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Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including molluscs, crustacean
Crustacean

Crustaceans are a large group of arthropods, comprising almost 52,000 described species , and are usually treated as a subphylum . They include various familiar animals, such as crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill and barnacles....
s and aquatic plants. Unlike fishing
Fishing

Fishing is the activity of catching fish. Fishing techniques include Fish net, Fish trap, Spearfishing, angling and Gathering seafood by hand. The term fishing may be applied to catching other aquatic animals such as different types of shellfish, squid, octopus, turtles, Edible frog and some edible marine invertebrates....
, aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, implies the cultivation of aquatic populations under controlled conditions. Mariculture
Mariculture

Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or Raceway which are filled with seawater....
 refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments. Particular kinds of aquaculture include algaculture
Algaculture

Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae ....
 (the production of kelp
Kelp

Kelp are large seaweed plants , belonging to the brown algae and classified in the order Laminariales. There are about 30 different genus. Some species can be very long and form kelp forests....
/seaweed
Seaweed

Seaweed is a loose colloquial term encompassing macroscopic, multicellular, benthos ocean algae. The term includes some members of the rhodophyta, phycophyta and green algae....
 and other algae
Algae

Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms. The largest and most complex marine forms are called seaweeds....
), fish farming
Fish farming

Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food....
, shrimp farm
Shrimp farm

A shrimp farm is an aquaculture business for the cultivation of marine shrimp or prawns for human consumption. Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands of the United States, Japan and Western Europe....
ing, oyster farming
Oyster farming

Oyster farming is an aquaculture practice in which oysters are raised for human consumption. Oyster farming most likely developed in tandem with Pearl#The history of pearl hunting and pearl farming farming, a similar practice in which oysters are farmed for the purpose of developing pearls....
, and the growing of cultured pearls
Pearl

A pearl is a hard, roundish object produced within the soft tissue of a living animal shelled mollusk. Just like the shell of mollusks, a pearl is made up of of calcium carbonate in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in concentric layers....
.






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Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including molluscs, crustacean
Crustacean

Crustaceans are a large group of arthropods, comprising almost 52,000 described species , and are usually treated as a subphylum . They include various familiar animals, such as crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill and barnacles....
s and aquatic plants. Unlike fishing
Fishing

Fishing is the activity of catching fish. Fishing techniques include Fish net, Fish trap, Spearfishing, angling and Gathering seafood by hand. The term fishing may be applied to catching other aquatic animals such as different types of shellfish, squid, octopus, turtles, Edible frog and some edible marine invertebrates....
, aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, implies the cultivation of aquatic populations under controlled conditions. Mariculture
Mariculture

Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or Raceway which are filled with seawater....
 refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments. Particular kinds of aquaculture include algaculture
Algaculture

Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae ....
 (the production of kelp
Kelp

Kelp are large seaweed plants , belonging to the brown algae and classified in the order Laminariales. There are about 30 different genus. Some species can be very long and form kelp forests....
/seaweed
Seaweed

Seaweed is a loose colloquial term encompassing macroscopic, multicellular, benthos ocean algae. The term includes some members of the rhodophyta, phycophyta and green algae....
 and other algae
Algae

Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms. The largest and most complex marine forms are called seaweeds....
), fish farming
Fish farming

Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food....
, shrimp farm
Shrimp farm

A shrimp farm is an aquaculture business for the cultivation of marine shrimp or prawns for human consumption. Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands of the United States, Japan and Western Europe....
ing, oyster farming
Oyster farming

Oyster farming is an aquaculture practice in which oysters are raised for human consumption. Oyster farming most likely developed in tandem with Pearl#The history of pearl hunting and pearl farming farming, a similar practice in which oysters are farmed for the purpose of developing pearls....
, and the growing of cultured pearls
Pearl

A pearl is a hard, roundish object produced within the soft tissue of a living animal shelled mollusk. Just like the shell of mollusks, a pearl is made up of of calcium carbonate in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in concentric layers....
. Particular methods include aquaponics
Aquaponics

Aquaponics is the symbiosis cultivation of plants and aquatic animals in a recirculating environment. Alternate definition: An integrated hydroponics and aquaculture system....
, which integrates fish farming and plant farming.

History

Delta Pride Catfish Farm Harvest
Aquaculture has been used in China
China

China is a Culture of China, an ancient civilization, and, depending on perspective, a national or multinational entity extending over a large area in East Asia....
 since circa 2500 BC. When the waters lowered after river
River

A river is a natural stream of water, usually freshwater, flowing toward an ocean, a lake, or another stream. In some cases a river flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching another body of water....
 floods, some fishes, mainly carp
Common carp

The Common carp or European carp is a widespread freshwater fish most closely related to the common goldfish , with which it is capable of Hybrid ....
, were held in artificial lakes. Their brood were later fed using nymphs
Nymph (biology)

In biology, a nymph is the immature form of some insects, which undergoes incomplete metamorphosis before reaching its adult stage; unlike a typical larva, a nymph's overall form already resembles that of the adult....
 and silkworm feces, while the fish themselves were eaten as a source of protein
Protein

Proteins are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid Residue ....
. By a fortunate genetic mutation, this early domestication of carp
Common carp

The Common carp or European carp is a widespread freshwater fish most closely related to the common goldfish , with which it is capable of Hybrid ....
 led to the development of goldfish
Goldfish

The goldfish is a domesticated version of the Prussian carp , a dark-gray/brown carp native to Asia. It was first bred for color in China over 1,000 years ago....
 in the Tang Dynasty
Tang Dynasty

The Tang Dynasty was an Dynasties in Chinese history preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire....
.

The Hawaiian
Native Hawaiians

Native Hawaiians refers to the indigenous Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands or their descendants. Native Hawaiians trace their ancestry back to the first Marquesas Islands and Tahitian settlers of Hawaii , before the arrival of British explorer Captain James Cook in 1778....
 people practiced aquaculture by constructing fish ponds (see Hawaiian aquaculture
Hawaiian aquaculture

The Native Hawaiian people practiced aquaculture through development of pond , the most advanced husbandry of fishes among the original peoples of the Pacific Ocean....
). A remarkable example from ancient Hawaii
Ancient Hawaii

Ancient Hawaii refers to the period of Hawaiian history preceding the unification of the Kingdom of Hawaii by Kamehameha the Great in 1810. Included in this period was the first contact made by Captain James Cook in 1778....
 is the construction of a fish pond, dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. According to legend, it was constructed by the mythical Menehune
Menehune

In Hawaiian mythology, the Menehune [pronounced meh-neh-HOO-neh] are said to be a people, sometimes described as dwarfs in size, who live in the deep forests and hidden valleys of the Hawaiian islands, far from the eyes of normal humans....
. The Japan
Japan

Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, People's Republic of China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south....
ese practiced cultivation of seaweed
Seaweed

Seaweed is a loose colloquial term encompassing macroscopic, multicellular, benthos ocean algae. The term includes some members of the rhodophyta, phycophyta and green algae....
 by providing bamboo
Bamboo

The bamboos are a group of woody perennial plant evergreen plants in the true grass family Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae, tribe Bambuseae....
 poles and, later, nets and oyster
Oyster

The common name oyster is used for a number of different groups of bivalve mollusks, most of which live in marine habitats or brackish water....
 shells to serve as anchoring surfaces for spores. The Romans
Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC....
 often bred fish in ponds.

The practice of aquaculture gained prevalence in Europe
Europe

Europe is, conventionally, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural , the Caspian Sea, and by the Caucasus Mountains to the southeast....
 during the Middle Ages
Middle Ages

File:Karl 1 mit papst gelasius gregor1 sacramentar v karl d kahlen.jpgThe Middle Ages of European history are a period in history which lasted for roughly a millennium, commonly dated from the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century to the beginning of the Early Modern Period in the 16th century, marked by the division of Western Christi...
, since away from the seacoasts and the big rivers, fish were scarce and thus expensive. However, improvements in transportation during the 19th century made fish easily available and inexpensive, even in inland areas, causing a decline in the practice. When the first North American fish hatchery was constructed on Dildo Island
Dildo Island

Dildo Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, is the largest of three islands located at the entrance to Dildo Arm in the bottom of Trinity Bay , off the coast of the neighboring town Dildo, Newfoundland and Labrador....
, Newfoundland Canada
Canada

Canada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean....
 in 1889, it was the largest and most advanced in the world.

Americans were rarely involved in aquaculture until the late 20th century, but California
California

California is a U.S. state on the West Coast of the United States of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east, Arizona to the southeast, and to the south the Mexico state of Baja California....
 residents harvested wild kelp and made legal efforts to manage the supply starting circa 1900, later even producing it as a wartime resource.
Fresh Tilapia
Actually, there was keen interest in aquaculture in the United States as early as 1859 when Stephen Ainsworth of West Bloomfield, NY began his experiments with brook trout. By 1864 Seth Green had established a commercial fish hatching operation at Caledonia Springs, near Rochester, NY. By 1866, with the involvement of Dr. W. W. Fletcher of Concord Mass, artificial fish hatching operations were under way in both Canada and the United States.

In contrast to agriculture, the rise of aquaculture is a contemporary phenomenon. According to professor Carlos M. Duarte about 430 (97%) of the aquatic species presently in culture have been domesticated since the start of the 20th century, and an estimated 106 aquatic species have been domesticated over the past decade. The domestication
Domestication

Domestication or taming refers to the process whereby a population of living things becomes accustomed to a controlled environment by other plants or animals through a process of Selective breeding....
 of an aquatic species typically involves about a decade of scientific research. Current success in the domestication of aquatic species results from the 20th century rise of knowledge on the basic biology
Biology

Biology is a branch of the natural sciences concerned with the study of living organisms and their interaction with each other and their environment ....
 of aquatic species and the lessons learned from past success and failure. The stagnation in the world's fisheries and overexploitation of 20 to 30% of marine fish species have provided additional impetus to domesticate marine species, just as overexploitation of land animals provided the impetus for the early domestication of land species

In the 1960s, the price of fish began to climb, as wild fish capture rates peaked and the human population continued to rise. Today, commercial aquaculture exists on an unprecedented, huge scale. In the 1980s, open-netcage salmon farming also expanded; this particular type of aquaculture technology remains a minor part of the production of farmed finfish worldwide, but possible negative impacts on wild stocks, which have come into question since the late 1990s, have caused it to become a major cause of controversy.

World production

In 2004, the total world production of fisheries was 140.5 million tonnes of which aquaculture contributed 45.5 million tonnes or about 32% of the total world production. The growth rate of worldwide aquaculture has been sustained and rapid, averaging about 8 percent per annum for over thirty years, while the contribution to the total from wild fisheries has been essentially flat for the last decade.







Production by country

Aquaculture is an especially important economic activity in China. Between 1980 and 1997, the Chinese Bureau of Fisheries reports, aquaculture harvests grew at an annual rate of 16.7 percent, jumping from 1.9 million to nearly 23 million tons. In 2005 China accounted for 70% of the world's aquaculture production.



In the US, approximately 90% of all shrimp consumed is farmed and imported. In recent years salmon aquaculture has become a major export in southern Chile
Chile

Chile, officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow coastal strip wedged between the Andes mountains and the Pacific Ocean....
, especially in Puerto Montt
Puerto Montt

Puerto Montt is a port city and commune in southern Chile, located at the northern end of the Reloncav? Sound in the Llanquihue Province, Los Lagos Region....
 and Quellón
Quellón

Quell?n is a Chilean city, commune and port in southern Chilo? Island, Los Lagos Region. It is sometimes considered the end-station of the Panamerican Highway....
, Chile's fastest-growing city.

Environmental impacts

The concentrated nature of aquaculture often leads to higher than normal levels of fish waste in the water. Fish waste is organic and composed of nutrients necessary in all components of aquatic food webs. In some instances such as nearshore, high-intensity operations, increased waste can adversely affect the environment by decreasing dissolved oxygen levels in the water column. Onshore recirculating aquaculture systems, facilities using polyculture
Polyculture

Polyculture is agriculture using multiple crops in the same space, in imitation of the diversity of natural ecosystems, and avoiding large stands of single crops, or monoculture....
 techniques, and properly-sited facilities (e.g. offshore or areas with strong currents) are examples of ways to reduce or eliminate the negative environmental effects of fish waste.

Aquaculture can be more environmentally damaging than exploiting wild fisheries
Wild fisheries of the world

A fishery is an area with an associated fish or Aquatic animal population which is harvested for its commercial value. Fisheries can be marine or freshwater....
. Some heavily-farmed species of fish, such as salmon, are maintained in net-contained environments. Unused feed and waste products can contaminate the sea floor and cultured fish can escape from these pens. Escapees can out compete wild fish for food and spread disease, as well as dilute wild genetic stocks through interbreeding. The salmon consume approximately ten times more energy in fish as they are worth at harvest, making this kind of aquaculture less energy efficient than properly managed fishing.

Despite the environmental concerns, aquaculture profitability is so high that money can and should go back into promoting sustainable practices. Furthermore, new methods minimize the risk of biological and chemical pollution through minimizing stress to fish, vaccinating fish, fallowing netpens, and applying Integrated Pest Management. Vaccines also reduce antibiotic use, which are being used more and more.

Farming carnivorous fish may actually increase the pressure on wild fish, as for farming one kilo of farmed fish up to six kilo of wild fish are used for feeding.

Types of aquaculture


Algaculture


Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae
Algae

Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms. The largest and most complex marine forms are called seaweeds....
. The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae, also referred to as phytoplankton
Phytoplankton

Phytoplankton are the autotrophic component of the plankton community. The name comes from the Greek language words phyton, or "plant", and p?a??t?? , meaning "wanderer" or "drifter"....
, microphytes
Microphytes

Microphytes are microscopic algae, typically found in freshwater and Marine systems, and are often called microalgae. . There are 20,000 species....
, or planktonic algae.

Macroalgae, commonly known as seaweed
Seaweed

Seaweed is a loose colloquial term encompassing macroscopic, multicellular, benthos ocean algae. The term includes some members of the rhodophyta, phycophyta and green algae....
s, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation on a large scale as microalgae and are most often harvested wild from the ocean.

Fish farming

Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture
Mariculture

Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or Raceway which are filled with seawater....
. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing
Fishing

Fishing is the activity of catching fish. Fishing techniques include Fish net, Fish trap, Spearfishing, angling and Gathering seafood by hand. The term fishing may be applied to catching other aquatic animals such as different types of shellfish, squid, octopus, turtles, Edible frog and some edible marine invertebrates....
 or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery
Hatchery

A hatchery is a facility where Egg s are hatched under artificial conditions, especially those of fish or poultry. It may be used for ex-situ conservation purposes, i.e....
. Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon
Salmon

Salmon is the common name for several species of fish of the family Salmonidae. Several other fish in the family are called trout,the difference is often attributed to the migratory life of the salmon as compared to the residential behaviour of trout, this holds true for the Atlantic salmon....
, catfish
Catfish

Catfish are a very diverse group of Actinopterygii fish. Named for their prominent barbel s, which resemble a cat's whiskers , catfish range in size and behavior from the heaviest, the Pangasius gigas from Southeast Asia and the longest, the wels catfish of Eurasia, to detritivores , and even to a tiny parasite species commonly called the ca...
, tilapia
Tilapia

'Tilapia' is the Common name#Biological common names for nearly a hundred species of cichlid fish from the tilapiine cichlid tribe . Tilapias inhabit a variety of fresh water and, less commonly, brackish water habitats from shallow streams and ponds through to rivers, lakes, and estuaries....
, cod
Cod

Cod is the common name for the genus of fish Gadus, belonging to the family Gadidae, and is also used in the common name of a variety of other fishes....
, carp
Carp

Carp is a common name for various freshwater fish of the family Cyprinidae, a very large group of fish originally from Eurasia and southeast Asia....
, trout
Trout

Trout are a number of species of freshwater fish belonging to the Salmoninae subfamily of the Salmonidae family. Salmon belong to some of the same genera as trout but, unlike most trout, most salmon species spend almost all their lives in salt water....
 and others.

Increasing demands on wild fisheries
Wild fisheries of the world

A fishery is an area with an associated fish or Aquatic animal population which is harvested for its commercial value. Fisheries can be marine or freshwater....
 by commercial fishing
Fishing industry

File:Albatun Dod.jpg.The fishing industry includes any industry or activity concerned with taking, culturing, processing, preserving, storing, transporting, marketing or selling fish or fish products....
 operations have caused widespread overfishing
Overfishing

Overfishing occurs when fishing activities reduce fish stocks below an acceptable level. This can occur in any body of water from a pond to the oceans....
. Fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing market
Market

A market is any one of a variety of different systems, institutions, procedures, social relations and infrastructures whereby persons trade, and goods and services are exchanged, forming part of the economy....
 demand
Demand

Economics*Demand ,the desire to own something and the ability to pay for it*Demand curve,a graphic representation of a demand schedule *Demand deposit, the money in checking accounts...
 for fish
Fish

A fish is any marine biology vertebrate animal that is typically ectothermic , covered with scale , and equipped with two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins....
 and fish protein
Protein

Proteins are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid Residue ....
.

Freshwater prawn farming

A freshwater prawn farm is an aquaculture business designed to raise and produce freshwater prawn
Prawn

Prawns are crustaceans, belonging to the suborder Dendrobranchiata . They are similar in appearance to shrimp, but can be distinguished by the gill structure which is branching in prawns , but is Lamella r in shrimp....
 or shrimp
Shrimp

Shrimp are swimming, Decapoda crustaceans classified in the infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh water and seawater. Adult shrimp are Filter feeder benthic animals living close to the bottom....
 for human consumption. Freshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics with, and many of the same problems as, marine shrimp farm
Shrimp farm

A shrimp farm is an aquaculture business for the cultivation of marine shrimp or prawns for human consumption. Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands of the United States, Japan and Western Europe....
ing. Unique problems are introduced by the developmental life cycle of the main species (the giant river prawn
Giant river prawn

Macrobrachium rosenbergii, also known as the giant river prawn, the giant freshwater prawn or the Malaysian prawn, is a species of freshwater shrimp native to the Indo-Pacific and northern Australia....
, Macrobrachium rosenbergii).

The global annual production of freshwater prawns (excluding crayfish
Crayfish

Crayfish, crawfish, or crawdads are fresh water crustaceans resembling small lobsters, to which they are related. They breathe through feather-like gills and are found in bodies of water that do not freeze to the bottom; they are also mostly found in brooks and streams where there is fresh water running, and which have shelter ag...
 and crab
Crab

Crabs are Decapoda crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" , or where the reduced abdomen is entirely hidden under the thorax....
s) in 2003 was about 280,000 tons, of which China produced some 180,000 tons, followed by India and Thailand with some 35,000 tons each. Additionally, China produced about 370,000 tons of Chinese river crab (Eriocheir sinensis).

Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture

Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) is a practice in which the by-products (wastes) from one species are recycled to become inputs (fertilizer
Fertilizer

Fertilizers are chemical compounds given to plants to promote growth; they are usually applied either through the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar feeding, for uptake through leaves....
s, food
Food

Food is any substance, usually composed of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and water, that can be Eating or Drinking by an animal or human for nutrition or pleasure....
) for another. Fed aquaculture (e.g. fish
Fish

A fish is any marine biology vertebrate animal that is typically ectothermic , covered with scale , and equipped with two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins....
, shrimp
Shrimp

Shrimp are swimming, Decapoda crustaceans classified in the infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh water and seawater. Adult shrimp are Filter feeder benthic animals living close to the bottom....
) is combined with inorganic extractive (e.g. seaweed
Seaweed

Seaweed is a loose colloquial term encompassing macroscopic, multicellular, benthos ocean algae. The term includes some members of the rhodophyta, phycophyta and green algae....
) and organic extractive (e.g. shellfish
Shellfish

Shellfish is a culinary and fisheries term for exoskeleton bearing aquatic invertebrate used as food, including various species of Molluscas, crustaceans, and echinoderms....
) aquaculture to create balanced systems for environmental sustainability (biomitigation), economic stability (product diversification and risk reduction) and social acceptability (better management practices).

"Multi-Trophic" refers to the incorporation of species
Species

In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring....
 from different trophic
Trophic

Trophic can refer to:* Trophic level, in ecology, describing an organisms position in the food chain* Trophic egg, an egg laid for nutrition, not reproduction...
 or nutritional levels in the same system. This is one potential distinction from the age-old practice of aquatic polyculture
Polyculture

Polyculture is agriculture using multiple crops in the same space, in imitation of the diversity of natural ecosystems, and avoiding large stands of single crops, or monoculture....
, which could simply be the co-culture of different fish species from the same trophic level. In this case, these organisms may all share the same biological and chemical processes, with few synergistic
Synergy

Synergy is the term used to describe a situation where different entities cooperate advantageously for a final outcome. Simply defined, it means that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts....
 benefits, which could potentially lead to significant shifts in the ecosystem
Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical factors of the environment....
. Some traditional polyculture systems may, in fact, incorporate a greater diversity of species, occupying several niches
Ecological niche

In ecology, a niche is a term describing the relational position of a species or population in its ecosystem to each other; e.g. a dolphin will be in another ecological niche to one that travels in a different school.....
, as extensive cultures (low intensity, low management) within the same pond. The "Integrated" in IMTA refers to the more intensive cultivation of the different species in proximity of each other, connected by nutrient and energy transfer through water, but not necessarily right at the same location.

Ideally, the biological and chemical processes in an IMTA system should balance. This is achieved through the appropriate selection and proportions of different species providing different ecosystem functions. The co-cultured species should be more than just biofilters; they should also be harvestable crops of commercial value. A working IMTA system should result in greater production for the overall system, based on mutual benefits to the co-cultured species and improved ecosystem health, even if the individual production of some of the species is lower compared to what could be reached in monoculture
Monoculture

Monoculture is the agricultural practice of producing or growing one single crop over a wide area. The term is also applied in several fields. It is usually developed by extensive growing farmers....
 practices over a short term period.

Sometimes the more general term "Integrated Aquaculture" is used to describe the integration of monocultures through water transfer between organisms. For all intents and purposes however, the terms "IMTA" and "integrated aquaculture" differ primarily in their degree of descriptiveness. These terms are sometimes interchanged. Aquaponics
Aquaponics

Aquaponics is the symbiosis cultivation of plants and aquatic animals in a recirculating environment. Alternate definition: An integrated hydroponics and aquaculture system....
, fractionated aquaculture, IAAS (integrated agriculture-aquaculture systems), IPUAS (integrated peri-urban-aquaculture systems), and IFAS (integrated fisheries-aquaculture systems) may also be considered variations of the IMTA concept.

Mariculture

Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food
Food

Food is any substance, usually composed of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and water, that can be Eating or Drinking by an animal or human for nutrition or pleasure....
 and other products in the open ocean
Ocean

An ocean is a major body of Seawater, and a principal component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface is covered by ocean, a World Ocean that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas....
, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or raceways
Raceway (aquaculture)

Raceways are man-made tanks used to produce seafood. They are long and narrow, and provide a flow-through system for the water, which enables a higher density of animals to exist....
 which are filled with seawater
Seawater

Seawater is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5%, or 35 parts per thousand . This means that every 1 kg of seawater has approximately 35 grams of sea salt ....
. An example of the latter is the farming of marine fish
Fish

A fish is any marine biology vertebrate animal that is typically ectothermic , covered with scale , and equipped with two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins....
, prawns, or oysters in saltwater ponds. Non-food products produced by mariculture include: fish meal
Fish meal

Fish meal, or fishmeal, is a commercial product made from both whole fish and the bones and offal from processed fish. It is a brown powder or cake obtained by rendering pressing the whole fish or fish trimmings to remove the fish oil....
, nutrient agar
Agar

Agar or agar agar is a gelatinous substance derived from seaweed. Historically and in a modern context, it is chiefly used as an ingredient in desserts throughout Japan, but in the past century has found extensive use as a solid substrate to contain Growth medium for microbiology work....
, jewelries (e.g. cultured pearls
Pearl

A pearl is a hard, roundish object produced within the soft tissue of a living animal shelled mollusk. Just like the shell of mollusks, a pearl is made up of of calcium carbonate in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in concentric layers....
), and cosmetics
Cosmetics

Cosmetics are substances used to enhance or protect the appearance or odor of the human body. Cosmetics include skin-care Cream , lotions, Powder , perfumes, lipsticks, fingernail and toe nail polish, eye and facial makeup, permanent waves, colored contact lenses, hair colors, hair sprays and gels, deodorants, baby products, bath oils, bubb...
.

Shrimp farming

A shrimp farm is an aquaculture business for the cultivation of marine shrimp
Shrimp

Shrimp are swimming, Decapoda crustaceans classified in the infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh water and seawater. Adult shrimp are Filter feeder benthic animals living close to the bottom....
 for human consumption. Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands of the U.S.
United States

The United States of America is a Federal government constitutional republic comprising U.S. state and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its Contiguous United States and Washington, D.C., the Capital districts and territories, lie between the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Oceans, Borders of the U...
, Japan
Japan

Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, People's Republic of China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south....
 and Western Europe
Europe

Europe is, conventionally, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural , the Caspian Sea, and by the Caucasus Mountains to the southeast....
. The total global production of farmed shrimp reached more than 1.6 million tonne
Tonne

A tonne or metric ton , also referred to as a metric tonne, is a measurement of mass equal to 1,000 kilograms, or 2204.6226 pounds....
s in 2003, representing a value of nearly 9,000 million U.S. dollars
United States dollar

The United States dollar is the unit of currency of the United States and was defined by the Coinage Act of 1792 to be between 371 and 416 grains of silver ....
. About 75% of farmed shrimp is produced in Asia
Asia

Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent. It covers 8.6% of the Earth's total surface area and, with over 4 billion people, it contains more than 60% of the world's current human population....
, in particular in China
People's Republic of China

The People's Republic of China , commonly known as China, is the largest country in East Asia and the List of countries by population in the world with over 1.3 billion people, approximately a fifth of the world's population....
 and Thailand
Thailand

The Kingdom of Thailand is an independent country that lies in the heart of Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Laos and Myanmar, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the west by the Andaman Sea and Myanmar....
. The other 25% is produced mainly in Latin America
Latin America

Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages ? particularly Spanish language and Portuguese language, and variably French language ? are primarily spoken....
, where Brazil
Brazil

Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is a country in South America. It is the List of countries and outlying territories by total area country by geographical area, occupying nearly half of South America, the List of countries by population country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world....
 is the largest producer. The largest exporting nation is Thailand.

Shrimp farming has changed from traditional, small-scale businesses in Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India and north of Australia....
 into a global industry. Technological advances have led to growing shrimp at ever higher densities, and broodstock
Broodstock

In aquaculture, the broodstock is a group of sexually mature individuals of a cultured species that is kept separate for Selective breeding purposes....
 is shipped worldwide. Virtually all farmed shrimp are penaeids (i.e., shrimp of the family
Family (biology)

In biological classification, family is a taxonomic rank. Exact details of formal nomenclature depend on the Nomenclature Codes which applies....
 Penaeidae
Penaeidae

Penaeidae is a family of prawns, although they are often referred to as penaeid shrimp. It contains many species of economic importance, such as the tiger prawn , whiteleg shrimp, Atlantic white shrimp and Indian prawn....
), and just two species of shrimp—the Penaeus vannamei
Whiteleg shrimp

Whiteleg shrimp , also known as Pacific white shrimp, is a variety of Dendrobranchiata of the eastern Pacific Ocean commonly caught or farmed for food....
 (Pacific white shrimp) and the Penaeus monodon
Penaeus monodon

Penaeus monodon is a marine crustacean that is widely reared for food. The natural distribution is Indo-Pacific, ranging from the eastern coast of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, as far as South-east Asia, and the Sea of Japan....
 (giant tiger prawn)—account for roughly 80% of all farmed shrimp. These industrial monoculture
Monoculture

Monoculture is the agricultural practice of producing or growing one single crop over a wide area. The term is also applied in several fields. It is usually developed by extensive growing farmers....
s are very susceptible to disease
Disease

A disease or medical condition is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions, associated with specific symptoms and Medical signs....
s, which have caused several regional wipe-outs of farm shrimp populations. Increasing ecological
Ecology

Ecology is the science study of the distribution and Abundance of life and the interactions between organisms and their nature environment ....
 problems, repeated disease outbreaks, and pressure and criticism from both NGOs
Non-governmental organization

Non-governmental organization is a term that has become widely accepted for referring to a legally constituted, non-business organization created by natural or legal persons with no participation or representation of any government....
 and consumer countries led to changes in the industry in the late 1990s and generally stronger regulation by governments. In 1999, a program aimed at developing and promoting more sustainable farming
Sustainable agriculture

Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals: natural environment stewardship, farm profitability, and prosperous farming community. These goals have been defined by a variety of List of academic disciplines and may be looked at from the vantage point of the farmer or the consumer....
 practices was initiated, including governmental bodies, industry representatives, and environmental organizations.

Types of fish in aquaculture

  • Asian carp
    Asian carp

    There are many species of heavy-bodied cyprinid fishes collectively known as Asian carps. Heavy-bodied cyprinids from the subcontinent are not included in this classification and are known collectively as "Indian Carps"....
  • Atlantic salmon
    Atlantic salmon

    Atlantic salmon, known scientifically as Salmo salar, is a species of fish in the family Salmonidae, which is found in the northern Atlantic Ocean and in rivers that flow into the Atlantic and the Pacific....
  • Barramundi
    Barramundi

    The Barramundi is a species of fish migration fish in family Latidae of order Perciformes. The native species is widely distributed in the Indo-West Pacific region from the Persian Gulf, through Southeast Asia to Papua New Guinea and Northern Australia....
  • Bighead carp
    Bighead carp

    The bighead carp is a freshwater fish, one of several Asian carps. It has a large, scaleless head, a large mouth, and eyes located very low on the head....
  • Black carp
    Black carp

    Indigenous to China, the Black Carp is widely cultivated for food and for Chinese medicine. The black carp grows to a length of up to three feet , and over 70 pounds , generally feeding on snails and mussels....
  • Black Drum aka,Redfish
    Black drum

    The Black Drum is a saltwater fish similar to its cousin, the Red Drum. It is the only species in the genus Pogonias. Though most specimens are generally found in the 5-30lb range, the black drum is well known as the largest of all the drum family with some specimens reaching excesses of 90lbs ....
  • Catfish
    Catfish

    Catfish are a very diverse group of Actinopterygii fish. Named for their prominent barbel s, which resemble a cat's whiskers , catfish range in size and behavior from the heaviest, the Pangasius gigas from Southeast Asia and the longest, the wels catfish of Eurasia, to detritivores , and even to a tiny parasite species commonly called the ca...
  • Catla
    Catla

    Gibelion catla, the only member of the genus Gibelion, of the carp family Cyprinidae is a fish with a large protruding lower jaw. It is commonly found in rivers and freshwater lakes in Bangladesh, Pakistan and lakes of South Asia....
  • Cobia
    Cobia

    Cobia —also known as black kingfish, black salmon, ling, lemonfish, crabeaters, aruan tasek, etc.—are perciform marine fish, the sole representative of their family, the Rachycentridae....
  • Common carp
    Common carp

    The Common carp or European carp is a widespread freshwater fish most closely related to the common goldfish , with which it is capable of Hybrid ....
  • Florida Pompano
  • Grass carp
    Grass carp

    The Grass Carp is a herbivorous, freshwater fish. It is cultivated in China for food but was introduced in Europe and the United States for aquatic weed control....
  • Gourami
    Gourami

    The gourami or gouramies are a family , Osphronemidae, of fresh water perciform fishes. The fish are native to Asia, from Pakistan and India to the Malay Archipelago and north-easterly towards Korea....
  • Milkfish
    Milkfish

    The milkfish, , is an important food fish in Southeast Asia and is the sole living species in the family Chanidae. Milkfish have a generally symmetrical and streamlined appearance, with a sizable forked caudal fin....
  • Black Crappie
  • Perch
    Perch

    Perca is the genus of fish referred to as perch or, sometimes, yellow perch, a group of freshwater fish belonging to the family Percidae....
  • Bluegill
    Bluegill

    The Bluegill is a species of freshwaterfish sometimes referred to as bream, brim, or copper nose. It is a member of the sunfish family of order Perciformes....
  • Tilapia
    Tilapia

    'Tilapia' is the Common name#Biological common names for nearly a hundred species of cichlid fish from the tilapiine cichlid tribe . Tilapias inhabit a variety of fresh water and, less commonly, brackish water habitats from shallow streams and ponds through to rivers, lakes, and estuaries....
Mirgala, Rohita, Lates calcrifer (sea bass), Murrels

See also

  • Algaculture
    Algaculture

    Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae ....
  • Aquaponics
    Aquaponics

    Aquaponics is the symbiosis cultivation of plants and aquatic animals in a recirculating environment. Alternate definition: An integrated hydroponics and aquaculture system....
  • Agroecology
    Agroecology

    The term agroecology can be used in multiple ways. Broadly stated, it is the study of the role of agriculture in the world. Agroecology provides an interdisciplinary framework with which to study the activity of agriculture....
  • Fish farming
    Fish farming

    Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food....
  • Fisheries science
    Fisheries science

    Fisheries science is the academic discipline of managing and understanding fisheries. It is a multidisciplinary science, which draws on the disciplines of oceanography, marine biology, marine conservation, ecology, Population dynamics of fisheries, economics and management to attempt to provide an integrated picture of fisheries....
  • Mariculture
    Mariculture

    Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or Raceway which are filled with seawater....
  • Industrial agriculture
    Industrial agriculture (animals)

    Industrial animal agriculture is a modern form of intensive farming that refers to the Industry production of livestock, including cattle, poultry and fish....
  • Shrimp farm
    Shrimp farm

    A shrimp farm is an aquaculture business for the cultivation of marine shrimp or prawns for human consumption. Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands of the United States, Japan and Western Europe....
  • Prawn farm


Further reading

  • AquaLingua ISBN 82-529-2389-5
  • (1995), ISBN 9780889367760,


External links

Global
  • FAO (2007) ISBN 978-92-5-105568-7
  • FAO (2000)
  • and its on fisheries and aquaculture
  • [https://www.was.org/Main/Default.asp The World Aquaculture Society]: an international non-profit society with over 3,000 members in 94 countries with the primary focus to improve communication and information exchange within the diverse global aquaculture community.
  • provides a range of guidelines, policies and best practices and case studies on shrimp farming, seaweed farming and shellfish culture.
Regional
  • : Intergovernmental organization with 17 members that produce > 85% of global aquaculture production. Free news and full-text aquaculture publications for download.
  • : National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration – website for information about marine aquaculture in the US and elsewhere.
  • from "NOAA Socioeconomics" website initiative
  • , Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
    Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

    The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution is a private, nonprofit research and higher education facility dedicated to the study of all aspects of marine science and engineering and to the education of marine researchers....
  • : Scottish based Aquaculture Information Bureau.]
  • : Midwest US research center.]


Topic Specific
  • : Description of water recirculation aquaculture systems and benefits of using these types of farm designs to produce fish within eco-friendly land based enclosed aquaculture operations.
  • Salmon farming and sea lice
  • : Simulation modelling for mussels, oysters and clams.


Web Resources
  • A directory of reference links and downloadable reports, articles from numerous sources.
  • Articles and references on the merits and otherwise of farming fish organically.
  • News mirror service in the field of aquaculture with focus on its social effects
  • A searchable online library of government and United Nations documents covering nearly every aspect of aquaculture from pond construction to international codes of conduct.
  • A comprehensive information server for aquaculture topics, including publications, news, events, job announcements, images, and related resources.