Imperial examination
The Imperial examinations in Imperial
China determined positions in the civil service based on merit and education, which promoted a certain upward mobility for entering the state's bureaucracy among the population for centuries. According to the historical record of China , from the start of the
Sui Dynasty to its abolition near the end of the
Qing Dynasty , the Imperial Examination System had lasted continuously for 1300 years.
Encyclopedia
The
Imperial examinations in Imperial
China determined positions in the civil service based on merit and education, which promoted a certain upward mobility for entering the state's bureaucracy among the population for centuries. According to the historical record of China , from the start of the
Sui Dynasty to its abolition near the end of the
Qing Dynasty , the Imperial Examination System had lasted continuously for 1300 years.
Purpose
Before the system was introduced, most appointments in the Imperial bureaucracy were based on recommendations from prominent aristocrats and existing officials, and it was commonly accepted that recommended individuals must be of aristocratic rank. The origin of the system can be traced back to the
Han Dynasty .
Theoretically, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the test, although under some dynasties members of the merchant class were excluded. In reality, since the process of studying for the examination tended to be time-consuming and costly , most of the candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy land-owning gentry. However, there are numerous examples in Chinese history in which individuals moved from a low social status to political prominence through success in imperial examination. Under some dynasties the imperial examinations were abolished and official posts were simply sold, which increased
corruption and reduced morale.
In late imperial China the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. Their loyalty, in turn, ensured the integration of the Chinese state, and countered tendencies toward regional autonomy and the breakup of the centralized system. The examination system distributed its prizes according to provincial and prefectural quotas, which meant that imperial officials were recruited from the whole country, in numbers roughly proportional to each province's population. Elite individuals all over China, even in the disadvantaged peripheral regions, had a chance at succeeding in the examinations and achieving the rewards of holding office.
The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across the whole of China were indoctrinated with the same values. Even though only a small fraction of those who attempted the examinations passed them and received titles, the study, self-indoctrination, and hope of eventual success on a subsequent examination served to sustain the interest of those who took them. Those who failed to pass--most of the candidates at any single examination--did not lose wealth or local social standing; as dedicated believers in Confucian orthodoxy, they served, without the benefit of state appointments, as teachers, patrons of the arts, and managers of local projects, such as irrigation works, schools, or charitable foundations.
In late traditional China, then, education was valued in part because of its possible pay-off in the examination system. The overall result of the examination system and its associated study was cultural uniformity--identification of the educated with national rather than regional goals and values. This self-conscious national identity still underlies the
nationalism that has been so important in China's politics in the 20th and 21st centuries.
Detail of the Examination
There are a few degree types offered:
- Shengyuán , also called Xiucai , quasi-bachelor degree, administered at the local level each year
- Anshou shengyuán who ranked #1
- jurén quasi-masters degree, administered at the provincial level every three years
- Jieyuan jurén who ranked #1.
- Huiyan , jurén who ranked #1 in prequalification
- Gongsheng or Gongshi , jurén who passed prequalification
- jìnshì quasi-doctoral degree, administered in the capital every three years
- Jinshi jidi Jinshi who formally passed the Jinshi examination and who are eligible for enlistment as official.
- Zhuangyuan , jìnshì who ranked #1 .
- Bangyan , jìnshì who ranked #2.
- Tanhua , jìnshì who ranked #3.
- Jinshi Chushen jìnshì who obtained jìnshì status by actually taking part in the Jinshi examination.
- Tong Jinshi Chushen jìnshì who did not take part in the Jinshi examination but who was conferred jìnshì status by the Emperor.
The degree types are labeled as "quasi-" degrees not to denigrate their content, but to point out that while they may roughly correspond to Western conceptions of bachelor, master and doctoral degrees, they had different content, different methods of instruction and very different social functions.
By 115, a set curriculum had become established for the so-called First Generation of examination takers. They were tested on their proficiency in the "Six Arts":
- Scholaric arts: music, arithmetic, writing, and knowledge of the rituals and ceremonies in both public and private life.
- Miltaristic: archery and horsemanship
The curriculum was then expanded to cover the "Five Studies": military strategy, civil law, revenue and taxation, agriculture and geography, and the Confucian classics. In this form the examinations were institutionalized during the sixth century CE, under the
Sui Dynasty. These examinations are regarded by most historians as the first standardized tests based on merit.
By 1370, the examinations lasted between 24 and 72 hours, and were conducted in spare, isolated examination rooms; sometimes, however, it is held within
cubicles. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were rewritten by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate's handwriting from being recognised.
End of Imperial Examination
The
Taiping regime was the first in Chinese history to admit women as candidates in the examination system, although it later suspended the system altogether.
The examination system was abandoned for a time under the
Yuan Dynasty, and completely abolished a few years before the fall of the
Qing Dynasty.
Dr.
Sun Yat-sen, who led the movement to overthrow the Qing Dynasty and founded the
Republic of China, developed similar procedures for the new political system through an institution called the Examination Yuan, although this was quickly suspended due to the turmoil in China between the two world wars. After defeating the
Japanese offensive in the
Second World War, the
Kuomintang administration revived the Examination Yuan in 1947, but just three years later it moved to Taiwan due to the
Communist Party of China's victory in the
Chinese Civil War where it continues to exist as one of the five branches of government.
See also
- Chinese classic texts
- Nine rank system
- Education in the People's Republic of China
This article incorporates material from the Library of Congress that is believed to be in the public domain.
