The history of Puerto Rico began with the settlement of the
archipelagoAn archipelago is a chain or cluster of islands that are formed tectonically. The word archipelago is directly derived from the Greek arkhon and pelagos...
of
Puerto RicoPuerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is a self-governing unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of the Virgin Islands...
by the
Ortoiroid peopleThe Ortoiroid people were the first human settlers of the Caribbean. They are believed to have originated in the Orinoco valley in South America, migrating to the Antilles from Trinidad and Tobago to Puerto Rico. Rouse theorizes that the Ortoiroid developed for a large amount of time in South...
between 3000 and 2000 BC. Other tribes, such as the
SaladoidThe Saladoid are a native people of the Caribbean and Venezuela. The origins of the Island Arawaks have been traced to the lower Orinoco River near the modern settlements of Saladero and Barrancas in Venezuela. As we do not know what they called themselves, they have been given the name of the...
and
ArawakThe term Arawak , was used to designate some of the peoples encountered by the Spanish in the West Indies in 1492 and thereafter...
Indians, populated the island between 430 BC and 1000 AD. At the time of
Christopher ColumbusChristopher Columbus was a navigator, colonizer and explorer whose voyages across the Atlantic Ocean led to general European awareness of the American continents in the Western Hemisphere...
's arrival in the
New WorldThe New World is one of the names used for the non-Afro-Eurasian parts of the Earth, specifically the Americas and possibly Australia. When the term originated in the late 15th century, the Americas were new to the Europeans, who previously thought of the world as consisting only of Europe, Asia,...
in 1492, the dominant indigenous culture was that of the
TaínoThe Taínos are pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles. It is believed that the seafaring Taínos are relatives of the Arawakan people of South America...
s. The Taíno culture died out during the latter half of the 16th century because of exploitation by Spanish settlers, the war they waged on the Taíno, and diseases introduced by the invaders.
Located in the northeastern Caribbean, Puerto Rico formed a key part of the
Spanish EmpireThe Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in world history, and one of the first global empires. It included territories and colonies in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania, from the 15th century through—in the case of its African holdings—the latter portion of the 20th century...
from the early years of the exploration, conquest and colonization of the
New WorldThe New World is one of the names used for the non-Afro-Eurasian parts of the Earth, specifically the Americas and possibly Australia. When the term originated in the late 15th century, the Americas were new to the Europeans, who previously thought of the world as consisting only of Europe, Asia,...
. The island was a major military post during many wars between Spain and other European powers for control of the region in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The smallest of the
Greater AntillesThe Greater Antilles is one of four island groups in the Caribbean. Comprising Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico--the fourth largest island of the Antilles and the only U.S...
, Puerto Rico was a stepping-stone in the passage from Europe to
CubaThe Republic of Cuba is an island country in the Caribbean. It consists of the island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city. Cuba is home to over 11 million people and is...
, Mexico, Central America, and the northern territories of South America. Throughout most of the 19th century until the conclusion of the
Spanish–American WarThe Spanish–American War was an armed military conflict between Spain and the United States that took place between April and August 1898, over the issues of the liberation of Cuba. The war began after American demands for the resolution of the Cuban fight for independence were rejected by Spain...
, Puerto Rico and Cuba were the last two Spanish colonies in the New World; they served as Spain's final outposts in a strategy to regain control of the American continents.
In 1898, during the Spanish–American war, Puerto Rico was invaded and subsequently became a possession of the United States. The first half of the 20th century was marked by the struggle to obtain greater democratic rights from the United States. The
Foraker ActThe Foraker Act,officially the Organic Act of 1900, is a United States federal law that established civilian government on the island of Puerto Rico, which had been newly acquired by the United States as a result of the Spanish-American War. Section VII of the Foraker Act also established Puerto...
of 1900, which established a civil government, and the
Jones ActThe Jones-Shafroth Act , applies to the grant of citizenship to all citizens of Puerto Rico. Also known as the "Jones Act of Puerto Rico" or "Jones Law of Puerto Rico", it amended the "Organic Act of Puerto Rico" created by the Foraker Act of 1900...
of 1917, which granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship, paved the way for the drafting of
Puerto Rico's ConstitutionThe Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is the controlling government document of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. It is composed of nine articles detailing the structure of the government as well as the function of several of its institutions. The document also contains an extensive...
and the establishment of democratic elections in 1952. However, the political status of Puerto Rico, a Commonwealth controlled by the United States, remains an anomaly more than 500 years after the first Europeans settled the island.
Pre-colonial Puerto Rico
The settlement of Puerto Rico began with the establishment of the
OrtoiroidThe Ortoiroid people were the first human settlers of the Caribbean. They are believed to have originated in the Orinoco valley in South America, migrating to the Antilles from Trinidad and Tobago to Puerto Rico. Rouse theorizes that the Ortoiroid developed for a large amount of time in South...
culture from the
Orinoco regionThe Orinoco is one of the longest rivers in South America at 2,140 km, . Its drainage basin, sometimes called the Orinoquia covers 880,000 km², 76.3% in Venezuela with the rest in Colombia. The Orinoco and its tributaries are the major transportation system for eastern and interior Venezuela...
in South America. Some scholars suggest that their settlement dates back 4000 years. An archeological dig at the island of
ViequesVieques , in full Isla de Vieques, is an island-municipality of Puerto Rico in the northeastern Caribbean. Although Puerto Rico is a U.S. Commonwealth, Vieques, like the rest of Puerto Rico, retains strong Spanish influences from 400 years of Spanish ownership.Vieques lies about to the east of the...
in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to be an Ortoiroid man (named Puerto Ferro man) which was dated to around 2000 BC. The Ortoiroid were displaced by the
SaladoidThe Saladoid are a native people of the Caribbean and Venezuela. The origins of the Island Arawaks have been traced to the lower Orinoco River near the modern settlements of Saladero and Barrancas in Venezuela. As we do not know what they called themselves, they have been given the name of the...
, a culture from the same region that arrived on the island between 430 and 250 BC.
Between the seventh and eleventh centuries
ArawakThe term Arawak , was used to designate some of the peoples encountered by the Spanish in the West Indies in 1492 and thereafter...
s are thought to have settled the island. During this time the Taíno culture developed, and by approximately 1000 AD it had become dominant. Taíno culture has been traced to the village of Saladero at the basin of the
Orinoco RiverThe Orinoco is one of the longest rivers in South America at 2,140 km, . Its drainage basin, sometimes called the Orinoquia covers 880,000 km², 76.3% in Venezuela with the rest in Colombia. The Orinoco and its tributaries are the major transportation system for eastern and interior Venezuela...
in
VenezuelaVenezuela , officially titled Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela , is a tropical country on the northern coast of South America. It is a continental mainland with numerous islands located off its coastline in the Caribbean Sea...
; the Taínos migrated to Puerto Rico by crossing the
Lesser AntillesThe Lesser Antilles, also known as the Caribbees, are part of the Antilles, which together with the Bahamas, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and Greater Antilles form the West Indies...
.
At the time of Columbus' arrival, an estimated 30 to 60 thousand Taíno Amerindians, led by
caciqueCacique or Cazique is a title derived from the Taíno word for the pre-Columbian chiefs or leaders of tribes in the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles...
(chief) Agüeybaná, inhabited the island. They called it Boriken, "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord". The natives lived in small villages led by a cacique and subsisted on hunting, fishing and gathering of indigenous
cassavaCassava is a woody shrub of the Euphorbiaceae native to South America that is extensively cultivated as an annual crop in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible starchy tuberous root, a major source of carbohydrates...
root and fruit. When the Spaniards arrived in 1493, conflicts with raiding
CaribCarib, Island Carib or Kalinago people, after whom the Caribbean Sea was named, live in the Lesser Antilles islands. They are an Amerindian people whose origins lie in the southern West Indies and the northern coast of South America....
s, who were moving up the
AntillesThe Antilles refers to the islands forming the greater part of the West Indies in the Caribbean Sea...
chain, were taking place. The Taíno domination of the island was nearing its end and the Spanish arrival would mark the beginning of their extinction. Their culture, however, remains strongly embedded in that of contemporary Puerto Rico. Musical instruments such as
maracaMaracas are a native instrument of Puerto Rico, Cuba, Venezuela and several nations of the Caribbean and Latin America. They are simple percussion instruments , usually played in pairs, consisting of a dried calabash or gourd shell or coconut shell filled with seeds or dried beans...
s and
güiroThe güiro is a percussion instrument consisting of an open-ended, hollow gourd with parallel notches cut in one side. It is played by rubbing a wooden stick along the notches to produce a ratchet-like sound. The güiro is commonly used in Latin-American music, and plays a key role in the typical...
, the
hammockThe hammock is a fabric sling used for sleeping or resting while suspended above ground. It normally consists of one or more cloth panels, or a woven network of twine or thin rope stretched with ropes between two firm points such as trees or posts. Hammocks were developed by native inhabitants of...
, and words such as
MayagüezMayagüez is the eighth-largest municipality of Puerto Rico. Also known as "La Sultana del Oeste" , "Ciudad de las Aguas Puras" or "Ciudad del Mangó" "Ciudad de Dios" , on April 6, 1894 the Spanish crown gave it the formal title of "Excelente ciudad de Mayagüez",...
,
AreciboArecibo is a municipality in the northern midwest coast of Puerto Rico and located by the Atlantic Ocean, north of Utuado and Ciales; east of Hatillo; and west of Barceloneta, and Florida. Arecibo is spread over 18 wards and Arecibo Pueblo...
,
iguanaIguana is a genus of lizard native to tropical areas of Central and South America and the Caribbean.. The genus was first described by Austrian naturalist Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti in his book Specimen Medicum, Exhibens Synopsin Reptilium Emendatam cum Experimentis circa Venena in 1768...
, and
huracán (hurricane) are examples of the legacy left by the Taíno.
Beginning of colonization
On September 25, 1493,
Christopher ColumbusChristopher Columbus was a navigator, colonizer and explorer whose voyages across the Atlantic Ocean led to general European awareness of the American continents in the Western Hemisphere...
set sail on his second voyage with 17 ships and 1,200–1,500 men from
CádizCádiz is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Cádiz Province, one of eight which make up the autonomous community of Andalusia....
. On November 19, 1493 he landed on the island, naming it
San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint
John the BaptistJohn the Baptist was a mission preacher and a major religious figure who led a movement of Baptism at the Jordan River in expectation of a divine apocalypse that would restore occupied Israel...
. The first settlement, Caparra, was founded on August 8, 1508 by
Juan Ponce de LeónJuan Ponce de León, was a Spanish explorer. He became the first Governor of Puerto Rico by appointment of the Spanish Crown. He led the first European expedition to Florida, which he named...
, a
lieutenantLieutenant is a military, naval, paramilitary, fire service, emergency medical services or police officer rank....
under Columbus, who later became the first
governorA governor is a governing official, usually the executive of a non-sovereign level of government, ranking under the head of state...
of the island. The following year, the settlement was abandoned in favor of a nearby islet on the coast, named Puerto Rico (Rich Port), which had a suitable harbor. In 1511, a second settlement,
San GermánSan Germán is a municipality located in the southwestern region of Puerto Rico, south of Mayagüez and Maricao; north of Lajas; east of Hormigueros and Cabo Rojo; and west of Sabana Grande. San Germán is spread over 18 wards and San Germán Pueblo...
was established in the southwestern part of the island. During the 1520s, the island took the name of Puerto Rico while the port became
San JuanSan Juan is the capital and largest municipality in Puerto Rico. As of the 2000 census, it has a population of 433,733, making it the 42nd-largest city under the jurisdiction of the United States. San Juan was founded by Spanish colonists in 1521, who called it Ciudad de Puerto Rico...
.
Colonization took the form of
encomiendaThe encomienda is a trusteeship labor system that was employed by the Spanish crown during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the Philippines. In the encomienda, the crown granted a person a specified number of natives for whom they were to take responsibility. The receiver of the grant...
settlements, where settlers enslaved Taínos, providing them with military protection in return for labor. On December 27, 1512, under pressure from the
Roman Catholic ChurchThe Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church. With more than a billion members, over half of all Christians and more than one-sixth of the world's population, the Catholic Church is a communion of the Western, or Latin Rite Church, and...
,
Ferdinand II of AragonFerdinand the Catholic was King of Aragon , Sicily , Naples , Valencia, Sardinia, and Navarre, Count of Barcelona, de jure uxoris King of Castile and then Regent of that country also from 1508 to his death, in the name of his mentally unstable daughter Joanna the...
issued the
Burgos' LawsThe document known as the Leyes de Burgos was promulgated on December 27, 1512 in Burgos, Spain. They were the first codified set of laws governing the behavior of Spanish foreigners in America, particularly with regards to native Indians. It enumerated a number of laws for the government of the...
, which modified the
encomiendas into a system called
repartimientoThe Repartimiento de Labor was a colonial forced labor system imposed upon the indigenous population of Spanish America and the Philippines. In concept it was similar to other tribute-labor systems, such as the mita of the Inca Empire or the corvée of Ancien Régime France: the natives were forced...
s, aimed at ending the exploitation. The laws prohibited the use of any form of punishment toward the indigenous people, regulated their work hours, pay, hygiene, and care, and ordered them to be
catechizedA catechism is a summary or exposition of doctrine, traditionally used in Christian religious teaching from New Testament times to the present...
. In 1511, the Taínos revolted against the Spanish; cacique
UrayoánUrayoán was a Taíno "Cacique" famous for ordering the drowning of Diego Salcedo to determine if the Spanish were gods.He was the cacique of "Yucayeque del Yagüeka or Yagueca", a region that presently spans between Añasco and Mayagüez. In 1511, Urayoán and Agüeybaná II conceived a plan to find out...
, as planned by
Agüeybaná IIAgüeybaná and Agüeybaná II , were brothers and the principal and most powerful caciques of the Taíno people in "Borikén" when the Spaniards first arrived on the island on November 19, 1493....
, ordered his warriors to drown the Spanish soldier
Diego SalcedoDiego Salcedo was a Spanish soldier who allegedly lived during the colonization of the Americas. According to legend he became an unwitting part of Puerto Rico's history through his death at the hands of Taíno Indians testing to see if he was a god...
to determine whether the Spaniards were immortal. After drowning Salcedo, they kept watch over his body for three days to confirm his death. The revolt was easily crushed by Ponce de León and within a few decades much of the native population had been decimated by disease, violence, and a high occurrence of suicide.
The Roman Catholic Church, realizing the opportunity to expand its influence, also participated in colonizing the island. On August 8, 1511,
Pope Julius IIPope Julius II , nicknamed Il Papa Terribile , was born Giuliano della Rovere. He was Pope from 1503 to 1513. His reign was marked by an aggressive foreign policy, ambitious building projects, and patronage for the arts.-Early life:There is disagreement about Julius' date of birth...
established three
dioceseIn some forms of Christianity, a diocese is an administrative territorial unit administered by a bishop. It is also referred to as a bishopric or Episcopal Area or episcopal see, though strictly the term episcopal see refers to the domain of ecclesiastical authority officially held by the bishop,...
s in the New World, one in Puerto Rico and two on the island of
HispaniolaHispaniola is a major island in the Caribbean, comprising Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is located between the islands of Cuba to the west, and Puerto Rico to the east, directly within the hurricane belt...
under the
archbishopIn Christianity, an archbishop is an elevated bishop. In many Christian Churches, this means that they lead a diocese of particular importance called an archdiocese, or in the Anglican Communion an Ecclesiastical Province, but this is not always the case. An archbishop is equivalent to a bishop in...
of
SevilleSeville is the artistic, cultural, and financial capital of southern Spain. It is the capital of Andalusia and of the province of Seville. It is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir, with an average elevation of above sea level. The inhabitants of the city are known as Sevillanos or...
. The Canon of
SalamancaSalamanca is a city in western Spain, the capital of the province of Salamanca, which belongs to the autonomous community of Castile and Leon...
,
Alonso MansoBishop Alonso Manso was a Spanish bishop born in Becerril de Campos, Spain. He studied theology at the University of Salamanca. He became the canon of Salamanca and the chaplain of the prince Don Juan. On November 15, 1504 he was appointed bishop of Magua, Dominican Republic...
, was appointed bishop of the Puerto Rican diocese. On September 26, 1512, before his arrival on the island, the first school of advanced studies was established by the bishop. Taking possession in 1513, he became the first bishop to arrive in the Americas. Puerto Rico would also become the first ecclesiastical headquarters in the New World during the reign of
Pope Leo XPope Leo X was Pope from 1513 to his death. He was the last non-priest to be elected Pope. He is known primarily for the sale of indulgences to reconstruct St. Peter's Basilica and his challenging of Martin Luther's 95 theses. He was the second son of Lorenzo de' Medici, the most famous ruler of...
and the general headquarters of the
Spanish InquisitionThe Spanish Inquisition was an ecclesiastical tribunal started in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms, and to replace the medieval inquisition which was under papal control...
in the New World.
As part of the colonization process,
African slavesThe slave trade in Africa existed for thousands of years. The first main route passed through the Sahara, tying in to the Arab slave trade. After the European Age of Exploration, African slaves became part of the Atlantic slave trade, from which comes the modern, Western conception of slavery as...
were brought to the island in 1513. Following the decline of the Taíno population, more slaves were brought to Puerto Rico; however, the number of slaves on the island paled in comparison to those in neighboring islands. Also, early in the colonization of Puerto Rico, attempts were made to wrest control of Puerto Rico from Spain. The Caribs, a raiding tribe of the Caribbean, attacked Spanish settlements along the banks of the Daguao and Macao rivers in 1514 and again in 1521 but each time they were easily repelled by the superior Spanish firepower. However, these would not be the last attempts at control of Puerto Rico. The European powers quickly realized the potential of the newly discovered lands and attempted to gain control of them.
European threats
Sparked by the possibility of immense wealth, many European powers made attempts to wrest control of the Americas from Spain in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Success in invasion varied, and ultimately all Spanish opponents failed to maintain permanent control of the island. In 1528, the French, recognizing the strategic value of Puerto Rico, sacked and burned the southwestern town of San Germán. They also destroyed many of the island's first settlements, including
GuánicaGuánica is a municipality in southwestern Puerto Rico located on southern coast, bordering the Caribbean Sea, south of Sabana Grande, east of Lajas, and west of Yauco. It is part of the Yauco Metropolitan Statistical Area....
,
SotomayorAguada is a municipality of Puerto Rico, located in the western coastal valley region bordering the Atlantic Ocean, west of Rincón, Aguadilla and Moca; and north of Anasco. It is part of the Aguadilla-Isabela-San Sebastián Metropolitan Statistical Area...
,
DaguaoCeiba is a small town in northeast Puerto Rico. It is named after the famous Ceiba tree. Ceiba is located in the east coast of the island, bordering the Atlantic Ocean, north of Naguabo, south of Fajardo, and east of Río Grande. It is located about one hour's driving distance from San Juan...
and
LoízaLoíza is a small town and municipality in the northeastern coast of Puerto Rico, north of Canóvanas; east of Carolina; and west of Río Grande. Loíza is spread over 5 wards and Loíza Pueblo...
before the local militia forced them to retreat. The only settlement that remained was the capital, San Juan. French corsairs would again sack San Germán in 1538 and 1554.
Spain, determined to defend its possession, began the fortification of the inlet of San Juan in the early 16th century. In 1532, construction of the first fortifications began with
La FortalezaLa Fortaleza, is the current official residence of the Governor of Puerto Rico. It was built between 1533 and 1540 to defend the harbor of San Juan. The structure is also known as Palacio de Santa Catalina . It is the oldest executive mansion in the New World...
(the Fortress) near the entrance to San Juan bay. Seven years later the construction of massive defenses around San Juan began, including Fort San Felipe del Morro astride the entrance to San Juan bay. Later,
Fort San CristóbalThe Castillo de San Cristóbal is a Spanish fort in San Juan, Puerto Rico. It was built by the Spaniards to protect against land based attacks on the city of San Juan. It is part of San Juan National Historic Site....
and
Fort San JerónimoFortín de San Gerónimo del Boquerón is a small fort located in the entrance to what is known today as Condado Lagoon in San Juan, Puerto Rico. It was built during the 17th century to replace a smaller battery that stood at the easternmost end of the San Juan islet...
—built with a financial subsidy from the Mexican mines—garrisoned troops and defended against land attacks. In 1587, engineers Juan de Tejada and
Juan Bautista AntonelliJuan Bautista Antonelli was a military engineer from a prestigious Italian family of military engineers in the service of the Habsburg monarchs of Austria and Spain....
redesigned Fort San Felipe del Morro; these changes endure. Politically, Puerto Rico was reorganized in 1580 into a
captaincy generalThe Captaincy General of Puerto Rico was an administrative district of the Spanish Empire, created in 1580 to provide better military management of the island of Puerto Rico, previously under the direct rule of a simple governor and the jurisdiction of Audiencia of Santo Domingo...
to provide for more autonomy and quick administrative responses to military threats.
On November 22, 1595, English
privateerA privateer was a private warship authorized by a country's government by letters of marque to attack foreign shipping. Strictly, a privateer was only entitled by its state to attack and rob enemy vessels during wartime. Privateers were part of naval warfare of some nations from the 16th to the...
Sir Francis Drake—with 27 vessels and 2,500 troops—sailed into San Juan Bay intending to loot the city. Even though San Juan was set ablaze, they were unable to defeat the forces entrenched in the forts. Knowing Drake had failed to overcome the city's defenses by sea, on June 15, 1598, the
Royal NavyThe Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of HM Armed Forces . From the beginning of the 18th century until well into the 20th century, it was the most powerful navy in the world, playing a key part in establishing the British Empire as the dominant world power from 1815 until the early...
, led by
George Clifford, 3rd Earl of CumberlandGeorge Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland was an English peer, as well as a naval commander and courtier in the court of Queen Elizabeth I....
, landed troops from 21 ships to the east in
SanturceSanturce is a district in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The name Santurce comes from St. George. The original Santurce is a town near Bilbao, in Spain ....
. Clifford and his men met Spanish resistance while attempting to cross the San Antonio bridge (from an area known today as Condado) into the islet of San Juan. Nonetheless, the British conquered the island and held it for several months. They were forced to abandon the island owing to an outbreak of
dysenteryDysentery is an inflammatory disorder of the intestine, especially of the colon, that results in severe diarrhea containing mucus and/or blood in the feces. If left untreated, dysentery can be fatal....
among the troops. The following year Spain sent soldiers, cannons, and a new governor, Alonso de Mercado, to rebuild the city of San Juan.
The 17th and 18th centuries saw more attacks on the island. On September 25, 1625, the
DutchThe Netherlands is a country in Northwestern Europe, constituting the major portion of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy. The Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east...
, under the leadership of Boudewijn Hendrick (Balduino Enrico), attacked San Juan, besieging Fort San Felipe del Morro and La Fortaleza. Residents fled the city but the Spanish, led by Governor Juan de Haro, were able to repel the Dutch troops from Fort San Felipe del Morro. In their retreat the Dutch set the city ablaze. The fortification of San Juan continued; in 1634,
Philip IV of SpainPhilip IV was King of Spain between 1621 and 1665, sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands, and King of Portugal until 1640. On the eve of his death in 1665, the Spanish empire reached its territorial zenith spanning almost 3 billion acres...
fortified Fort San Cristóbal, along with six fortresses linked by a line of sandstone walls surrounding the city. In 1702, the
EnglishThe Kingdom of England was, from 927 to 1707, a sovereign state and island country to the northwest of continental Europe. At its zenith, the Kingdom of England spanned the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain and several smaller outlying islands—what is today the legal unit of...
assaulted the town of Arecibo, located on the north coast, west of San Juan, with no success. In 1797, the French and Spanish declared war on the
United KingdomThe Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a sovereign state in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1801...
. The British attempted again to conquer the island, attacking San Juan with an invasion force of 7,000 troops and an
armadaArmada is the Spanish and Portuguese for naval fleet, or an adjective meaning 'armed'; Armáda is the Czech and Slovak for army. It may refer to:-Military campaigns:...
consisting of 64 warships under the command of General
Ralph AbercrombyLieutenant-General Sir Ralph Abercromby, KB was a British lieutenant-general noted for his services during the Napoleonic Wars.-Biography:...
. Captain General Don Ramón de Castro and his army successfully resisted the attack.
Amidst the constant attacks, the first threads of Puerto Rican society emerged. A 1765 census conducted by Lt. General
Alejandro O'ReillyAlejandro O'Reilly , was a highly respected military reformer and Inspector-General of Infantry for the Spanish Empire in the second half of the 18th century...
showed a total population of 44,883, of which 5,037 (11.2%) were slaves, a low percentage compared to the other Spanish colonies in the Caribbean. In 1786 the first comprehensive history of Puerto Rico—
Historia Geográfica, Civil y Política de Puerto Rico by
Fray Iñigo Abbad y LasierraFray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra , born in Estadilla, Spain, was a Benedictine monk and the first historian to extensively document Puerto Rico's history, nationality and culture....
—was published in
MadridMadrid is the capital and largest city of Spain. It is the third-most populous municipality in the European Union after Greater London and Berlin, and its metropolitan area is the third-most populous city by urban area in the European Union after Paris and London.The city is located on the river...
, documenting the history of Puerto Rico from the time of Columbus' landing in 1493 until 1783. The book also presents a first hand account of Puerto Rican identity, including music, clothing, personality and nationality.
Early 19th century
The 19th century brought many changes to Puerto Rico, both political and social. In 1809, the Spanish government, in opposition to Napoleon, was convened in Cádiz in southern Spain. While still swearing allegiance to the king, the
Supreme Central JuntaIn the Napoleonic Era, junta was the name chosen by several local administrations forming in Spain during the Peninsular War as a patriotic alternative to the official administration toppled by the French invaders.-Junta Suprema Central, 1808-1810:...
invited voting representatives from the colonies.
Ramón Power y GiraltCaptain Ramon Power y Giralt , was, according to Puerto Rican historian Lidio Cruz Monclova, among the first native born Puerto Ricans to refer to himself as a "Puerto Rican" and to fight for the equal representation of Puerto Rico in front of the parliamentary government of Spain.-Early...
was nominated as the local delegate to the
Cádiz CortesThe Cádiz Cortes were sessions of the national legislative body which met in the safe haven of Cádiz during the French occupation of Spain during the Napoleonic Wars...
. The
Ley Power ("the Power Act") soon followed, which designated five ports for free commerce—
FajardoFajardo is a small but popular city in Puerto Rico located in the east region of the island, bordering the Atlantic Ocean, north of Ceiba and east of Luquillo.Fajardo is spread over 7 wards and Downtown Fajardo , which serves as the administrative center of the city...
, Mayagüez,
AguadillaAguadilla , founded in 1775 by Luis de Córdova, is a city located in the northwestern tip of Puerto Rico bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, north of Aguada, and Moca and west of Isabela. Aguadilla is spread over 15 wards and Aguadilla Pueblo...
,
Cabo RojoCabo Rojo is a city in the south-west of Puerto Rico, on the Western Costal Valley. It is located to the south of Mayagüez and to the west of Lajas, whilst a little to the west of the town lies the Mona Passage. The town is spread over 18 wards and Cabo Rojo Pueblo is the downtown area and the...
and
PoncePonce is both a city and a municipality in southern part of Puerto Rico. The city is the seat of the municipal government....
—and established economic reforms with the goal of developing a more efficient economy. In 1812, the
Cádiz ConstitutionThe Spanish Constitution of 1812 was promulgated by the Cádiz Cortes, the national legislative assembly of Spain acting while in refuge. The Spaniards baptised the constitution "La Pepa" because it was adopted on Saint Joseph's Day, The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was promulgated by the Cádiz...
was adopted, dividing Spain and its territories into provinces, each with a local corporation or council to promote its prosperity and defend its interests; this granted Puerto Ricans conditional citizenship.
On August 10, 1815, the
Royal Decree of GraceThe Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 is a legal order approved by the Spanish Crown in the early half of the 19th century to encourage Spaniards and later Europeans of non-Spanish origin to settle and populate the colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico....
was issued, allowing foreigners to enter Puerto Rico (including French refugees from Hispaniola), and opening the port to trade with nations other than Spain. This was the beginning of agriculture-based economic growth, with sugar, tobacco and coffee being the main products. The Decree also gave free land to anyone who swore their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and their allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. Thousands of families from all regions of Spain (particularly Asturias, Catalonia, Majorca and Galicia),
GermanyGerman immigration to Puerto Rico began when German businessmen immigrated to Puerto Rico during the early part of the 18th century. However, it was the economic and political situation in Europe during the early 19th century plus, the fact that the Spanish Crown issued the Royal Decree of Graces ...
,
CorsicaVarious economic and political changes in the mid-19th century Europe contributed to the Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico; among those factors were the social-economic changes which came about in Europe as a result of the Second Industrial Revolution, political discontent and widespread crop...
,
IrelandDuring the 18th and 19th centuries, there was considerable Irish immigration to Puerto Rico, for a number of reasons.During the 16th century many Irishmen, who were known as "Wild Geese", fled the English Army and joined the Spanish Army. Some of these men were stationed in Puerto Rico and...
,
FranceThe French immigration to Puerto Rico came about as a result of the economic and political situations which occurred in various places such as Louisiana , Saint-Domingue and in Europe....
, Portugal, the
Canary IslandsThe Canary Islands are a Spanish archipelago which, in turn, forms one of the Spanish Autonomous Communities and an Outermost Region of the European Union. The archipelago is located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the disputed border between Morocco and the...
and other locations, escaping from harsh economic times in Europe and lured by the offer of free land, soon immigrated to Puerto Rico. However, these small gains in autonomy and rights were short lived. After the fall of Napoleon,
absolute powerAbsolute monarchy is a monarchical form of government where the king or queen has absolute power over all aspects of his/her subjects' lives. Although some religious authorities may be able to discourage the monarch from some acts and the sovereign is expected to act according to custom, in an...
returned to Spain, which revoked the Cádiz Constitution and reinstated Puerto Rico to its former condition as a
colonyIn politics and in history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state. For colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies. Some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their...
, subject to the unrestricted power of the Spanish
monarchA monarch is the person who heads a monarchy, a form of government in which the country or entity usually ruled or controlled by an individual who usually rules for life or until abdication...
.
The integration of immigrants into Puerto Rican culture and other events changed Puerto Rican society. On June 25, 1835, Queen María Cristina abolished the slave trade to Spanish colonies. In 1851, Governor Juan de la Pezuela Cevallos founded the Royal Academy of Belles Letters. The academy licensed primary school teachers, formulated school methods, and held literary contests that promoted the intellectual and literary progress of the island. In 1858, the telegraph was introduced on the island with the assistance of
Samuel F. B. MorseSamuel Finley Breese Morse was the American inventor of a single-wire telegraph system and Morse code and a painter of historic scenes.-Birth and education:Samuel F.B...
who installed a line in the town of
ArroyoArroyo is a municipality in the Southern Coastal Valley of Puerto Rico and bordered by the Caribbean Sea, east of the municipality of Guayama and northwest of the municipality of Patillas. Arroyo is spread over 5 wards and Arroyo Pueblo...
at Hacienda La Enriqueta.
Struggle for autonomy
The latter half of the 19th century was marked by the Puerto Rican struggle for autonomy. A census conducted in 1860 revealed a population of 583,308. Of these, 300,406 (51.5%) were white and 282,775 (48.5%) were persons of color, the latter including people of primarily African heritage,
mulattoMulatto denotes a person with one white parent and one black parent or a person who has both black ancestry and white ancestry. The term may be perceived as pejorative in some cultures and situations. Its current usage varies greatly.-Etymology:...
s and
mestizoMestizo is a Spanish and Portuguese term that was used in the Spanish Empire and Portuguese Empire to refer to Latin people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry in the Americas....
s. The majority of the population in Puerto Rico was illiterate (83.7%) and lived in poverty, and the agricultural industry—at the time, the main source of income—was hampered by lack of road infrastructure, adequate tools and equipment, and natural disasters, including hurricanes and droughts. The economy also suffered from increasing tariffs and taxes imposed by the Spanish Crown. Furthermore, Spain had begun to exile or jail any person who called for liberal reforms.
On September 23, 1868, hundreds of men and women in the town of
LaresLares is a small mountain municipality of Puerto Rico's central-western area located north of Maricao and Yauco; south of Camuy, east of San Sebastián and Las Marias; and west of Hatillo, Utuado and Adjuntas. Lares is spread over 10 wards and Lares Pueblo...
—stricken by poverty and politically estranged from Spain—revolted against Spanish rule, seeking Puerto Rican independence. The
Grito de LaresEl Grito de Lares —also referred as the Lares uprising, the Lares revolt, Lares rebellion or even Lares Revolution—was the first major revolt against Spanish rule and call for independence in Puerto Rico...
("Lares Cry" or "Lares Uprising") was planned by a group led by Dr.
Ramón Emeterio BetancesRamón Emeterio Betances y Alacán was a Puerto Rican nationalist. He was the primary instigator of the Grito de Lares revolution, and as such, is considered to be the father of the Puerto Rican independence movement...
, at the time exiled to the
Dominican RepublicThe Dominican Republic is a nation on the island of Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are occupied by two countries...
, and
Segundo Ruiz BelvisSegundo Ruiz Belvis , was a dedicated abolitionist who also fought for Puerto Rico's right to independence.-Early years:...
. Dr. Betances had founded the
Comité Revolucionario de Puerto Rico (
Revolutionary Committee of Puerto RicoThe Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico was founded by Juan Ruis Rivera, Ramón Emeterio Betances and Jose Francisco Basora in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. The committee was founded on January 8, 1867, and composed of Puerto Rican and Dominican patriots. The goal of the committee was to...
) in January 1868. The most important figures in the uprising were Manuel Rojas,
Mathias BrugmanMathias Brugman , a.k.a. Mathias Bruckman, was a leader in Puerto Rico's independence revolution against Spain known as El Grito de Lares .-Early years:...
,
Mariana BracettiMariana Bracetti was a patriot and leader of the Puerto Rico independence movement in the 1860s. She is attributed with having knitted the flag that was intended to be used as the national emblem of Puerto Rico in the failed attempt to overthrow the Spanish government on the island to establish...
,
Francisco Ramirez MedinaFrancisco Ramírez Medina is the only person to be named "President of the Republic of Puerto Rico".-El Grito de Lares :...
and
Lola Rodríguez de TióDolores Rodríguez de Astudillo y Ponce de León, more commonly known as Lola Rodríguez de Tió , was the first Puerto Rican born poetess to establish herself a reputation as a great poet throughout all of Latin-America...
. The uprising, although significant, was quickly controlled by Spanish authorities.
Following the
Grito de Lares revolt, political and social reforms occurred toward the end of the 19th century. On June 4, 1870, due to the efforts of
Román Baldorioty de CastroRomán Baldorioty de Castro distinguished himself as one of Puerto Rico's foremost abolitionists and spokesman for the island's right to self-determination...
,
Luis PadialBrigadier General Luis Padial , was a soldier, politician and one of the most important figures who was responsible for the abolishment of slavery in Puerto Rico.-Early years:...
and
Julio VizcarrondoJulio Vizcarrondo Coronado was a Puerto Rican abolitionist, journalist, politician and religious leader. He played an instrumental role in the development and passage of the Moret Law which in 1873 abolished slavery in Puerto Rico...
, the
Moret LawThe Moret Law was a form of freedom of wombs approved in Spain on July 4, 1870 for application in the colonies as a result of the efforts of Roman Baldorioty de Castro, Luis Padial, Julio Vizcarrondo, and Segismundo Moret...
was approved, giving freedom to slaves born after September 17, 1868 or over 60 years old; on March 22, 1873, the Spanish National Assembly officially abolished, with a few special clauses, slavery in Puerto Rico. In 1870, the first political organizations on the island were formed as two factions emerged. The Traditionalists, known as the
Partido Liberal Conservador (Liberal Conservative Party) were led by José R. Fernández, Pablo Ubarri and Francisco Paula Acuña and advocated assimilation into the political party system of Spain, while the Autonomists, known as the
Partido Liberal Reformista (
Liberal Reformist PartyThe Liberal Reformist Party was a political party in Puerto Rico founded by Jose Julian Acosta and Roman Baldorioty de Castro in 1870. It was the first political party ever to be established in Puerto Rico....
) were led by Román Baldorioty de Castro,
José Julián AcostaJosé Julián Acosta Calbo , born in San Juan, Puerto Rico, was a distinguished journalist and a fervent advocate of the abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico.-Early years:...
, Nicolás Aguayo and Pedro Gerónimo Goico and advocated decentralization away from Spanish control. Both parties would later change their names to
Partido Federal Reformista (Reformist Federal Party) and
Partido Español Incondicional (Unconditional Spanish Party), respectively. In March 1887, the
Partido Federal Reformista was reformed and named the
Partido Autonomista Puertorriqueño (
Puerto Rican Autonomist PartyThe Autonomist Party was a political party in Puerto Rico founded in 1887. The Party was founded in Ponce, Puerto Rico, and its first chairman was Román Baldorioty de Castro....
); it tried to create a political and legal identity for Puerto Rico while emulating Spain in all political matters. It was led by Román Baldorioty de Castro,
José Celso BarbosaDr. José Celso Barbosa was a medical Physician, sociologist, and political leader of Puerto Rico. Known as "The father of the Statehood for Puerto Rico movement", Barbosa was also the first Puerto Rican with an American medical degree.-Early years:He was born in the city of Bayamón, Puerto Rico...
,
Rosendo Matienzo CintrónRosendo Matienzo Cintrón was a lawyer and political leader who early in his political career, when Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony, favored Puerto Rican autonomy, but after the Spanish-American War, when the island was ceded to the United States, became an advocate for statehood of the United...
and
Luis Muñoz RiveraLuis Muñoz Rivera was a Puerto Rican poet, journalist and politician. He was a major figure in the struggle for political autonomy of Puerto Rico....
.
The struggle for autonomy came close to achieving its goal on November 25, 1897, when the
Carta Autonómica (
Charter of Autonomy), which conceded political and administrative autonomy to the island, was approved in Spain. In the past 400-plus years, after centuries of colonial rule,
Práxedes Mateo SagastaPráxedes Mateo Sagasta y Escolar , born on July 21, 1825 at Torrecilla en Cameros Logroño, La Rioja, Spain and died on January 5, 1903 in Madrid...
, the Prime Minister of Spain granted the island an independent government on November 25, 1897 in the empire's legislative body in Cádiz, Spain and trade was opened up with the United States and European colonies. The charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain, who held the power to veto any legislative decision he disagreed with, and a partially elected parliamentary structure. That same year, the
Partido Autonomista Ortodoxo (Orthodox Autonomist Party), led by José Celso Barbosa and
Manuel Fernández JuncosManuel Fernández Juncos was a Spanish journalist, poet, author and humanitarian who wrote the official lyrics to La Borinqueña, Puerto Rico's national anthem.-Early years:...
, was founded. On February 9, 1898, the new government officially began. Local legislature set its own budget and taxes. They accepted or rejected commercial treaties concluded by Spain. In February 1898, Governor General
Manuel MacíasManuel Macías y Casado was a Spanish general. He served as Governor-General of Puerto Rico during the Spanish-American War and as governor of Melilla , and occupied various other posts. Born in Teruel, Spain, Macías y Casado attended the Colegio de Infantería and became a sub-lieutenant at the...
inaugurated the new government of Puerto Rico under the Autonomous Charter which gave town councils complete autonomy in local matters. Subsequently, the governor had no authority to intervene in civil and political matters unless authorized to do so by the Cabinet. General elections were held in March and on July 17, 1898 Puerto Rico's autonomous government began to function, but not for long.
Invasion of 1898
On March 10, 1898, Dr. Julio J. Henna and
Robert H. ToddRobert H. Todd is a professor of mechanical engineering at Brigham Young University and a fellow of the American Society for Engineering Education.- Biography :...
, leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, began to correspond with United States President
William McKinleyWilliam McKinley Jr. was the 25th President of the United States, and the last veteran of the American Civil War to be elected to the office....
and the United States Senate in hopes that they would consider including Puerto Rico in the intervention planned for Cuba. Henna and Todd also provided the US government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island. On April 24, Spanish Minister of Defense
Segismundo BermejoAdmiral Segismundo Bermejo y Merelo served as the Spanish Minister of the Navy during the first part of its war with the United States. In addition to his military career, Bermejo was a noted author, particularly of works of science fiction...
sent instructions to Spanish Admiral Cervera to proceed with his fleet from
Cape VerdeThe Republic of Cape Verde is an island country, spanning an archipelago located in the Macaronesia ecoregion of the North Atlantic Ocean, off the western coast of Africa, opposite Mauritania and Senegal....
to the Caribbean, Cuba and Puerto Rico.
In May, Lt. Henry H. Whitney of the United States Fourth Artillery was sent to Puerto Rico on a reconnaissance mission. He provided maps and information on the Spanish military forces to the US government that would be useful for an invasion. On May 10, Spanish forces at Fort San Cristóbal under the command of
Capt. Ángel Rivero MéndezÁngel Rivero-Méndez was a soldier, writer, journalist and a businessman who is credited with inventing the "Kola Champagne" soft drink. As a soldier in the Spanish Army, Rivero fired the first shot against the United States in Puerto Rico in the Spanish-American War...
in San Juan exchanged fire with the under the command of Capt. William C. Wise. Two days later on May 12, a squadron of 12 US ships commanded by Rear Admiral
William T. SampsonWilliam Thomas Sampson was a United States Navy rear admiral known for his victory in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba during the Spanish-American War.-Biography:...
bombarded San Juan, causing panic among the residents. On June 25, the blocked San Juan harbor. On July 18, General
Nelson A. MilesNelson Appleton Miles was an American soldier who served in the American Civil War, Indian Wars, and the Spanish-American War.-Early life:Miles was born in Westminster, Massachusetts, on his family's farm...
, commander of US forces, received orders to sail for Puerto Rico and to land his troops. On July 21, a convoy with nine transports and 3,300 soldiers, escorted by , sailed for Puerto Rico from
GuantánamoGuantánamo is a municipality and city in southeast Cuba and capital of Guantánamo Province.Guantánamo is served by the Caimanera port. Producing sugarcane and cotton wool are traditional parts of the economy.-Geography:...
. General Nelson Miles landed unopposed at
GuánicaGuánica is a municipality in southwestern Puerto Rico located on southern coast, bordering the Caribbean Sea, south of Sabana Grande, east of Lajas, and west of Yauco. It is part of the Yauco Metropolitan Statistical Area....
, located in the southern coast of the island, on July 25, 1898 with the first contingent of American troops. Opposition was met in the southern and central regions of the island but by the end of August the island was under United States control.
On August 12, peace protocols were signed in
Washington, D.C.Washington, D.C. , formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States, founded on July 16, 1790...
and Spanish Commissions met in San Juan on September 9 to discuss the details of the withdrawal of Spanish troops and the cession of the island to the United States. On October 1, an initial meeting was held in Paris to draft the Peace Treaty and on December 10, 1898, the
Treaty of ParisThe Treaty of Paris of 1898 was signed on December 10, 1898, and ended the Spanish-American War.-Background:Article V of a peace protocol entered into between United States and Spain on August 12, 1898 read as follows:...
was signed (ratified by the US Senate February 6, 1899). Spain renounced all claim to Cuba, ceded
GuamGuam is an island in the western Pacific Ocean and is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States. It is one of five U.S. territories with an established civilian government. The island's capital is Hagåtña...
and Puerto Rico and its dependent islets to the United States, and transferred sovereignty over the
PhilippinesThe Philippines officially known as the Republic of the Philippines, is a country in Southeast Asia with Manila as its capital city. It comprises 7,107 islands in the western Pacific Ocean....
to the United States for $20,000,000. General
John R. BrookeJohn Rutter Brooke was a major general in the United States Army during both the American Civil War and the Spanish American War. He served as a military Governor of Puerto Rico and Governor of Cuba....
became the first United States military governor of the island.
Military government
After the ratification of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, Puerto Rico came under the military control of the United States of America. This brought about significant changes: the name of the island was changed to
Porto Rico (it would be changed back to Puerto Rico in 1932) and the currency was changed from the Puerto Rican peso to the
United States dollarThe United States dollar is the unit of currency of the United States. The U.S. dollar is normally abbreviated as the dollar sign, $, or as USD or US$ to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies and from others that use the $ symbol. It is divided into 100 cents .The U.S...
. Freedom of assembly, speech, press, and religion were decreed and an
eight-hour dayThe eight-hour day movement or 40-hour week movement, also known as the short-time movement, had its origins in the Industrial Revolution in Britain, where industrial production in large factories transformed working life and imposed long hours and poor working conditions. With working conditions...
for government employees was established. A public school system was begun and the
U.S. Postal serviceThe United States Postal Service is an independent agency of the United States government responsible for providing postal service in the United States. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the United States Constitution. Within the United States, it is commonly...
was extended to the island. The highway system was enlarged, and bridges over the more important rivers were constructed. The government lottery was abolished,
cockfightA cockfight is a blood sport between two roosters, held in a ring called a cockpit. Cockfighting is now illegal throughout the United States and in most of Europe....
ing was forbidden, and a centralized public health service established. Health conditions were poor at the time, with high rates of infant mortality and numerous endemic diseases.
The beginning of the military government also marked the creation of new political groups. The
Partido Republicano (Republican Party) and the
American Federal PartyThe Federal Party was a short-lived political party in Puerto Rico.The Federal Party was founded on October 1, 1899. It was formed by Luis Muñoz Rivera and other former members of the Autonomist Party during US military rule of the island following the Spanish-American War...
were created, led by José Celso Barbosa and Luis Muñoz Rivera, respectively. Both groups supported annexation by the United States as a solution to the colonial situation. The island's
CreoleCriollo is a Spanish term, often translated into English as Creole, which may refer to:*Criollo people, a caste in the Spanish race-based colonial caste system...
sugar planters, who had suffered from declining prices, greeted U.S. rule, hoping to gain access to the North American market.
Disaster struck in August 1899, when two hurricanes ravaged the island:
Hurricane San Ciriaco1899 Hurricane San Ciriaco, also known as the 1899 Puerto Rico Hurricane, was the longest-lived Atlantic hurricane and the tenth deadliest tropical cyclone in the basin. It was an intense and long-lived Atlantic Cape Verde-type hurricane which crossed Puerto Rico over the two day period August 8 to...
on August 8, and an unnamed hurricane on August 22. Approximately 3,400 people died in the floods and thousands were left without shelter, food, or work. The effects on the economy were devastating: millions of dollars were lost due to the destruction of the majority of the sugar and coffee plantations.
Foraker Act of 1900
The military government in Puerto Rico was short lived; it was disbanded on April 2, 1900, when the U.S. Congress enacted the
Foraker ActThe Foraker Act,officially the Organic Act of 1900, is a United States federal law that established civilian government on the island of Puerto Rico, which had been newly acquired by the United States as a result of the Spanish-American War. Section VII of the Foraker Act also established Puerto...
(also known as the Organic Act of 1900), sponsored by Senator
Joseph B. ForakerJoseph Benson Foraker was a Republican politician from Ohio. He was the 37th Governor of Ohio.-Biography:Foraker was born near Rainsboro, Highland County, Ohio. After serving in the Union Army during the Civil War, Foraker attended Cornell University, where he was a member of Phi Kappa Psi...
. This act established a civil government and free commerce between the island and the United States. The structure of the insular government included a governor appointed by the president, an executive council (the equivalent of a senate), and a legislature with 35 members, though the executive veto required a two-thirds vote to override. The first appointed civil governor,
Charles Herbert AllenCharles Herbert Allen was born in Lowell, Massachusetts to Otis and Louisa Allen and died at his Rolfe Street home "The Terraces" in Lowell and is buried in Lowell Cemetery...
, was inaugurated on May 1, 1900. On June 5, President McKinley appointed an Executive Council which included five Puerto Rican members and six U.S. members. The act also established the creation of a judicial system headed by the
Supreme Court of Puerto RicoThe Supreme Court of Puerto Rico is the highest court of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, having the ultimate judicial authority within Puerto Rico to interpret and decide questions of local commonwealth law. As the highest body of the judicial branch of the Puerto Rican government, it is analogous...
and allowed Puerto Rico to send a
Resident CommissionerThe Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico is a non-voting member of the United States House of Representatives elected by the voters of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico every four years...
as a representative to Congress. The Department of Education was subsequently formed, headed by Dr. M. G. Brumbaugh (later governor of
PennsylvaniaThe Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , often colloquially referred to as PA by natives and Northeasterners, is a state located in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States...
). Teaching was conducted entirely in English with Spanish treated as a special subject. However, both Spanish and English were official languages in the island. On November 6, the first elections under the Foraker Act were held and on December 3, the first
Legislative AssemblyLegislative Assembly is the name given in some countries to either a legislature, or to one of its chambers. The name is used by a number of member-states of Commonwealth of Nations, as well as in a number of Latin American countries....
took office.
Federico DegetauFederico Degetau y González, born in Ponce was a Puerto Rican politician, lawyer, writer, author, and the first Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico to the United States House of Representatives.-Early years:...
took office in Washington as the first Resident Commissioner from Puerto Rico on March 14, 1901.
The new political status sparked the creation of more political groups on the island. In 1900, the
Partido Federal (
Federal PartyThe Federal Party was a short-lived political party in Puerto Rico.The Federal Party was founded on October 1, 1899. It was formed by Luis Muñoz Rivera and other former members of the Autonomist Party during US military rule of the island following the Spanish-American War...
) and the
Partido Obrero Socialista de Puerto Rico (Socialist Labor Party of Puerto Rico) were founded. The former campaigned for Puerto Rico to become one of the states in the United States while the latter followed the ideals of the
Socialist Labor Party of AmericaThe Socialist Labor Party of America , established in 1876, is the oldest socialist political party in the United States and the second oldest socialist party in the world. Originally known as the Workingmen's Party of America, the party changed its name in 1877 and has operated continuously since...
. Four years later, in 1904, Luis Muñoz Rivera and
José de DiegoDr. José de Diego y Benítez a.k.a. as "Father of the Puerto Rican Independence Movement" , was a statesman, journalist, poet and advocate for Puerto Rico's independence from Spain and from the USA.-Early years:...
restructured the American Federal Party into the
Partido Unionista de Puerto Rico (
Unionist Party of Puerto RicoThe Union of Puerto Rico , also known as the Union Party, was a major political party in Puerto Rico.The UPR was founded in February 1904 by Luis Muñoz Rivera, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón, Antonio R. Barceló, José de Diego and others after the disbanding of the Federal Party...
) with the intention of fighting against the colonial government established under the Foraker Act. In 1909,
Rosendo Matienzo CintrónRosendo Matienzo Cintrón was a lawyer and political leader who early in his political career, when Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony, favored Puerto Rican autonomy, but after the Spanish-American War, when the island was ceded to the United States, became an advocate for statehood of the United...
,
Manuel Zeno GandíaDr. Manuel Zeno Gandía , wrote the novel "La Charca" , which is considered to be the "first" Puerto Rican novel.-Early years:...
,
Luis Llorens TorresLuis Llorens Torres , was a Puerto Rican poet, playwright, and politician. He was an advocate for the independence of Puerto Rico.-Early years:...
, Eugenio Benítez Castaño, and Pedro Franceschi founded the
Partido Independentista (Independence Party). It was the first political party whose agenda was the independence of Puerto Rico.
The status quo was again altered in 1909 when the Foraker Act, due to weaknesses and a small crisis in Puerto Rico's government, was modified by the
Olmsted AmendmentThe Olmsted Amendment was a modification to the Foraker Act of 1900, and became law on July 16, 1909. The law was designed to modify several perceived weaknesses in Puerto Rico's government at the request of President William Howard Taft and Governor Regis Henri Post.It was the Foraker Act that...
. This Amendment placed the supervision of Puerto Rican affairs in the jurisdiction of an executive department to be designated by the president. In 1914, the first Puerto Rican officers, Martin Travieso (Secretary) and
Manuel V. DomenechManuel V. Domenech was a Puerto Rican politician.-Early years:Domenech was born in Isabela, Puerto Rico. He graduated in 1888 from Lehigh University in eastern Pennsylvania..-Political career:...
(Commissioner of Interiors), were assigned to the Executive Cabinet, allowing islanders a majority. A 1915 delegation from Puerto Rico, accompanied by the Governor
Arthur YagerArthur Yager served as Governor of Puerto Rico from 1913 to 1921.Yager was born in Campbellsburg in Henry County, Kentucky. He earned bachelors and masters degrees from Georgetown College in Kentucky, and a doctorate from Johns Hopkins University...
, traveled to Washington, D.C. to ask Congress to grant the island more autonomy. This delegation and speeches made by Resident Commissioner Luis Muñoz Rivera in Congress, coupled with political and economic interests, led to the drafting of the
Jones-Shafroth ActThe Jones-Shafroth Act , applies to the grant of citizenship to all citizens of Puerto Rico. Also known as the "Jones Act of Puerto Rico" or "Jones Law of Puerto Rico", it amended the "Organic Act of Puerto Rico" created by the Foraker Act of 1900...
of 1917 (Jones Act).
Jones Act of 1917
The
Jones ActThe Jones-Shafroth Act , applies to the grant of citizenship to all citizens of Puerto Rico. Also known as the "Jones Act of Puerto Rico" or "Jones Law of Puerto Rico", it amended the "Organic Act of Puerto Rico" created by the Foraker Act of 1900...
was approved on December 5, 1916, and signed into law by President
Woodrow WilsonThomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. A leading intellectual of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
on March 2, 1917. The law made Puerto Rico a
United States territoryUnited States territory is any extent of region under the jurisdiction of the federal government of the United States, including all waters . The United States has traditionally proclaimed the sovereign rights for exploring, exploiting, conserving, and managing its territory...
which is "organized but unincorporated." It also granted U.S. citizenship to all Puerto Ricans. The Act allowed
conscriptionConscription is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by an established authority. It is most often used in the specific sense of requiring citizens to serve in the armed forces...
to be extended to the island, sending 20,000 Puerto Rican soldiers to the
United States ArmyThe United States Army is the branch of the United States Military responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military and is one of seven uniformed services...
during the
First World WarWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
. The Act also divided governmental powers into three branches: executive (appointed by the President of the United States), legislative, and judicial. The legislative branch was composed of the senate, consisting of 19 members, and a house of representatives, consisting of 39 members. The members of the legislature were freely elected by the Puerto Rican people. A bill of rights, which established elections to be held every four years, was also created. The Act also made English the official language of the Puerto Rican courts.
On October 11, 1918, an
earthquakeThe Puerto Rico earthquake of 1918 was a major earthquake that struck the island of Puerto Rico at 10:14am on October 11, 1918. The magnitude for the earthquake has been reported at around 7.5 ; however, that might not be an exact number...
occurred, with an approximate magnitude of 7.3 on the
Richter scaleThe Richter magnitude scale, also known as the local magnitude scale, assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energy released by an earthquake. It is a base-10 logarithmic scale obtained by calculating the logarithm of the combined horizontal amplitude of the largest displacement...
, accompanied by a
tsunamiA is a series of water waves that is caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, such as an ocean. The original Japanese term literally translates as "harbor wave." Tsunamis are a frequent occurrence in Japan; approximately 195 events have been recorded...
reaching 6.1
metreThe metre or meter is the basic unit of length in the International System of Units . Historically, the metre was defined by the French Academy of Sciences as the length between two marks on a platinum-iridium bar, which was designed to represent one ten-millionth of the distance from the Equator...
s (20 feet) in height. The epicenter was located northwest of Aguadilla in the Mona Passage (between Puerto Rico and the
Dominican RepublicThe Dominican Republic is a nation on the island of Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are occupied by two countries...
). This earthquake caused great damage and loss of life at
MayagüezMayagüez is the eighth-largest municipality of Puerto Rico. Also known as "La Sultana del Oeste" , "Ciudad de las Aguas Puras" or "Ciudad del Mangó" "Ciudad de Dios" , on April 6, 1894 the Spanish crown gave it the formal title of "Excelente ciudad de Mayagüez",...
, and lesser damage along the west coast. Tremors continued for several weeks.
As a consequence of the Jones Act and the establishment of elections, a new political party, the
Partido Nacionalista de Puerto Rico (
Puerto Rican Nationalist PartyThe Puerto Rican Nationalist Party was founded on September 17, 1922. Its main objective is to work for Puerto Rican Independence.In 1919, the Catalonian José Coll y Cuchí, a member of the Union Party of Puerto Rico, felt that the Union Party was not doing enough for the cause of Puerto Rican...
), was founded on September 17, 1922. In the 1930s, the Nationalist Party, led by
Pedro Albizu CamposPedro Albizu Campos was a Puerto Rican politician and one of the leading figures in the Puerto Rican independence movement. He was the leader and president of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party from 1930 until his death...
withdrew from political participation and increased conflict arose between their adherents and the authorities. They attacked Blanton Winship, the appointed Governor of Puerto Rico, Elisha Francis Riggs Chief of Police, and Robert A. Cooper Judge of the Federal Tribunal in Puerto Rico. On February 23, 1936, two Nationalists Hiram Rosado and Elias Beauchamp, in retaliation for the "
Rio Piedras MassacreThe Río Piedras massacre occurred at the University of Puerto Rico at Río Piedras, Puerto Rico, and involved a confrontation between local police officers and supporters of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party on October 24, 1935. Four partisans of the Nationalist party and one police officer were...
," killed Police Chief Riggs in San Juan. They were apprehended and summarily executed at police headquarters. On July 31, 1936, Pedro Albizu Campos,
Juan Antonio CorretjerJuan Antonio Corretjer , was a well known poet, journalist and pro-independence political activist opposing United States rule in Puerto Rico.-Early years:...
,
Clemente Soto VélezClemente Soto Vélez was a Puerto Rican nationalist, poet, journalist and activist who mentored many generations of artists in Puerto Rico and New York City...
and other Nationalists were sentenced to six to 10 years in federal prison. Later, on March 21, 1937, police opened fire at a
Nacionalista de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rican Nationalist) Party parade, known as the "
Ponce MassacreThe Ponce Massacre is a violent chapter in the political history of Puerto Rico. On March 21, 1937 a march was organized in the southern city of Ponce, Puerto Rico, by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party...
"; 20 people (including two policemen) were killed and 100 were wounded.
In the 1920s, the economy of Puerto Rico boomed. A drastic increase in the price of sugar, Puerto Rico's principal export, brought increasing revenues to the island. As a result the island's infrastructure was steadily upgraded. New schools, roads and bridges were constructed. The increase in private wealth was reflected in the erection of many residences, while the development of commerce and agriculture stimulated the extension of banking and transport facilities. The high infant mortality death rate of the late 19th century declined steadily, thanks in large measure to basic public health programs. However, the economic growth would come to a screeching halt in 1929 when the United States
stock market crashA stock market crash is a sudden dramatic decline of stock prices across a significant cross-section of a stock market. Crashes are driven by panic as much as by underlying economic factors...
ed.
This period of prosperity came to an end with the onset of the
Great DepressionThe Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in about 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s or early 1940s...
. At the time, agriculture was the main contributor to the economy. Industry and commerce slowed during the 1930s as well. The depression was further aggravated when on September 27, 1932,
Hurricane San CipriánThe 1932 San Ciprian hurricane was a powerful Atlantic tropical cyclone that struck Puerto Rico during the 1932 Atlantic hurricane season. The seventh tropical cyclone, fourth hurricane and third major hurricane of the 1932 season, the San Ciprian Hurricane formed on September 25 east of the...
struck the island. Exact figures of the destruction are not known but estimates say that 200–300 people were killed, more than a thousand were injured, and property damage escalated to $30–50 million. The agricultural production, the principal economic driver for the island, came to a standstill. However, the decline of the economy would not end there. A new federal
minimum wageA minimum wage is the lowest hourly, daily or monthly wage that employers may legally pay to employees or workers. Equivalently, it is the lowest wage at which workers may sell their labor. Although minimum wage laws are in effect in a great many jurisdictions, there are differences of opinion...
law of 25 cents an hour took effect in 1938. As a consequence, two-thirds of the island's textile factories closed because worker productivity was below that level.
Establishment of the Commonwealth
In the years after World War II, social, political and economical changes began to take place that have continued to shape the island's character today. The late 1940s brought the beginning of a
major migrationPuerto Ricans have both immigrated and migrated to New York. The first group of Puerto Ricans moved to New York in the mid 19th century when Puerto Rico was a Spanish Colony and its people Spanish subjects and therefore they were immigrants. The following wave of Puerto Ricans to move to New York...
to the continental United States, mainly to New York City. The main reasons for this were an undesirable economic situation brought by the Great Depression, as well as heavy recruitment made by the
U.S. armed forcesThe United States armed forces are the overall unified military forces of the United States.The history of the United States armed forces dates to 1775, even before the Declaration of Independence marked the establishment of the United States...
and U.S. companies. In 2004, approximately 3.8 million people of Puerto Rican background lived in the United States. Political changes began in 1946 when President Truman designated the first Puerto Rican, Commissioner Resident
Jesús T. PiñeroJesús Toribio Piñero Jiménez was the first native Puerto Rican to be appointed governor of Puerto Rico by the Government of the United States.-Eary years:...
, to serve as island governor. One year later the U.S. Congress passed an act allowing Puerto Ricans to vote for their own governor. The first elections under this act were held on November 2, 1948.
Luis Muñoz MarínJosé Luis Alberto Muñoz Marín was a Puerto Rican poet, journalist, and politician. Regarded as the "father of modern Puerto Rico", he was the first democratically elected Governor of Puerto Rico. Muñoz Marín was the son of Luis Muñoz Rivera, a renowned autonomist leader...
, president of the Puerto Rican Senate, successfully campaigned and became the first democratically elected Governor of the island on January 2, 1949. In the 1950s, an ambitious industrialization project dubbed
Operation BootstrapOperation Bootstrap is the name given to the ambitious projects which industrialized Puerto Rico in the mid-20th century. Teodoro Moscoso is referred to as the architect of Operation Bootstrap. Under this program, which began in 1948, the island became increasingly industrialized...
was launched under governor Muñoz Marín. It was coupled with agrarian reform (land redistribution) that limited the area that could be held by large sugarcane interests. Operation Bootstrap enticed US mainland investors to transfer or create manufacturing plants by granting them local and federal tax concessions, but maintaining the access to US markets free of import duties. Another incentive was the lower wage scales in the densely populated island, which had a rising urban unemployed population. The program accelerated the shift from an agricultural to an industrial society. The 1950s saw the development of labor-intensive light industries, such as textiles; later manufacturing gave way to heavy industry, such as petrochemicals and oil refining, in the 1960s and 1970s. Muñoz Marín's development programs brought some prosperity for an emergent middle class. The industrialization was in part fueled by generous local incentives and freedom from federal taxation, while providing access to continental US markets without import duties. As a result, a rural agricultural society was transformed into an industrial working class.
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On July 4, 1950, President
Harry S. TrumanHarry S. Truman was the 33rd President of the United States . As President Franklin D. Roosevelt's third vice-president and the 34th Vice President of the United States, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12, 1945, when President Roosevelt died less than three months after beginning his...
signed Public Act 600, which allowed Puerto Ricans to draft their own constitution establishing the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The U.S. Congress had granted commonwealth status on Puerto Rico that enhanced Puerto Rico's political status from
protectorateA protectorate, in international law, is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity. In exchange for this, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations, which may vary greatly, depending on the real nature of...
to commonwealth. This, coupled with Muñoz Marín's reversal on not pursuing Puerto Rican Independence angered some Puerto Ricans. On late October 1950, a group of Puerto Rican nationalists, led by Pedro Albizu Campos, staged several revolts, the most successful of which is known as the
Jayuya UprisingThe Jayuya Uprising, also known as the Jayuya Revolt or El Grito de Jayuya, refers to a nationalist revolt in the town of Jayuya, Puerto Rico which occurred on October 30, 1950...
. The revolts included an attack on the governor's mansion,
La Fortaleza, the United States Capitol and at Blair House, where nationalists attempted to assassinate United States President Harry S. Truman. These acts led Muñoz to crack down on Puerto Rican nationalists and advocates of Puerto Rican independence. The actions by both Muñoz and the United States' Government would later be determined as infringing on constitutional rights. On July 25, 1952, the Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by voters in a referendum, and the island organized as the
Estado Libre Asociado (Commonwealth of Puerto Rico). That same year marked the first time that the
Flag of Puerto RicoThe Flags of Puerto Rico represent and symbolize the island and people of Puerto Rico. The most common used flags of Puerto Rico are the current flag which represents the people of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico; municipal flags which represent the different regions of the island; political flags...
could be publicly displayed.
The
Partido Estadistas Unido (United Statehooders Party) was founded by
Luis A. FerréLuis Alberto Ferré Aguayo was a Puerto Rican engineer, industrialist, politician, philanthropist, and a patron of the arts. He was the third Governor of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico from 1969 to 1973, and the founding father of the New Progressive Party which advocates for Puerto Rico becoming...
to campaign for statehood in the 1967 plebiscite. On July 23, 1967, the first plebiscite on the political status of Puerto Rico was held. Voters overwhelmingly affirmed continuation of Commonwealth status (Commonwealth–60.4% Statehood–39%; Independence–0.6%). Other plebiscites have taken place to determine the political status of Puerto Rico, one in 1993 and another in 1998. Both times, although by smaller margins, the status quo has been upheld. However, the U.S. constitution does not mention this avenue of status, hence legally the island remains a territory of the United States, under congressional supervision. The
Partido Estadistas Unido organized the
Partido Nuevo ProgresistaThe New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico is a political party that advocates for Puerto Rican statehood.Following the 2008 general elections, it currently holds supermajorities in the Commonwealth's House of Representatives and Senate, Puerto Rico's sole non-voting delegate to Congress, 48 of...
(New Progressive Party) under Ferré's leadership. The party campaigned for Puerto Rico to become the
51st state51st state, in American political discourse, is a phrase that refers to areas either seriously or derisively considered candidates for addition to the 50 states already part of the Union...
of the Union. Luis A. Ferré was elected governor on November 5, 1968, with 43.6% of the vote, the first time a pro-statehood governor has received a plurality. The New Progressive Party, the Popular Democratic Party and the Independence Party constitute the current established political parties in the island.
Present-day Puerto Rico has become a major
touristTourism is travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people who "travel to and stay in places outside their usual environment for more than twenty-four hours and not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other...
destination and a leading
pharmaceuticalThe pharmaceutical industry develops, produces, and markets drugs licensed for use as medications. Pharmaceutical companies can deal in generic and/or brand medications. They are subject to a variety of laws and regulations regarding the patenting, testing and marketing of drugs.-History:The...
and manufacturing center. Still, Puerto Rico continues to struggle to define its political status. Even though Puerto Rico was granted local autonomy in 1952, it remains a territory of the United States. Its ambiguous status continues to spark political debates which dominate Puerto Rican society. Economically, Puerto Rico has recently seen its credit rating downgraded to Baa2 by
Moody's Investor ServicesMoody's Corporation is the holding company for Moody's Investors Service which performs financial research and analysis on commercial and government entities. The company also ranks the credit-worthiness of borrowers using a standardized ratings scale. The company has a 40% share in the world...
with the possibility of more downgrades happening in the near future. This has led to fiscal measures to reduce government spending, increase revenues and balance the budget, and the implementation of a 7% sales tax.
See also
- Black history in Puerto Rico
- List of Registered Historic Places in Puerto Rico
- List of Puerto Ricans
- Military history of Puerto Rico
The recorded military history of Puerto Rico encompasses the period from the 16th century, when Spanish conquistadores battled native Tainos in the rebellion of 1511, to the present employment of Puerto Ricans in the United States Armed Forces in the military campaigns in Afghanistan and...
- Official Historian of Puerto Rico
Pursuant to a law approved in 1903, "An Act for the Approval and Conservation of Certain Historical Data of Puerto Rico", the Puerto Rico Legislature created the Office of the Official Historian of Puerto Rico. The historians who held the position during the early decades of the 20th century...
General references
- Brás, Marisabel. The Changing of the Guard: Puerto Rico in 1898; The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War; Hispanic Division, Library of Congress
The Library of Congress is the research library of the United States Congress and is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States. Located in three buildings in Washington, D.C., it is the largest library in the world by shelf space and holds the largest number of books. The head...
. Retrieved on 2007-06-18
Further reading