Encyclopedia
The art of
calligraphy is widely practiced and revered in the
East Asian civilizations that use
Chinese characters. These include
China,
Japan,
Korea, and formerly
Vietnam. In addition to being an artform in its own right, calligraphy has also influenced
ink and wash painting, which is accomplished using similar tools and techniques. The East Asian tradition of calligraphy originated and developed from
China, specifically the ink and brush writing of
Chinese characters. There is a general standardization of the various styles of calligraphy in the East Asian tradition. Calligraphy has also led to the development of many other forms of art in East Asia, including
seal carving, ornate paperweights, and
inkstones.
Styles
| The main styles of Chinese character calligraphy |
|---|
| English name | Chinese ;
Japanese ;
Korean | Chinese | Chinese, Mandarin | Japanese | Korean | Korean | Vietnamese |
|---|
Seal script
| ?? | ?? | Zhuànshu | Tensho | ?? | Jeonseo | Tri?n thu |
| Clerical script | ?? | ?? | Ĺshu | Reisho | ?? | Yeoseo | L? thu |
Semi-cursive script
| ?? | ?? | Xíngshu | Gyosho | ?? | Haengseo | Hành thu |
| Cursive script | ?? | ?? | Caoshu | Sosho | ?? | Choseo | Th?o thu |
| Regular script | ?? | ?? | Kaishu | Kaisho | ?? | Haeseo | Kh?i thu |
| | | | |
| Seal | Clerical | Semi-cursive | Cursive | Regular |
There is a fluid continuum between the Regular, Semi-cursive, and Cursive scripts, so it is possible to write in "Semi-cursive-Regular" as well as "Semi-cursive-Cursive" .
Characters are often written in ancient variations or simplifications that deviate from the modern standards used in Chinese, Japanese, or Korean. Modern variations or simplifications of characters, akin to Chinese Simplified characters or Japanese
shinjitai, are occasionally used, especially since some simplified forms derive from cursive script shapes in the first place.
As
katakana are derived from regular script shapes and
hiragana from characters in the cursive script, those can also be used in calligraphy.
In Korea, the post-war Republican period saw the increased use of
hangul in calligraphy.
Seal Script
The Seal Script is the formal script of the Qin system of writing, the informal script of which was precursor to the Clerical Script. Seal script is the oldest style that continues to be widely practiced. Today, this ancient style of Chinese writing is used predominantly in
seals, hence the English name. Although seals , which make a signature-like impression, are carved in wood, jade and other materials, the script itself was originally written with brush and ink on paper, just like all other scripts.
Most people today cannot read the seal script, so it is generally not used outside the fields of calligraphy and carved seals. However, because seals act like legal
signatures in
Chinese culture and
Japanese culture, and because vermillion seal impressions are a fundamental part of the presentation of works of art such as calligraphy and painting, seals and therefore seal script remain ubiquitous.
Clerical Script
The Clerical Script developed from the Seal Script. In general, characters are often "flat" in appearance, being wider than they are tall. The strokes may appear curvy, and often start thin and end thick. Most noticeable is the dramatically flared tail of one dominant horizontal or downward-diagonal stroke, especially that to the lower right. This characteristic stroke has famously been called 'silkworm head and wild goose tail'
The archaic Clerical Script of the Chinese
Warring States period to
Qin Dynasty and early
Han Dynasty can often be difficult to read for a modern East Asian person, but the mature Clerical Script of the middle to late Han dynasty is generally legible. Modern works in the Clerical Script tend to use the mature, late Hàn style, and may also use modernized character structures, resulting in a form as transparent and legible as Regular Script. The Clerical Script remains common as a typeface used for decorative purposes , but it is not commonly written.
Semi-cursive Script
The Semi-cursive Script approximates normal handwriting in which strokes and, more rarely, characters are allowed to run into one another. In writing in the Semi-cursive Script, the brush leaves the paper less often than in the Regular Script. Characters appear less angular and rounder.
In general, an educated person in China or Japan can read characters written in the Semi-cursive Script with relative ease, but may have occasional difficulties with certain idiosyncratic shapes.
Cursive Script
The Cursive Script is a fully cursive script, and a person who can read the Semi-cursive Script cannot be expected to read the Grass Script without training. Entire characters may be written without lifting the brush from the paper at all, and characters frequently flow into one another. Strokes are modified or eliminated completely to facilitate smooth writing and to create a beautiful, abstract appearance. Characters are highly rounded and soft in appearance, with a noticeable lack of angular lines.
The Cursive Script is the source of Japanese
hiragana, as well as many modern simplified forms in Simplified Chinese characters and Japanese
shinjitai.
Regular Script
The Regular Script is one of the last major calligraphic styles to develop, emerging between the Chinese Han dynasty and
Three Kingdoms period, gaining dominance in the
Southern and Northern Dynasties, and maturing in the
Tang Dynasty. It emerged from a neatly written, early period semi-cursive form of
clerical script. As the name suggests, the Regular Script is "regular", with each of the strokes placed slowly and carefully, the brush lifted from the paper and all the strokes distinct from each other. The Regular Script is also the easiest to recognize and read, as it is the script in which most beginners learn to write East Asian scripts.
The Regular Script is usually studied first to give students a feel for correct placement and balance, as well as to provide a proper base for the other, more flowing styles.
Edomoji
There is also a large family of native Japanese calligraphic styles known as
edomoji, characters created in the
Edo period of Japanese history, such as
sumomoji used to write
sumo wrestling posters,
kanteiryu, used for
kabuki,
higemoji, and so on. These styles are typically not taught in Japanese calligraphy schools.
Chinese people can read
edomoji, but the style has a distinct Japanese feel to it. It is therefore commonly used in China to advertise Japanese restaurants.
Munjado
Munjado is a Korean decorative style of rendering Chinese characters in which brush strokes are replaced with representational paintings that provide commentary on the meaning. The characters thus rendered are traditionally those for the eight Confucian virtues of humility, honor, duty, propriety, trust, loyalty, brotherly love, and filial piety.
Tools
The paper, ink, brush, and inkstone are essential implements of East Asian calligraphy: they are known together as the
Four Treasures of the Study in China, and as the
Four Friends of the Study in Korea. In addition to these four tools, desk pads and paperweights are also used by calligraphers.
Paper
Special types of paper are used in East Asian calligraphy.
In China,
Xuanzhi, traditionally made in
Anhui province, is the preferred type of paper. It is made from the Tartar wingceltis , as well as other materials including
rice, the
paper mulberry ,
bamboo,
hemp, etc.
In Japan,
Washi is made from the kozo , ganpi , and mitsumata , as well as other materials like bamboo, hemp, rice, and
wheat.
Ink
The ink is made from lampblack and binders, and comes in sticks which must be rubbed with water on an inkstone until the right consistency is achieved. Much cheaper, pre-mixed bottled inks are now available, but these are used primarily for practice as stick inks are considered higher quality and chemical inks are more prone to bleeding over time, making them less suitable for use in hanging scrolls. Learning to rub the ink is an essential part of calligraphy study. Traditionally, East Asian calligraphy is written only in black ink, but modern calligraphers sometimes use other colours. Calligraphy teachers use a bright orange ink with which they write practice characters for students and correct students' work.
Brush
The brush is the traditional writing implement in East Asian calligraphy. The body of the brush can be made from either
bamboo, or rarer materials like
red sandalwood,
glass,
ivory,
silver, and
gold. The head of the brush can be made from the hair of a wide variety of animals, including the
wolf,
rabbit,
deer,
chicken,
duck,
goat,
pig,
tiger, etc. There is also a tradition in both China and Japan of making a brush using the hair of a newborn, as a once-in-a-lifetime souvenir for the child. This practice is associated with the legend of an ancient Chinese scholar who scored first in the
Imperial examinations by using such a personalized brush.
Today, calligraphy may also be done using a
pen, but pen calligraphy does not enjoy the same prestige as traditional brush calligraphy.
Inkstone
A stone or ceramic
inkstone is used to rub the solid ink stick into liquid ink and to contain the ink once it is liquid. Cheaper inkstones are made of plastic.
Inkstones are often carved, so they are collectible works of art on their own.
Paperweight
Paperweights come in several types: some are oblong wooden blocks carved with calligraphic or pictorial designs; others are essentially small sculptures of people or animals. Like inkstones, paperweights are collectible works of art on their own right.
Desk pad
The desk pad is a pad made of felt. Some are printed with grids on both sides, so that when it is placed under the translucent paper, it can be used as a guide to ensure correct placement and size of characters. These printed pads are used only by students. Both desk pads and the printed grids come in a variety of sizes.
Seal
Works of calligraphy are usually completed by the artist putting his or her
seal at the very end, in red ink. The seal serves the function of a signature.
Study
How the brush is held depends on which calligraphic genre you are practicing. For Chinese calligraphy, the method of holding the brush is more special; the brush is held vertically straight gripped between the thumb and middle finger. The index finger lightly touches the upper part of the shaft of the brush whilst the ring and little fingers tuck under the bottom of the shaft. The palm is hollow and you should be able to hold an egg in there. This method, although difficult to hold correctly for the beginner, allows greater freedom of movement, control and execution of strokes. For Japanese calligraphy, the brush is held in the right hand between the thumb and the index finger; very much like a Western pen.
A paperweight is placed at the top of all but the largest pages to prevent slipping; for smaller pieces the left hand is also placed at the bottom of the page for support.
In China, there are many people who practice calligraphy in public places such as parks and sidewalks, using water as their ink and the ground as their paper. Very large brushes are required. Although such calligraphic works are temporary , they serve the dual purpose of both being an informal public display of one's work, and an opportunity to further practice one's calligraphy.
In Japan, smaller pieces of Japanese calligraphy are traditionally written seated in the traditional Japanese way , on the knees with the buttocks resting on the heels. In modern times, however, practitioners frequently practice calligraphy seated on a chair at a table. Larger pieces may be written while standing; in this case the paper is usually placed directly on the floor, but some calligraphers use an easel.
Calligraphy takes many years of dedicated practice. Correct
stroke order, proper balance and rhythm of characters are an essential in calligraphy. Skilled handling of the brush produces a pleasing balance of characters on the paper, thick and thin lines, and heavy and light inking. A lot of times, a calligrapher will practice writing the Chinese character
yong many, many times in order to perfect the
eight basic essential strokes contained within the character. Those who can correctly write the
yong character beautifully can potentially write all characters with beauty.
Basic calligraphy instruction is part of the regular school curriculum in both
China and
Japan.
Noted calligraphers
Nearly all traditionally educated men in East Asia are proficient in calligraphy. The most famous are:
China
- List of Chinese calligraphers
http://www.art-virtue.com/history/index.htm
Mao Zedong was a Chinese Marxist [i] military and political leader, who led China's communist [i]...
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Japan
- Kukai ??
- Emperor Saga ????
- Tachibana no Hayanari ???
- Ono Michikaze ????
- Fujiwara no Sukemasa ????
- Fujiwara no Yukinari ????
- Hon'ami Koetsu ?????
- Konoe Nobutada ????
- Shokado Shojo ?????
- Ryokan ??
- Yamaoka Tesshu ????
- Igaki Hokujo ????
Korea
References
See also
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External links
