Caesarea. Intended to serve as a buffer between Roman Africa and Berber tribes south of the frontier, Juba II was never accepted by the more tribal among the kingdom's Gaetulia
Gaetulia
Gaetuli was the Romanised name of an ancient Berber tribe inhabiting Getulia, covering the desert region south of the Atlas Mountains, bordering the Sahara. Other sources place Getulia in pre-Roman times along the Mediterranean coasts of what is now Algeria and Tunisia, and north of the Atlas...
n Berbers; many of them not only resisted taxation but joined an anti-Roman insurgency. Yet he did enjoy a long reign (r.25 BC - AD 23) under Roman sponsorship and support.
The unpopular reign of his son Ptolemy [Ptolemaeus] (r.23-40) provoked an increase in active Berber support for the rebel Tacfarinas (see below). Ptolemy himself assisted the armed forces of the Roman governor of Numidia against this wide-scale insurgency (17-24). Later, in 40 on a visit to Rome, Ptolemy was assassinated by order of the notorious Emperor Caligula. Following his death, the Gaetulians of Mauritania rebelled, which Rome eventually quelled. Ptolemy's kingdom and other lands to the west were annexed by the Empire as the Provinces of Mauritania Caesaria
Mauretania
Mauretania is a part of the historical Ancient Libyan land in North Africa. It corresponds to present day Morocco and a part of western Algeria...
(approximately the central and western coast of modern Algeria), and Mauritania Tingitana (northern Morocco). Thus ended, in its seventh generation, the line of Masinissa.
Tacfarinas and the land
Tacfarinas was not born a king or into a royal or a noble bloodline. He was a Berber commoner who fought against the Roman Empire originally in order to maintain tribal grazing rights to land. As a result he became the tribal chief of his people the MusulamiiMusulamii
The Roman empire under Hadrian , showing the location of the Musulamii Mauri tribe, then inhabiting the desert regions of mod. Tunisia and Algeria...
. Eventually he led a large tribal confederacy, with assistance from neighboring Berber kingdoms, which for many years sustained a major conflict against Rome.
Events of the insurgency of Tacfarinas
Tacfarinas
Tacfarinas was a Numidian deserter from the Roman army who led his own Musulamii tribe and a loose and changing coalition of other Ancient Libyan tribes in a war against the Romans in North Africa during the rule of emperor Tiberius .Although Tacfarinas' personal motivation is unknown, it is...
, which persisted during the years 17 to 24, and of the Roman campaign against him, appear in the well-known Annals
Annals (Tacitus)
The Annals by Tacitus is a history of the reigns of the four Roman Emperors succeeding Caesar Augustus. The surviving parts of the Annals extensively cover most of the reigns of Tiberius and Nero. The title Annals was probably not given by Tacitus, but derives from the fact that he treated this...
of the Roman historian Tacitus
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
(c.55-c.117). Parallels have been drawn to a previous Roman campaign in Numidia against Jugurtha
Jugurtha
Jugurtha or Jugurthen was a King of Numidia, , born in Cirta .-Background:Until the reign of Jugurtha's grandfather Masinissa, the people of Numidia were semi-nomadic and indistinguishable from the other Libyans in North Africa...
(r.118-105) the Berber king, recorded by the Roman historian Sallust
Sallust
Gaius Sallustius Crispus, generally known simply as Sallust , a Roman historian, belonged to a well-known plebeian family, and was born at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines...
. It has been long alleged that both historians allow ancient Roman political concerns to distort and obscure the reality of the Berber situation and the Berber leaders.
Tacfarinas, as a commoner of Numidia
Numidia
Numidia was an ancient Berber kingdom in part of present-day Eastern Algeria and Western Tunisia in North Africa. It is known today as the Chawi-land, the land of the Chawi people , the direct descendants of the historical Numidians or the Massyles The kingdom began as a sovereign state and later...
, served for a time in the Roman Army occupying its imperial Africa Province
Africa Province
The Roman province of Africa was established after the Romans defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War. It roughly comprised the territory of present-day northern Tunisia, and the small Mediterranean coast of modern-day western Libya along the Syrtis Minor...
, but he later deserted. His loyalty lay with his tribe the Musulamii
Musulamii
The Roman empire under Hadrian , showing the location of the Musulamii Mauri tribe, then inhabiting the desert regions of mod. Tunisia and Algeria...
, pastoralists who practiced transhumance
Transhumance
Transhumance is the seasonal movement of people with their livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures. In montane regions it implies movement between higher pastures in summer and to lower valleys in winter. Herders have a permanent home, typically in valleys. Only the herds travel, with...
, i.e., wintering their herds in the dryer south, but in summer moving the livestock in herds northward to better watered lands.
Throughout the Empire news of the fertile soils of Africa eventually spread, as if an invitation to people looking for agricultural opportunities. Accordingly, many ordinary Italians and various peoples of the Empire immigrated here to work and live; the wealthy sent agents with investment funds to purchase and manage the land; those with political influence might be similarly favored. Ownership of public land was considered Roman by right of conquest
Right of conquest
The right of conquest is the right of a conqueror to territory taken by force of arms. It was traditionally a principle of international law which has in modern times gradually given way until its proscription after the Second World War when the crime of war of aggression was first codified in the...
; for local private real estate, citizens had to pay the Roman stipendium tax.
Lands of the north, formerly open to summer seasonal grazing, began to be taken and transformed into farms. Hence it would happen that in late spring tribes of pastoral
Pastoralism
Pastoralism or pastoral farming is the branch of agriculture concerned with the raising of livestock. It is animal husbandry: the care, tending and use of animals such as camels, goats, cattle, yaks, llamas, and sheep. It may have a mobile aspect, moving the herds in search of fresh pasture and...
Berbers would arrive where they considered their customary grazing lands
Customary land
Customary land is land which is owned by Indigenous communities and administered in accordance with their customs, as opposed to statutory tenure usually introduced during the colonial periods. Common ownership is one form of customary land ownership....
to be, only to be told that the land was now entirely owned by another, a planter, who refused them permission to graze and water their herds. The new, often large, agricultural operations
Latifundia
Latifundia are pieces of property covering very large land areas. The latifundia of Roman history were great landed estates, specializing in agriculture destined for export: grain, olive oil, or wine...
produced grain for export, which quickly became highly profitable. The two opposing sides became thus became firmly committed each to their interests.
In the countryside Tacfarinas
Tacfarinas
Tacfarinas was a Numidian deserter from the Roman army who led his own Musulamii tribe and a loose and changing coalition of other Ancient Libyan tribes in a war against the Romans in North Africa during the rule of emperor Tiberius .Although Tacfarinas' personal motivation is unknown, it is...
raised and led an armed revolt. At first the Romans dismissed him as a bandit. Using Roman methods, Tacfarinas trained the tribal warriors into military formations, and his initial success made him tribal chief. Other Berber tribes from Numidia and Mauretania
Mauretania Caesariensis
Mauretania Caesariensis was a Roman province located in northwestern Africa. It was the easternmost of the North African Roman provinces, mainly in present Algeria, with its capital at Caesarea , now Cherchell.-Historical background:In the first century AD, Roman...
joined. The Roman Army
Roman army
The Roman army is the generic term for the terrestrial armed forces deployed by the kingdom of Rome , the Roman Republic , the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine empire...
, tasked to defeat him, offered battle. Tacfarinas accepted, but was routed. The next year Tacfarinas began attacking and looting the new settlers and villages, as told in the account given by Tacitus
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
. Then the insurgents surrounded a Roman regular battalion, who abandoned its commander, yet survived the battle though disgraced; this battalion was later decimated as punishment by the Roman governor. Grown wealthy with loot, Tacfarinas set up a permanent base. There he was attacked and defeated by the Romans; but he escaped into the desert.
Tacfarinas raised new forces from the countryside, although now offering to negotiate: land for peace. "The Numidian leader took up arms to force the all-powerful emperor to recognize his people's right to land." The Emperor Tiberius
Tiberius
Tiberius , was Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His mother divorced Nero and married Augustus in 39 BC, making him a step-son of Octavian...
became furious at this no-account commoner, who in offering terms acted like a king. Instead the Romans offered pardon to rebels who surrendered; they also set up counter-insurgency style operations, with many strategic forts and small armed patrols, which checked the rebels for awhile. Tiberius, misperceiving the situation, awarded the Roman commander a victory triumph
Roman triumph
The Roman triumph was a civil ceremony and religious rite of ancient Rome, held to publicly celebrate and sanctify the military achievement of an army commander who had won great military successes, or originally and traditionally, one who had successfully completed a foreign war. In Republican...
in the year 22. Nonetheless, Tacfarinas renewed the fight as strong as ever. He led the forces of his tribe, together with allies from Numidia and Mauretania, with additional assistance from the Berber Garamentes. Tacfarinas also spread persuasive anti-Roman propanganda. In the year 24, however, following field intelligence, Roman forces surprised the secret camp of Tacfarinas who died fighting. In the south of Africa Province, smaller-scale Berber insurgencies continued, off and on, hot and cold, for centuries.
See also
- Berber peopleBerber peopleBerbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
- History of Roman era TunisiaHistory of Roman era TunisiaHistory of Roman-era Tunisia describes first the Roman Africa Province. Rome took control of Carthage after the Third Punic War . There was a period of Berber kings allied with Rome . Lands surrounding Carthage were annexed and reorganized, and the city of Carthage rebuilt, becoming the third city...
- List of Kings of Numidia
Places:
- History of Punic era Tunisia
- History of TunisiaHistory of TunisiaThe History of Tunisia is subdivided into the following articles:*Outlines of early Tunisia*History of Punic era Tunisia*History of Roman era Tunisia*History of early Islamic Tunisia*History of medieval Tunisia*History of Ottoman era Tunisia...
- North Africa during the Classical PeriodNorth Africa during the Classical PeriodThe history of North Africa during the period of Classical Antiquity can be divided roughly into the History of Egypt in the east and the history of Ancient Libya in the west. The Roman Republic established the province of Africa in 146 BC after the defeat of Carthage...
- CarthageCarthageCarthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
- SyphaxSyphaxSyphax was a king of the ancient Algerian tribe Masaesyli of western Numidia during the last quarter of the 3rd century BC. His story is told in Livy's Ab Urbe Condita .-Biography:...
- UticaUtica, TunisiaUtica is an ancient city northwest of Carthage near the outflow of the Medjerda River into the Mediterranean Sea, traditionally considered to be the first colony founded by the Phoenicians in North Africa...
- Africa ProvinceAfrica ProvinceThe Roman province of Africa was established after the Romans defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War. It roughly comprised the territory of present-day northern Tunisia, and the small Mediterranean coast of modern-day western Libya along the Syrtis Minor...
- Exarchate of AfricaExarchate of AfricaThe Exarchate of Africa or of Carthage, after its capital, was the name of an administrative division of the Eastern Roman Empire encompassing its possessions on the Western Mediterranean, ruled by an exarch, or viceroy...
- Praetorian prefecture of AfricaPraetorian prefecture of AfricaThe praetorian prefecture of Africa was a major administrative division of the Eastern Roman Empire, established after the reconquest of northwestern Africa from the Vandals in 533-534 by emperor Justinian I...
People:
- ApuleiusApuleiusApuleius was a Latin prose writer. He was a Berber, from Madaurus . He studied Platonist philosophy in Athens; travelled to Italy, Asia Minor and Egypt; and was an initiate in several cults or mysteries. The most famous incident in his life was when he was accused of using magic to gain the...
- Augustine of HippoAugustine of HippoAugustine of Hippo , also known as Augustine, St. Augustine, St. Austin, St. Augoustinos, Blessed Augustine, or St. Augustine the Blessed, was Bishop of Hippo Regius . He was a Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Africa Province...
- Hanno the GreatHanno the GreatThere were three leaders of ancient Carthage who were known as Hanno the Great, according to two historians . These figures they call for convenience: Hanno I the Great, Hanno II the Great, and Hanno III the Great...
- Hannibal BarcaHannibal BarcaHannibal, son of Hamilcar Barca Hannibal's date of death is most commonly given as 183 BC, but there is a possibility it could have taken place in 182 BC. was a Carthaginian military commander and tactician. He is generally considered one of the greatest military commanders in history...
- JugurthaJugurthaJugurtha or Jugurthen was a King of Numidia, , born in Cirta .-Background:Until the reign of Jugurtha's grandfather Masinissa, the people of Numidia were semi-nomadic and indistinguishable from the other Libyans in North Africa...
- Juba I
- Juba IIJuba IIJuba II or Juba II of Numidia was a king of Numidia and then later moved to Mauretania. His first wife was Cleopatra Selene II, daughter to Greek Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and Roman triumvir Mark Antony.-Early life:Juba II was a prince of Berber descent from North Africa...
- MasinissaMasinissaMasinissa — also spelled Massinissa and Massena — was the first King of Numidia, an ancient North African nation of ancient Libyan tribes. As a successful general, Masinissa fought in the Second Punic War , first against the Romans as an ally of Carthage an later switching sides when he saw which...
- Scipio AfricanusScipio AfricanusPublius Cornelius Scipio Africanus , also known as Scipio Africanus and Scipio the Elder, was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic...
- Septimius SeverusSeptimius SeverusSeptimius Severus , also known as Severus, was Roman Emperor from 193 to 211. Severus was born in Leptis Magna in the province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through the customary succession of offices under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Severus seized power after the death of...