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Search and rescue
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- For the TV series of this title, see Search and Rescue (TV series).
Search and rescue (SAR) is the search for and provision of aid to people who are in distress or imminent danger.
HistoryOne of the world's earliest well documented SAR efforts ensued following the 1656 wreck of the Dutch merchant ship Vergulde Draeck off the coast of Australia. Survivors sent for help, and in response three separate SAR missions were conducted, without success.
Types of Search and Rescue
Mountain RescueMountain Rescue relates to search and rescue operations specifically in rugged terrain such as mountains, desert and forest. Also referred to as wilderness search and rescue which includes areas such as sea, lakes, rivers or caves.
Urban search and rescueUrban search and rescue (Also known as Suburban Search and Rescue as USAR Teams often relates to structural collapses and other technical rescue) operations are Search and Rescue operations conducted in a city. One of the most common is searching for people buried as a result of a building collapse, as might happen after an earthquake. Sometimes, urban searches are performed for missing persons with certain criteria (example, a missing Alzheimer's patient with a history of wandering away from their home). Also, a wilderness search may transition into an urban search. This is common when lost children are involved.
Combat Search and RescueCombat Search and Rescue (CSAR) is a function of special military units during wartime. CSAR consists of operations carried out to retrieve, rescue and provide assistance to downed aircrews or allies behind enemy lines. CSAR missions generally have the mission's aircrews well armed as they cross into enemy territory. The USAF Pararescue jumpers are an example of a CSAR unit. One famous CSAR mission was the rescue of US Air Force Captain Scott O'Grady after he was shot down over Bosnia in 1995. Other examples include the more recent Operation Anaconda in Afghanistan, and the famous Battle of Mogadishu in which the "Black Hawk Down" incident occurred.
Dedicated combat search and rescue helicopters include:
Air Sea RescueAir Sea Rescue (ASR) specifically can refer to both the use of aircraft to search for and locate or recover personnel lost at sea and the recovery of downed airmen at sea. The RAF "Air Sea Rescue Service" used dedicated and/or amphibian aircraft together with armed high speed launches to recover aircrew from the English Channel and other coastal areas during the Second World War while long range flying boats and other aircraft would pick up aircrew (or drop equipment to them) further from shore.
Definitions of Search and Rescue
There are many different definitions of search and rescue, depending on the agency involved.
- Canadian Forces: "Search and Rescue comprises the search for, and provision of aid to, persons, ships or other craft which are, or are feared to be, in distress or imminent danger."
- United States Defense Department policy defines a search is “An operation normally coordinated by a Rescue Coordination Center (RCC) or rescue sub-center, using available personnel and facilities to locate persons in distress” and rescue is “An operation to retrieve persons in distress, provide for their initial medical or other needs, and deliver them to a place of safety.”
Operational phases Search and Rescue operations have several distinct phases or parts.
AlertingThe alerting phase consists of two key elements:
- Detecting possible alerts (i.e. radio signals on 121.5 MHz, phone calls)
- Determining the probability that the alert signals actual distress
SAR authorities are alerted of a distress situation via distress radiobeacons such as emergency locater transmitters, emergency position-indicating radio beacons, or personal locater beacons. They may also be notified by telephone, fax, or other means. In the case of distress radiobeacons, the alert may also provide a lat-lon position of the distress to SAR authorities.
SearchIn the initial phase of the operation, steps are taken to ascertain a likely location of the person being searched for, so that a search area can be established if they are in fact in need of rescue. Essential information is gathered so that leaders can determine not only who is missing, but how they are equipped, how experienced, how familiar with the area, etc.. This information is then factored with other considerations to determine the initial urgency and scale of the mission.
In the Search phase, a search is performed by personnel on foot, horse, or using vehicles, often aided by (dog) teams and, when available, air support. Specific procedures are followed during a Search, including an initial hasty team sent to the most likely locations, containment teams which are posted or patrol likely routes of a lost subject who may be moving, and the assignment of search personnel to specific areas which are mapped out using a combination of theory, prior experience and local knowledge of the terrain. A substantial body of mathematical theory called search theory, some initially developed for anti-submarine warfare, has been developed and can be used to help choose the search area priorities for maritime and inland search operations. Search is usually an iterative process over many hours or even days, with returning field teams interviewed or debriefed to glean information to be incorporated into plans for additional deployments of field teams.
Advances in distress radiobeacon technology are aiming to significantly reduce the amount of time spent searching for persons in distress. See MEOSAR.
Rescue
In the Rescue phase, aid is rendered to the person where they are found, sufficient to allow them to be safely transported to a place where more intensive aid can be provided. This extrication of the patient often includes some aspects of technical rescue. In certain situations, the subject(s) are in a known position and the operation goes directly to the Rescue phase. The wide availability of cellular phones and increasing coverage areas has increased the number of such calls for rescue without requiring a lengthy Search phase.
RecoveryThe recovery of the body of a deceased person may be considered an aspect of Search and Rescue in some countries, though the actual Rescue phase of the operation is often known as recovery rather than rescue. In other countries rescuers are not permitted to move dead bodies as this is the sole responsibility of a coroner.
Recall and demobilizationOnce the subject has been found, rescued or recovered, then the operation is recalled and with large operations, this phase is sometimes called demobilization.
Afterwards, there is often a critique phase where each phase of the operation is analysed to determine what did or did not work well, and any lessons learned, this is called a debrief. During debriefs searchers and search administrators discuss what took place during the search, the condition of the subject, and what changes could be made next time for the better.
Standards
With or without formal underlying foundations, numerous SAR organisations develop their own proprietary training curricula and operational protocols, which are available and applicable only to their own members.
In the US SAR standards are developed primarily by ASTM International and the US NFPA which are then used by organizations such as the Mountain Rescue Association (MRA), the US National Association of Search and Rescue (NASAR), and the US NFPA to develop training that will meet or exceed those standards.
Within ASTM International, most standards of relevance to SAR are developed by Committee F32 on Search and Rescue. Formed in 1988, the committee had 85 current members and jurisdiction of 38 approved standards.
International Divisions of Search and Rescue Responsibility
International WatersInternational waters are divided into various regions according to the SOLAS convention. See the map provided by the
SAR by nation
Antigua & BarbudaAntigua Barbuda Search And Rescue (ABSAR) has been providing emergency medical and rescue services to the Antiguan Yachting community for a number of years.
ABSAR is a non-profit organization of volunteers dedicated to saving lives. Based at the Antigua Yacht Club Marina, it specializes in medical emergencies, but also offers assistance for search and rescue, helicopter aerial searches and medevac operations in conjunction with Caribbean Helicopters. ABSAR rescue relies 100% on donations.
AustraliaAusSAR, which is part of the Australian Maritime Safety Authority, provides a national search and rescue service.
AusSAR operates a 24 hour Rescue Coordination Centre (RCC) in Canberra and is responsible for the national coordination of both maritime and aviation search and rescue. AusSAR is also responsible for the management and operation of the Australian ground segment of the Cospas-Sarsat distress beacon detection system. The service that spans the nation and covers 52.8 million square kilometres of the Indian, Pacific and Southern Oceans.
AusSAR's RCC is staffed by SAR specialists who have a naval, merchant marine, air force, civil aviation or police service background. The RCC also coordinates medical evacuations, broadcasts maritime safety information and operates the Australian Ship Reporting System (AUSREP).
State search and rescue
State Police in many states operate state-based search and rescue squads, such as the Victoria Police Search and Rescue Squad, which provides specialist expertise, advice and practical assistance in land search and rescue on most terrain including snow and vertical cliff search and rescue.
There are also state-based volunteer search and rescue groups such as the Bushwalkers Wilderness Rescue Squad in New South Wales and Bushwalkers Search and Rescue in Victoria. These state-based groups draw searchers from bushwalking, mountaineering and specialist rescue clubs within their State.
BelgiumSearch and rescue duties along the Belgian part of the North Sea are executed by the Belgian Air Component. From its Koksijde Air Base it operates 5 Westland Sea King Mk.48 helicopters.
British Virgin IslandsVirgin Islands Search and Rescue (VISAR) is the officially recognised search and rescue organisation in the British Virgin Islands. VISAR is a voluntary organisation dedicated to saving life at sea, and provides 24-hour cover every day of the year in close co-operation with the Royal British Virgin Islands police, fire and ambulance services.
Unlike many other search & rescue organisation, such as the United States Coast Guard, VISAR is a charity and is funded almost entirely by charitable donation. With running costs in the region of US$150,000 per year, and a population of just 20,000 in the British Virgin Islands, VISAR relies very heavily on donations made by tourists, who visit the British Virgin Islands to come sailing.
CanadaSearch and Rescue in Canada is overseen by a federal agency called the National Search and Rescue Program, and is coordinated by the National Search and Rescue Secretariat, which liaises with the provincial and territorial governments of Canada and other emergency services. Each province and territory also maintains its own emergency management organizations. Generally, air rescue is handled by the Canadian Forces, maritime rescue by the Canadian Coast Guard, and ground and inland water rescue is under the legal authority of the individual provinces and territories (most are handled by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)). Extensive use of volunteer SAR groups is made by all provinces and territories.
See also Heavy Urban Search and Rescue, Toronto Police Public Safety and Search Unit and Toronto Police's Toronto Police Marine Unit.
Denmark
Search and Rescue operators in Denmark are primarily: Danish air force Squadron 722, Danish navy air squadron, naval home guard and the administration of navigation and hydrography, coordinated by the Joint Rescue Coordination Centere, operated by the navy and air force in the Danish Naval Commands facilities near Aarhus. Internationally the Danish works mainly with Germany, Norway and Sweden. With the two later, the yearly exercises Baltic SAREX and
Scan-SAR are conducted.
SAR-services in Denmark started in 1957 with seven Sikorsky S-55. Their radial engines only had limited horsepower (550 hp) fuel capacity, so their operational area was also rather limited. To gain more operational area, it was decided to add some Pembroke two engine aircraft for search. These aircraft would then localize the distressed person(s) and the S-55's would then fly out to that location for rescue. Originally the only SAR-service performed, was for crashed fighter-planes (79 aircraft crashed, with 62 dead, in the period 1950-1955), but today also civilan SAR-duties are taken care of.
In 1962 eight ship-based Alouette III was received. These was primarily ment for the ships patroling in the North Atlantic, but also supported the S-55's. In 1964 - 1965 the seven S-55 was replaced with eight Sikorsky S-61A helicopters. This helicopter, was originally inteded for - and constructed as such - anti-submarine warfare. On this danish variant, the heavy sonar equipment was removed and instead extra fuel storage was added. This gave these helicopters a very large operational area. In 1977 radar-equipment was installed and in 1990 a FLIR was added. Further avionics and navigational systems (such as GPS) has also been added through time.
In 1977 the naval air squadron was exfilled and created as an independent squadron in the navy and began replacing the Alouette III's with Westland Lynx helicopters. Their primary operational area was still the North Atlantic, but they continued their (much lesser since the introduction of the S-61) support roles. In 2006, the first of the S-61 was replaced by one of 14 new AugustaWestland EH-101 "Merlin" helicopters.
In 2007 the Danish Defence held a public display in Horsens, to raise awareness about resuce services and maritime safety (Denmark has a relative large amount of costal line).
Today the SAR-components in Denmark are eight EH-101's, one or two Lynx's, 34 naval home guard vessels and 21 rescue vessels as well as the naval vessels at sea. The EH-101's are operates from bases in Aalborg, Skrydstrup and Roskilde. In rough weather aircraft are also posted on the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea. The Lynx's operates from KARUP. The maritime vessels are spread out through the entire coastline and on islands. The S-61' and EH-101's has a crew of six: Two pilots, a navigator, a medic, a physician and a rescue swimmer.
Germany
Search and Rescue in German waters is conducted by the German Navy, the German Coast Guard or the Deutsche Gesellschaft zur Rettung Schiffbrüchiger DGzRS (literally translated: German Society for the Saving of Shipwrecked, more common: German Maritime Rescue Service GMRS).
Besides the offshore Search And Rescue services, the German Air Force provides such as well, using Bell UH-1D "Huey" helicopters.
Hong KongSearch and rescue in and around the waters off Hong Kong are directed by the Hong Kong Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centre with assistance from:
IcelandSearch and Rescue operations in Iceland are mainly handled by the Icelandic Association for Search and Rescue (Slysavarnafélagið Landsbjörg) which operates numerous vehicles and boats across the country, along with the Icelandic Coast Guard which operates SAR helicopters and patrol vessels.
The unique thing about Iceland Association for Search and Rescue is that it is operated almost solely on volunteer’s contribution. The rescue units are more than 100 in total and are located in almost every part of the country. All the units contain groups of specially trained individuals.
IrelandSAR services are provided by a civilian body, the Irish Coast Guard. It has responsibility for the Irish Search and Rescue Region.
Also Civil Defence in Ireland also known as Civil Defence Search and Rescue or Recovery, a volunteer based Rescue Service take care of most rescues. In Dublin, Ireland Civil Defence Search and Rescue, is the only rescue service in the county, who also provide for Wicklow and surrounding areas. This unit also do Fire, Radioactive monitoring, extricating, treating and looking after most of the Casualty or casualties found. It is funded by the state and Defence Forces.
Irish Coast Guard who also help Civil Defence was formerly provided by the Irish Air Corps, from 1963 to the early 21st century. The need for longer range helicopters encouraged the Irish Government to create a civilian organisation which hires private companies to provide the service.
This procedure has worked successfully, providing a greatly increased SAR range and forward basing of the SAR service on coastal bases, greatly improving their speed to incident and time on site compared to previous centralised military operations near Dublin.
The introduction of the privatised service also allowed Ireland to field the first female SAR helicopter pilot in Europe, at the time.
MaltaThe responsibility for SAR at sea in the Malta Search and Rescue Region falls under the Armed Forces of Malta (AFM). It is carried out by maritime patrol aircraft, helicopters and vessels under the co-ordination, command and control of the Rescue Co-ordination Centre.
The AFM, in close collaboration with the US Coast Guard, also runs a Search and Rescue Training Centre for International Students in Maritime SAR Mission Co-ordination and Planning. To date more than 30 foreign students from 15 countries including Albania, Cameroon, Croatia, Equatorial Guinea and Kenya have attended these courses.
Malta is also in talks with Libya about enhancing SAR cooperation between the two countries.
NetherlandsSAR responsibility in the Netherlands is held by the , carried out by vessels and aircraft from various organisations among which the Koninklijke Nederlandse Redding Maatschappij, Ministry of Transportation and Water Management and the Navy and Air Force.
New ZealandNew Zealand's Search and Rescue Region extends from the South Pole to the southern border of the Honolulu region, including Norfolk, Tonga, Samoa, and Cook Islands.
Land-based search and rescue operations (called LSAR, for Land Search and Rescue), such as for lost hikers, are controlled by the local police. Maritime search and rescue, as well as reports of overdue aircraft, fall under the control of the National Rescue Coordination Centre, based in Wellington, which coordinates response from local coastguard, helicopter operators, merchant marine, air force and naval resources.
NorwayNorwegian SAR-services are carried out through cooperation between government agencies, voluntary organisations and private companies who have resources appropriate for rescue services. The Norwegian Joint Rescue Coordination Centres ("Hovedredningssentralene") have the overall operational responsibility during search and rescue operations.
Typical providers of SAR are The Norwegian Coast Guard (Kystvakten), the Norwegian police, firebrigades and the military.
In addition many privately owned institutions exists such as The Rescue Company (Redningsselskapet) and the Norwegian Air Ambulance (Norsk Luftambulanse). Funding is typically provided from its members and the government.
PhilippinesPhilippine SAR Operations are the responsibility of the Philippine Air Force and the Philippine Coast Guard. The Air Force has a dedicated SAR formation, the 505th Search and Rescue Group. The group is equipped with the Bell UH-1, Bell 205 and the Sikorsky S-70 helicopters, along with the locally upgraded Huey II helicopter. The 505th SAR has the capability of carrying out search and rescue in mountainous areas as well as over the ocean.
The Coast Guard patrols Philippine waters and conducts search and rescue operations with '78 Halter patrol craft.
PolandThe SAR Service was established on January 1, 2002 by virtue of the Safety at Sea Act
SAR Service takes part in search and rescue of human life at the sea and the tasks related to combating sea pollution. Because Poland is a part of International Conventions like The International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue and The Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, Maritime Search and Rescue Service (called SAR Service) was established.
The SAR Service is a state owned budget unit subordinated to the competent Minister for Maritime Economy.
South Africa
The South African Search and Rescue Organization (SASAR), is a voluntary organization that functions under the auspice of the Department of Transport. SASAR is responsible for the aviation and maritime incidents or incidents. The main function of the organization is to search for, assist and where applicable effect a rescue operation for the survivors/military civilians of aircraft or vessel accident.
Depending on the nature of the accident, the RCC's (ARCC or MRCC) coordinate the search and rescue missions.
These operations are carried out by other government departments, non governmental organizations, commercial/private organizations and voluntary organizations.
United KingdomIn the UK, maritime search and rescue is coordinated by HM Coastguard, while land-based operations are usually coordinated by the local Police force. The operation itself is carried out with aircraft from the Royal Navy, RAF or Coastguard, RNLI lifeboats and police, military or volunteer mountain rescue or ALSAR (Association of Lowland Search and Rescue) teams. Aircraft coordination is carried out by the UK Aeronautical Rescue Coordination Centre based at RAF Kinloss in the north of Scotland. The centre is responsible for tasking and coordinating all of the UK's search and rescue helicopter and RAF mountain rescue teams.
In 2006, the government announced controversial plans to effectively privatise provision of search and rescue helicopters in order to replace the aging Sea Kings currently in use, although they have suggested that crews may, at least partially, still be made up of military personnel.
United StatesThe National Search and Rescue plan designates the United States Coast Guard as the federal agency responsible for maritime SAR and the United States Air Force as the federal agency responsible for inland SAR. Both agencies maintain Rescue Coordination Centers to coordinate this effort. The jurisdiction for local lost person SAR operations varies from state to state in the United States, and depends upon the nature of the operation.
Urban SAR
Urban SAR operations involve searching through debris and are often but not always under the jurisdiction of the fire department especially when a rescue is involved. If there is a criminal element, such as abduction, then a law enforcement agency will usually have jurisdictional authority. The Federal Emergency Management Agency maintains 28 national USAR teams stationed in various major cities around the nation to respond to disasters when requested by impacted states.
Wilderness SAR'
Authority for Wilderness SAR and Mountain Rescue varies, with some states (e.g., New Mexico) supervising operations from a state-wide office such as state police or office of emergency management. Many states place authority for SAR with the local sheriff of the county in which the incident took place (e.g., Colorado). The United States Forest Service may also be involved. State fish and game wardens may also be responsible (e.g., New Hampshire). Within U.S. national parks and monuments, the National Park Service maintains authority, "exclusive jurisdiction," regardless of state law. Most wilderness SAR operations involve volunteer groups such as members of NCCERT, Mountain Rescue Association and US-HERO, who work for the jurisdictional authority.
In addition to their responsibilities in the area of missing aircraft SAR, the Civil Air Patrol (USAF Aux) often assists in wilderness SAR when activated by the Air Force Rescue Coordination Center.
Water SAR
SAR on federal waters is usually the responsibility of the United States Coast Guard, but in inland and joint jurisdiction waters state and local government agencies assume some or all responsibility for SAR.
In some situations, body recovery may fall under a separate command, such as the state medical investigator or county medical examiner, depending upon the local laws.
Missing Aircraft and ELT beacon searches
Where downed aircraft are involved, the state aeronautics commission (or their delegate) is responsible for the recovery and subsequent investigation. Most states use the Civil Air Patrol (CAP) in conjunction with their local SAR team. CAP is the Air Force Auxiliary. CAP SAR teams are activated through the United States Air Force Rescue Coordination Center to conduct searches for possible or actual missing aircraft. CAP conducts over 95% of all federal search and rescue missions directed by the Center for possible or actual missing aircraft. CAP also helps with missing person searches as requested by county, state and other agencies.
Personnel
Urban operations are generally staffed with paid personnel from fire, EMS, law enforcement agencies and volunteer teams with mutual aid agreements.
Wilderness operations are usually staffed with a combination of paid and volunteer personnel. Volunteers may be members of a public safety agency such as a fire department or county sheriff but are also likely to be members of an independent non-profit group with specialized skills such as ground search and rescue, airborne search, wilderness navigation, cave rescue, mountain rescue, ski patrol and wilderness first aid. Large operations can bring a dozen or more separate groups and government agencies to a single operation, which is usually managed using the Incident Command System (ICS) originally developed for management of diverse resources to combat large wildfires. The managing agency tends to be state law enforcement, or the county that the search is being staged in.
Marine operations in the U.S. are generally staffed by the United States Coast Guard including its Auxiliary, and on inland waters county and state public safety agencies will also participate.
Aviation search operations in the U.S. are staffed by Civil Air Patrol volunteers, which include both aircrews and ground teams trained for wilderness search in coordination with aircraft. CAP members also perform SAR and disaster relief activities of other natures, in the effort to assist local, state, and national authorities as directed by CAP Incident Commanders and the Air Force Rescue Coordination Center.
SAR Units
Most SAR units in the United States are all-volunteer groups that work under the jurisdictional authorities. These may be sponsored by a jurisdictional authority (Sheriff's Office or Police Department) or be an independent group with a Mutual Aid Agreement with the jurisdictional authorities. Examples of all volunteer groups are NCCERT, US-HERO, ASRC, Explorer Search and Rescue, and US Search And Rescue Task Force.
See also
- Volunteer Search & Rescue
- Satellite distress detection - Cospas-Sarsat (C-S)
Groups
External links - Extract from Jane's Defence Weekly article
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- National Association for Search and Rescue (U.S.)
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