See Also

Transhumance

Transhumance is a term that has two accepted usages: * Older sources use the term transhumance for vertical seasonal livestock Livestock

Livestock [i] is the term used to refer to a domesticated [i] animal [i] intentionally reared in an agricult ... 

 movement, typically to higher pasture Pasture

Pasture is land with lush herb [i]aceous vegetation cover used for grazing of ungulate [i] livestock [i] ... 

s in summer and to the lower valley Valley

A valley is a landform [i], which can range from a few square mile [i]s to hundreds or even thousands ... 

s in winter Winter

Winter is one of the four season [i]s of temperate [i] zones. ... 

. The herders have a permanent home, typically in the valley. Only the herd Herd

A herd is a large group of animals.... 

s and a subset of people necessary to tend them travel. This is termed fixed transhumance below. * Some recent studies consider nomad Nomad

Communities of nomadic people move from place to place, rather than settling down [i] in one loc ... 

ism, where livestock move to follow grazing over considerable distances following set season Season

A season is one of the major divisions of the year [i], generally based on yearly periodic changes in we ... 

al patterns a form of transhumance. This is termed nomadic transhumance below.

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Encyclopedia

Transhumance is a term that has two accepted usages:

  • Older sources use the term transhumance for vertical seasonal livestock Livestock

    Livestock [i] is the term used to refer to a domesticated [i] animal [i] intentionally reared in an agricult ... 

     movement, typically to higher pasture Pasture

    Pasture is land with lush herb [i]aceous vegetation cover used for grazing of ungulate [i] livestock [i] ... 

    s in summer and to the lower valley Valley

    A valley is a landform [i], which can range from a few square mile [i]s to hundreds or even thousands ... 

    s in winter Winter

    Winter is one of the four season [i]s of temperate [i] zones. ... 

    . The herders have a permanent home, typically in the valley. Only the herd Herd

    A herd is a large group of animals.... 

    s and a subset of people necessary to tend them travel. This is termed fixed transhumance below.
  • Some recent studies consider nomad Nomad

    Communities of nomadic people move from place to place, rather than settling down [i] in one loc ... 

    ism, where livestock move to follow grazing over considerable distances following set season Season

    A season is one of the major divisions of the year [i], generally based on yearly periodic changes in we ... 

    al patterns a form of transhumance. This is termed nomadic transhumance below.


Traditional or fixed transhumance, the seasonal movement of livestock, ascending to mountain pastures in summer and descending to relatively warm areas in the valleys, foothills, plains or desert fringe in winter, occurs throughout the world, including Scandinavia Scandinavia

Scandinavia is a region [i] in Northern Europe [i]. ... 

, France France

France, officially the French Republic, is a country [i] whose metropolitan territory [i] ... 

, Italy Italy

Italy, officially the Italian Republic , is a Southern European [i] country. ... 

, Romania Romania

Romania: is a country in Southeastern Europe [i]. ... 

, Bulgaria Bulgaria

Bulgaria , officially the Republic of Bulgaria , is a country in Southeastern Europe [i].... 

, Spain Spain

Spain, officially the Kingdom of Spain , is a Europe [i]an parliamentary monarchy [i].... 

, Turkey Turkey

Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a Eurasia [i]n country that stretches across the Anatolia [i] ... 

, Switzerland Switzerland

Switzerland , officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked [i] Alpine country [i] in Central Europe [i] ... 

 and Lesotho Lesotho

Lesotho , officially the Kingdom of Lesotho, is a land-locked country [i], entirely s ... 

. It is also practiced amongst the more nomadic Sami Sami people

The Sami people are the indigenous people [i] of Spmi [i], which encompasses parts of northern... 

 people of Scandinavia Scandinavia

Scandinavia is a region [i] in Northern Europe [i]. ... 

. Transhumance is based on the difference of climate between the mountains and the lowlands . Its importance to pastoralist societies cannot be overstated. Milk Milk

Milk is the nutrient fluid produced by the mammary gland [i]s of female mammal [i]s . ... 

, butter Butter

Butter is a dairy product [i] made by churning [i] fresh or fermented [i] cream [i] ... 

 and cheese Cheese

[i]s, [[domestic sheep|sheep]... 

 — the products of transhumance — often form the basis of the local population's diet.

Fixed transhumance in Europe

In the past transhumance was widespread throughout Europe. In many areas — such as the Isle of Lewis Lewis

Lewis or The Isle of Lewis, is the northern part of the largest island of the Western Isles of Scotland [i]... 

 in Scotland Scotland

Scotland is a nation [i] in northwest Europe [i] and one of the constituent [i] countries [i] ... 

 — it has faded out, but was practiced within living memory. Today much transhumance is carried out by truck Truck

truck [i] is a motor vehicle [i] for transport [i]ing goods. ... 

.

Scandinavia

In Scandinavia Scandinavia

Scandinavia is a region [i] in Northern Europe [i]. ... 

, transhumance is practiced to this day, although the arrival of motorized vehicles has changed its character. The seter is the term for a common mountain or forest pasture used in the summer for transhumance and the mountain cabin which was used as a summer residence. In the summer the livestock Livestock

Livestock [i] is the term used to refer to a domesticated [i] animal [i] intentionally reared in an agricult ... 

 is moved to the mountain farm, often quite distant from the home farm, preserving the meadows in the valleys for use as hay Hay

Hay is dried grass [i] or legumes [i] cut and used for animal feed. ... 

. The livestock were typically tended for the summer by girls and younger women, who milked and made cheese. The bulls usually remain at the home farm. As fall approaches, once the grazing is no longer adequate, the livestock are returned to the home farm.

In Sweden Sweden

The Kingdom of Sweden is a Nordic country [i] in Scandinavia [i]. ... 

, this system was predominantly used in Värmland Värmland

[i] or landskap in the west of middle [[Sweden]... 

, Dalarna Dalarna

Dalarna is a historical province [i] or landskap in central Sweden [i]. ... 

, Härjedalen Härjedalen

Hrjedalen, is a historical province [i] or landskap in the north of Sweden [i]. ... 

, Jämtland Jämtland

Jmtland, is a historical province [i] or landskap in the center of Sweden [i]. ... 

, Hälsingland Hälsingland

Hlsingland, is a historical province [i] or landskap in central Sweden [i]. ... 

, Medelpad Medelpad

Medelpad, is a historical province [i] or landskap in north of Sweden [i]. ... 

 and Ångermanland Ångermanland

ngermanland, is a historical province [i] or landskap in the north of Sweden [i] ... 

.


Due to Norway's highly mountainous nature, it was common to most regions in Norway. “The Gudbrandsdal area include lateral valleys such as Gausdal Gausdal

Gausdal is a municipality [i] in the county [i] of Oppland, ... 

, Heidal, Vinstradal, and Ottadal. The area comprises lowland parishes 200 m above sea-level and mountain parishes 800 m above sea-level, fertile soil in the main valley and barren summits in Rondane and Dovrefjell. Forests surround the farms, but higher up the woods give way to a treeless mountain plateau. This is the ‘seterfjell’, or summer farm region, once of vital importance both as summer pastureland and for haymaking” .

While previously many farms had their own seter, today it is more usual for several farmers share a modernized common seter . Most of the old seters have been left to rot or are used as cabins.

The name for the common mountain pasture in Scandinavia derives from the old Norse Old Norse

Old Norse is the Germanic language [i] spoken by the inhabitants of Scandinavia [i] a ... 

 term setr. In the term sæter or seter are the modern descendents of the old Norse term. In the term säter is used. The place name appears in Sweden Sweden

The Kingdom of Sweden is a Nordic country [i] in Scandinavia [i]. ... 

 in several forms Säter and Sätra and as a suffix: -säter, -sätra, -sätt and -sättra. The names appear extensively over Sweden with a centre in the Mälaren Mälaren

br>
Mlaren is the third largest lake [i] in Sweden [i], after lakes Vnern [i] and Vttern [i]. ... 

 basin and in Östergötland Östergötland

is a historical Province [i] in the south of Sweden [i]. ... 

. In most of Sweden, it used to mean "forest pasture at a distance from the settlement", whereas it in western Sweden meant "mountain pasture".

Pyrenees

The transhumance in the Pyrenees Pyrenees

[Image:Pic de Bugatet.jpg|thumb|250px|Pic de Bugatet [i] in the Nouvielle Natural Reserve [i].]] [i]
... 

 is relocation of livestock to the high mountains for the summer months, because farms in the lowland are too small to support a larger herd all year round. The mountain period starts in late May and early June, and ends in early October. Until the 1970s the transhumance concerned mainly milk cows, and cheesemaking was the important activity. In some regions up until this century, nearly all the members of a family decamped to the higher mountains with their cows, living in rudimentary stone cabins. This system, which evolved during the middle ages, lasted into the 20th century, but broke down under the pressure of industrialization with concomitant depopulation of the countryside.

Alps


The traditional economy of the Alps was based upon rearing cattle. Seasonal migration between the valley and the high pastures was critical in feeding an increased number of cattle and supporting a higher human population. The practice has shaped a lot of the landscape in the Alps, as without it, most areas below 2000 m would be forests.

While tourism and industry contribute today much to the economy in the Alps, the seasonal migration to the high pastures is still practiced in Bavaria, Austria and Switzerland except in the most frequented tourist centers. In some places, the cattle are taken care of by the local farmer families who move to the higher places, in others, this is the job of herdsmen who are employees of the cooperative owning the pastures.

Austria Austria

Austria is a landlocked [i] country in central Europe [i]. ... 

 has over 12'000 sites where 70'000 farmers take care of about 500'000 cattle. Alpine pastures amount to a quarter of the farmland.

Bavaria Bavaria

The Free State [i] of Bavaria  , with an area of 70,553 km and 12.4 million inhab... 

 has about 1400 sites hosting 50'000 cattle, about half of them in Upper Bavaria Upper Bavaria

Population
Historical Population of Upper Bavaria:
... 

 and the other half in the Allgäu Allgäu

... 

.

In Switzerland, about 380'000 cattle including 130'000 cows as well as 200'000 sheep are in summer on the high pastures. The milk from the cows is usually made into local cheese Cheese

[i]s, [[domestic sheep|sheep]... 

 specialities, handmade using traditional methods and tools. The alpine pastures amount to 35 percent of the farmland. Transhumance contributes a lot to traditional Swiss culture, e.g. Yodel, Alphorn Alphorn

The alphorn is a wind instrument [i], consisting of a natural wooden horn of conical bore, having a cup- ... 

 or Schwingen Schwingen

Schwingen is a Swiss [i] variant of wrestling [i].
... 

 are closely connected to the high pastures.

Maloti


The traditional economy of the Basotho in [Lesotho] is based upon rearing cattle. Seasonal migration between the valley and the high plateaus of the Maloti is critical in feeding an increased number of cattle and supporting a higher human population. The pressure on pasture land has increased due to the construction of large storage dams in the mountains, to provide water to South Africa's arid industrial heartland.

While tourism is starting to contribute to the economy of Lesotho, and more people are moving permanently into the Highlands, the seasonal migration to the high pastures is still practiced. This is the job of herdsmen who are employees of the farmers who own the herds. The growing pressure on the pastures is contributing to the degradation of the sensitive grasslands and could contribute to the sedimentation of the man-made lakes.

Nomadic transhumance


Often traditional nomadic Nomad

Communities of nomadic people move from place to place, rather than settling down [i] in one loc ... 

 groups settle into a regular seasonal pattern, which has been described by some anthropologists Anthropology

Anthropology consists of the study of humanity [i] . ... 

 as a form of transhumance. An example of a normal transhumance cycle follows:
  • Spring — about 90 days .
  • Summer — about 83 days .
  • Autumn — about 71 days .
  • Winter — some 121 days .

These movements in this example are about 180 to 200 km from the desert plains in the winter to the higher plateau of the summer pastures, with spring and fall spent in transition. The camps are established in the same place each year; often semi-permanent shelters are built in at least one place on the migration route.

These regular patterns are distinguished from those of pastoral nomads, who follow a seasonal migratory pattern which varies from year to year. The timing and destinations of migrations are determined primarily by the herds grazing needs. Such nomadic societies create no permanent settlements, but live in tents or other movable dwellings the year round. Pastoralist nomads are often self-sufficient, producing their own food, shelter and other needs.

Nomadic transhumance was historically widespread throughout the less fertile regions of the world. It is found in areas of low rainfall such as the middle eastern Bedouin Bedouin

Bedouin, derived from the Arabic [i] ' , a generic name for a desert-dweller, is ... 

s and the African Somali people Somali people

The Somalis are an ethnic group located in the northeast portion of the Horn of Africa [i] adjacent to t ... 

 or in areas of harsh climate, such as the far northern Sami people Sami people

The Sami people are the indigenous people [i] of Spmi [i], which encompasses parts of northern... 

.

The Mongols Mongols

Mongols are an ethnic group [i] that originated in what is now Mongolia [i], Russia [i], and China [i] ... 

 in what is now Mongolia Mongolia

Mongolia is a landlocked [i] country [i] located in East Asia [i]. ... 

, Russia Russia

Russia , also the Russian Federation , is a country [i] that stretches over a vast expanse of Eurasia [i] ... 

, and China China

China is a cultural region [i] and ancient civilization [i] in East Asia [i]. ... 

 and the Tatars Tatars

Tatars , often misspelled Tartar, is a collective name applied to the Turkic speaking [i] ... 

 or Turkic people Turkic peoples

Turkic peoples are Northern and Central Eurasian [i] peoples who speak languages belonging to th ... 

 of Eastern Europe Eastern Europe

Eastern Europe is the east [i]ern region [i] of Europe [i] variably defined. ... 

 and Central Asia Central Asia

Central Asia is a vast landlocked [i] region of Asia [i]. ... 

 were nomadic peoples who practiced nomadic transhumance on the harsh Asian steppe Steppe

In physical geography [i], a steppe , pronounced in English as step, is a plain [i] without tree [i] ... 

s. Some remnants of these populations are nomadic to this day.

The nomadic Sami people, practice a form of nomadic transhumance based on the reindeer Reindeer

The reindeer, known as caribou when wild in North America [i], is an Arctic [i] and Subarctic [i]- ... 

. In the 14th and 15th century, when the population was sufficiently reduced that the Sami could not subsist on hunting alone, some Sami, organized along family lines, became reindeer herders. Each family has traditional territories on which they herd, arriving at roughly the same time each season. Only a small fraction of the Sami have subsisted on reindeer herding over the past century; as the most colorful part of the population, they are well known. But as elsewhere in Europe, transhumance is dying out.

Worldwide transhumance patterns

Transhumance developed on every inhabited continent. Although there are substantial cultural and technological variations, the underlying practices for taking advantage of remote seasonal pastures are similar.

Africa

The Berber people Berber people

The Berbers are an ethnic group [i] indigenous to Northwest Africa [i], speaking the Berber languages [i] ... 

 of northern Africa were traditional farmers, living in the mountains relatively close to the Mediterranean Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean [i] almost completely enclosed by land: on the nor... 

 coast, or oasis dwellers; however, the Tuareg Tuareg

The Tuareg Arabic [i]:????? are a Berber [i] ethnic group [i] or nation [i]. ... 

 and Zenaga of the southern Sahara practice nomadic transhumance. Some groups, such as the Chaouis, practiced fixed transhumance.

The Maasai Maasai

The Maasai are an indigenous [i] Africa [i]n ethnic group [i] of semi-nomad [i]ic peo ... 

 and Kikuyu Kikuyu

The Kikuyu tribe is Kenya [i]'s most populous ethnic group. ... 

, semi-nomadic peoples located primarily in Kenya Kenya

The Republic of Kenya is a country in Eastern Africa [i]. ... 

 and northern Tanzania Tanzania

Tanzania , officially the United Republic of Tanzania , is a country on the east coast of Africa [i] ... 

, have pastoral transhumance cultures that revolve around their cattle Cattle

Cattle are domesticated [i] ungulate [i]s, a member of the subfamily [i] Bovinae [i] of t ... 

. The dependence was historically very strong, with even the huts of the Maasai built from dried cattle dung. They are related to the Zulu Zulu

The Zulu are an African ethnic group of about 11 million people who live mainly in the province of KwaZulu-Natal [i] ... 

, a people who live mainly in South Africa South Africa

The Republic of South Africa is a country located at the southern tip of the Africa [i]n continent [i]. ... 

 who were also formerly semi-nomadic.

North America

Transhumance, relying on the use of public land, continues to be an important source of livestock feed in the western United States. The American tradition was based around moving herds to higher ground with the improvement in highland pastures in the spring and summer. It was based on a semi-nomadic cowboy Cowboy

A cowboy tends cattle [i] and horse [i]s on cattle ranches in North [i] and South [i] ... 

 or the nomadic shepherd Shepherd

A shepherd is one who takes care of sheep [i], usually in flocks in the fields. ... 

 who often traveled with the herd. The Mexican charro Charro

A charro is a traditional cowboy [i] of Mexico [i].
... 

, is a continuation of this tradition to the south.

South America

South American transhumance relies on "cowboy" counterparts, the gaucho Gaucho

Gaucho is a term commonly used to describe residents of the South America [i]n pampas [i], chaco [i]s or ... 

of Argentina Argentina

Argentina is a country in southern South America [i]. ... 

, Uruguay Uruguay

Uruguay, officially the Eastern Republic of Uruguay or the Republic East of the Uruguay , i... 

, Paraguay Paraguay

Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay , is a landlocked [i] country in South America [i]. ... 

 and southern Brazil Brazil

Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest and most populous country [i] ... 

, the llanero of Venezuela Venezuela

Venezuela is a country on the northern tropical [i] Caribbean [i] coast of South America [i] ... 

, the huaso Huaso

A huaso is a Chile [i]an countryman and skilled horseman, similar to the Argentinian [i] gaucho [i] ... 

of Chile Chile

Chile, officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America [i] occupying a long coast ... 

.

Asia

Transhumance practices are found in temperate areas, above ~1000 m in the Himalaya Himalayas

The Himalayas are a mountain range [i] in Asia [i], separating the Indian subcontinent [i] from the Tibetan Plateau [i] ... 

Hindu Kush Hindu Kush

The Hindu Kush, Hindu Kush, Hindoo Koosh or Hindukush is a mountain range [i] in Afghanistan [i] ... 

 area ; and the cold semi-arid zone north of the Himalaya, through the Tibet-Qinghai Plateau and northern China China

China is a cultural region [i] and ancient civilization [i] in East Asia [i]. ... 

 to the Asian steppe.

Mongolia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan all have vestigial transhumance cultures. For regions of the Himalaya Himalayas

The Himalayas are a mountain range [i] in Asia [i], separating the Indian subcontinent [i] from the Tibetan Plateau [i] ... 

 transhumance still provides the mainstay of several near-subsistence economies — for example, that of Zanskar Zanskar

Zanskar is a region in the Kargil [i] district, part of the north-west Indian [i] state of Jammu and Kashmir [i] ... 

 in northwest India India

India , officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia [i]. ... 

.

Australia

In Australia, which has a large ranch culture, stockmen Stockman

In the Australian lexicon, a stockman is the name given to a person who looks after the livestock [i] on ... 

 provide the labor to move the herds to seasonal pastures.

Reference

Adventure Roads in Norway by Erling Welle-Strand, Nortrabooks, 1996. ISBN 82-90103-71-9

See also


  • Cowhand Cowboy

    A cowboy tends cattle [i] and horse [i]s on cattle ranches in North [i] and South [i] ... 

  • Drover

External links



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