Timeline of Western Sahara history
Encyclopedia
Timeline of Western Sahara history
1120 C.E.- Almoravid Moroccan Dynasty Controls Western Sahara with its capital in Marrakech Morocco.
- March 27 Allal al-Fassi
delivers a speech calling for unification of Greater Morocco
.
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.
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first appears in Istiqlal's daily newspaper Al-Alam
.
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- November 12 Morocco officially lays claim to Spanish Sahara, Ifni, and Mauritania at the United Nations
. (see Spanish West Africa).
- February 10 Beginning of fortnight
-long Opération Ouragan, a joint Franco-Spanish offensive against Moroccan irregulars of the Army of Liberation operating in Spanish Sahara and in neighbouring French colonies.
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.
- November 28 Mauritania becomes independent from France.
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to colonial countries and peoples).
- October 27 United Nations General Assembly
votes to admit Mauritania, thus frustrating Morocco's claim.
- July–October Morocco attempts to occupy disputed border areas
of Algeria by force.
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.
- July 15 Three representatives of the Sahara take their seats at the Cortes Generales
.
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- Spain publicly announces the scale of Bou Craa
phosphate deposits.
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- December 20 UN General Assembly Resolution 2229 calls on Spain to hold a referendum on the future of the Sahara.
- May Djema'a
set up with 82 members.
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- June 30 Ifni ceded to Morocco.
- January Second round of elections for the Djema'a take place.
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in Morocco.
- June 5–19 At a session in Rabat the OAU echoes UN calls for a referendum.
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- May 20 First Polisario attacks against the Spanish army.
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, meeting in Algiers
, endorses the UN resolutions.
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announces that Spain will prepare the Sahara for internal autonomy.
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, Franco's successor-apparent, by ETA
.
- January 26 Spanish forces capture their first Polisario prisoners in an engagement at Guelb Lahmar.
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dictatorship overthrown
following colonial wars.
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Houari Boumédienne declares support for a Moroccan-Mauritanian partition plan.
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approves a Moroccan resolution urging postponement of the planned referendum and requesting an International Court of Justice advisory opinion.
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- January 16 Spain announces that it will suspend the referendum and give evidence to the International Court of Justice.
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and Melilla
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(the Spanish-founded Saharawi paramilitary
police force) desert to the Polisario.
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published. It contradicts Moroccan and Mauritanian claims to sovereignty over the Sahara and rejects the view of the territory as terra nullius
(territory belonging to no-one) upon colonization; rather it belonged its inhabitants - the Sahrawis.
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forces occupy outposts evacuated by Spain.
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crosses border from Morocco; condemned by Algeria.
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; Moroccan troops arrive in El Aiun
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.
- January 29 A Moroccan attack on Amgala
, inside Western Sahara, kills dozens of Algerian soldiers.
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declares opposition to "microstates".
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becomes the first state
to recognize the SADR.
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on refugee
s during bombing raids, refugees move into Algeria.
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treaty signed in Fés
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-Zouerate railway line inside Mauritania. Morocco captures Guelta Zemmour, the final Spanish outpost.
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dies in attack on Nouakchott
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- May 1 Polisario attacked and held in Zouerate for over two hours, forcing French to evacuate and mining to come to a halt. Two French citizens killed.
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) to begin.
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after Polisario released them to the UN.
- May 3–5 French Jaguars attack Polisario in Zouerate.
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's regime
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- May 1–5 OAU committee visits parties.
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- May 22 Polisario resumes attacks on Spanish boats fishing in Saharan waters.
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- March 2 First stretch of defensive wall (or berm)
completed between Smara
and the Zini Mountains.
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s in Casablanca
, between 66 and 637 killed by FAR.
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as President of France, Polisario open an office in Paris, .
- January FAR begin to go on the offensive.
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Foreign Affairs Committee prohibit U.S. military advisors from working in Western Sahara.
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- January 25 General Ahmed Dlimi
, commander of Moroccan forces in the Sahara, dies in a mysterious car-accident after numerous rumors circulate of a coup attempt.
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- November 12 Admission of SADR to OAU after several stalled attempts; Morocco withdraws.
- October 23 Morocco offers a cease-fire and a referendum under UN auspices.
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- August Treaty of Oujda abrogated.
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- May 4 Moroccan and Algerian leaders meet again at Akid Lotfi.
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- May 4 Morocco and Algeria re-establish diplomatic relations.
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- January Polisario allowed to re-open an office in Madrid
, improving ties with Spain. Later, Polisario announces that it will cease military actions in February.
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, causing heavy losses to FAR.
- March The independence of Namibia
increases the UN's involvement with decolonization
issues.
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wins local Algerian elections.
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in the Gulf War
.
- April 29 UN Security Council Resolution 690 approves the establishment of MINURSO.
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- July Direct talks held between Morocco and Polisario.
- June 11–12 Baker holds first talks with both sides separately in London
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- November 7–15 UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan
visits Maghrebi countries in a search for a solution.
- July Death of King Hassan II. His son King Mohammed VI
succeeds to the throne.
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sacked as Minister of the Interior of Morocco.
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- June 28 Further talks in London end without agreement.
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without applying for permission from the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
.
- May 16 Morocco announces that it had presented a plan for Saharan autonomy to the UN.
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of France describes the Sahara as Morocco's Southern Provinces
.
- March MINURSO's total expenditure exceeds $500 million.
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- July UN Security Council Resolution 1495 announces support for Baker's latest plan, and extends the mandate of MINURSO to January 31, 2004.
- April The UN extends MINURSO's mandate for another year.
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vian Alvari de Soto takes his place.
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, Foreign Minister of Spain, vows that Spain will support the Baker Plan.
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recognizes the SADR.
- May 25 An intifada (or uprising) begins in the cities of El Aiun and Smara, and student uprisings occur in Moroccan universities. Reports circulate of police brutality and of the kidnapping of peaceful demonstrators.
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gives full recognition to the SADR.
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confirmed as James Baker's replacement.
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becomes the first state to support Moroccan sovereignty over the Western Sahara.http://www.moroccotimes.com/paper/article.asp?idr=2&id=11765
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recognizes the SADR.
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(The above text derives in part from the unpublished paper The Western Sahara: A Case Study by John Carthy, written for the University of Portsmouth
, with permission.)
1120 C.E.- Almoravid Moroccan Dynasty Controls Western Sahara with its capital in Marrakech Morocco.
- 1884 - November 28 Three representatives of the Oulad Bou SbaaOulad Bou SbaaThe Oulad Bou Sbaa is a Chorfa/Zaouia tribe of Idrissid origins, who claim descent from Abu Sib'a, the Idrissid 16th century tribal chief...
tribe and Emilio Bonelli - representing the Sociedad de Africanistas y Colonistas (Society of Africanists and Colonists) - sign a treatyTreatyA treaty is an express agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations. A treaty may also be known as an agreement, protocol, covenant, convention or exchange of letters, among other terms...
which formed the basis of SpainSpainSpain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
's legal conquest of the SaharaSaharaThe Sahara is the world's second largest desert, after Antarctica. At over , it covers most of Northern Africa, making it almost as large as Europe or the United States. The Sahara stretches from the Red Sea, including parts of the Mediterranean coasts, to the outskirts of the Atlantic Ocean...
. - 1885 - December Spanish government places Río de OroRío de OroRío de Oro , is, with Saguia el-Hamra, one of the two territories that formed the Spanish province of Spanish Sahara after 1969; it was originally taken as a Spanish colonial possession in the late 19th century...
, Angra de Cintra, and Bay of the West under its protection. - 1887 - April 6 Spanish jurisdiction extended 150 miles into the interior.
- 1900 - June 27 Spain and FranceFranceThe French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
sign a convention which defines the borders between Spanish SaharaSpanish SaharaSpanish Sahara was the name used for the modern territory of Western Sahara when it was ruled as a territory by Spain between 1884 and 1975...
and the area which will become French-controlled MauritaniaMauritaniaMauritania is a country in the Maghreb and West Africa. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, by Western Sahara in the north, by Algeria in the northeast, by Mali in the east and southeast, and by Senegal in the southwest...
. - 1904 - October 3 Franco-Spanish convention extends Spanish control into southern MoroccoMoroccoMorocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
(see IfniIfniIfni was a Spanish province on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, south of Agadir and across from the Canary Islands.It had a total area of 1,502 km² , and a population of 51,517 in 1964. The main industry was fishing....
and Tarfaya Strip). - 1912 - November 12 Final convention defining Spanish and French zones in West AfricaWest AfricaWest Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. Geopolitically, the UN definition of Western Africa includes the following 16 countries and an area of approximately 5 million square km:-Flags of West Africa:...
. - 1934 - May 15 Final pacification of Sahrawi in Spanish Sahara. Spanish garrisonGarrisonGarrison is the collective term for a body of troops stationed in a particular location, originally to guard it, but now often simply using it as a home base....
installed at SmaraSmaraSmara, also Semara , is a city in the Moroccan-Administered Western Sahara, with a population estimated at 42,056.-History:The largest city in its province, Smara was founded in the Saguia el-Hamra as an oasis for travellers in 1869. It is the only major city in Western Sahara that was not founded...
. - 1944 - January Moroccan Nationalist Istiqlal party formed.
- 1946 - July 20 A decree separates Spanish Sahara from the Spanish protectorate in Morocco.
- 1947 - Discovery of phosphatePhosphateA phosphate, an inorganic chemical, is a salt of phosphoric acid. In organic chemistry, a phosphate, or organophosphate, is an ester of phosphoric acid. Organic phosphates are important in biochemistry and biogeochemistry or ecology. Inorganic phosphates are mined to obtain phosphorus for use in...
reserves in the Sahara. - 1953 - Nationalist Moroccan King Mohammed VMohammed V of MoroccoMohammed V was Sultan of Morocco from 1927–53, exiled from 1953–55, where he was again recognized as Sultan upon his return, and King from 1957 to 1961. His full name was Sidi Mohammed ben Yusef, or Son of Yusef, upon whose death he succeeded to the throne...
deposed by the French. - 1954 - November 16 King Mohammed V returns to Morocco from exileExileExile means to be away from one's home , while either being explicitly refused permission to return and/or being threatened with imprisonment or death upon return...
in MadagascarMadagascarThe Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
. - 1956 - March 3 Beginning of Army of LiberationArmy of LiberationThe Army of Liberation was a force fighting for the independence of Morocco....
insurrection.
- March 27 Allal al-Fassi
Allal al-Fassi
Muhammad Allal al-Fassi , was a Moroccan politician, writer, poet and Islamic scholar.-Politics:He was born in Fes, Morocco, and founded the nationalist Istiqlal party which was a driving force in the Moroccan struggle for independence from French colonial rule...
delivers a speech calling for unification of Greater Morocco
Greater Morocco
Greater Morocco is a label historically used by some Moroccan anti-colonial political leaders protesting against Spanish and French rule, to refer to wider territories historically associated with the Moroccan Sultan...
.
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Sovereignty
Sovereignty is the quality of having supreme, independent authority over a geographic area, such as a territory. It can be found in a power to rule and make law that rests on a political fact for which no purely legal explanation can be provided...
.
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Greater Morocco
Greater Morocco is a label historically used by some Moroccan anti-colonial political leaders protesting against Spanish and French rule, to refer to wider territories historically associated with the Moroccan Sultan...
first appears in Istiqlal's daily newspaper Al-Alam
Al-Alam
This article is about Morocco newspaper for Syrian Al-Alam newspaper see Al-Alam or for Iran TV channel see Al-Alam News Network...
.
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- 1957 - July 1 Mokhtar Ould Daddah first stakes the Mauritanian claim to the Western Sahara area.
- November 12 Morocco officially lays claim to Spanish Sahara, Ifni, and Mauritania at the United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
. (see Spanish West Africa).
- 1958 - January 10 Spanish Sahara and Ifni become Spanish provincesProvinces of SpainSpain and its autonomous communities are divided into fifty provinces .In other languages of Spain:*Catalan/Valencian , sing. província.*Galician , sing. provincia.*Basque |Galicia]] — are not also the capitals of provinces...
, rather than coloniesColonyIn politics and history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state. For colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies. Some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception....
; El AyounEl AaiúnEl-Aaiún , is a city in Western Sahara founded by the Spanish in 1928. Administered by Morocco since 1976, El-Aaiún is the capital of what the Moroccan government call the region of Laâyoune-Boujdour-Sakia El Hamra, and POLISARIO call Occupied Territories...
becomes an administrative center.
- February 10 Beginning of fortnight
Fortnight
The fortnight is a unit of time equal to fourteen days, or two weeks. The word derives from the Old English fēowertyne niht, meaning "fourteen nights"....
-long Opération Ouragan, a joint Franco-Spanish offensive against Moroccan irregulars of the Army of Liberation operating in Spanish Sahara and in neighbouring French colonies.
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Rabat
Rabat , is the capital and third largest city of the Kingdom of Morocco with a population of approximately 650,000...
.
- 1960 - August 28 The Arab LeagueArab LeagueThe Arab League , officially called the League of Arab States , is a regional organisation of Arab states in North and Northeast Africa, and Southwest Asia . It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members: Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan , Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Yemen joined as a...
announces support for Morocco's claim of sovereignty over Mauritania.
- November 28 Mauritania becomes independent from France.
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Independence
Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory....
to colonial countries and peoples).
- 1961 - King Hassan IIHassan II of MoroccoKing Hassan II l-ḥasan aṯ-ṯānī, dial. el-ḥasan ettâni); July 9, 1929 – July 23, 1999) was King of Morocco from 1961 until his death in 1999...
becomes Moroccan sovereignMonarchA monarch is the person who heads a monarchy. This is a form of government in which a state or polity is ruled or controlled by an individual who typically inherits the throne by birth and occasionally rules for life or until abdication...
.
- October 27 United Nations General Assembly
United Nations General Assembly
For two articles dealing with membership in the General Assembly, see:* General Assembly members* General Assembly observersThe United Nations General Assembly is one of the five principal organs of the United Nations and the only one in which all member nations have equal representation...
votes to admit Mauritania, thus frustrating Morocco's claim.
- 1962 - July AlgeriaAlgeriaAlgeria , officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria , also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.In terms of land area, it is the largest country in Africa and the Arab...
achieves its independence from France.
- July–October Morocco attempts to occupy disputed border areas
History of Algeria since 1962
-History of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, 1962–present:In preparation for independence, the CNRA had met in Tripoli in May 1962 to work out a plan for the FLN's transition from a liberation movement to a political party...
of Algeria by force.
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Tindouf
Tindouf is the main town in Tindouf Province, Algeria, close to the Mauritanian and Moroccan borders. The region is considered of strategic significance, and it houses Algerian military bases. Since 1975, it also contains several Sahrawi refugee camps operated by the Polisario Front a guerrilla...
.
- 1963 - May First provincial elections held in Spanish Sahara.
- July 15 Three representatives of the Sahara take their seats at the Cortes Generales
Cortes Generales
The Cortes Generales is the legislature of Spain. It is a bicameral parliament, composed of the Congress of Deputies and the Senate . The Cortes has power to enact any law and to amend the constitution...
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- 1964 - October The UN urges Spain to decolonize the Sahara.
- 1965 - The second round of elections take place.
- Spain publicly announces the scale of Bou Craa
Bou Craa
Bou Craa is a town in the Saguia el-Hamra region of northern Western Sahara, south and slightly east of the city of El Aaiún. It is inhabited almost entirely by employees of the Moroccan-controlled Bou Craa phosphate industry...
phosphate deposits.
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- 1966 - ReferendumReferendumA referendum is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. This may result in the adoption of a new constitution, a constitutional amendment, a law, the recall of an elected official or simply a specific government policy. It is a form of...
held in which Saharawi endorse the Spanish occupation.
- December 20 UN General Assembly Resolution 2229 calls on Spain to hold a referendum on the future of the Sahara.
- 1967 - Sahara's number of seats in the Cortes increases from three to six.
- May Djema'a
Djema'a
The term Djema'a can refer to two things in a Western Sahara context.-Djema'a: Tribal Leadership:The Djema'a was the leading body in a Sahrawi tribe, composed of elders and elected leaders...
set up with 82 members.
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- 1968 - October 12 Spain's last remaining African colony other than the Sahara, Equatorial GuineaEquatorial GuineaEquatorial Guinea, officially the Republic of Equatorial Guinea where the capital Malabo is situated.Annobón is the southernmost island of Equatorial Guinea and is situated just south of the equator. Bioko island is the northernmost point of Equatorial Guinea. Between the two islands and to the...
, achieves independence. - 1969 - Morocco recognizes Mauritanian independence.
- June 30 Ifni ceded to Morocco.
- 1970 - June 8 Morocco and Mauritania sign a treaty in CasablancaCasablancaCasablanca is a city in western Morocco, located on the Atlantic Ocean. It is the capital of the Grand Casablanca region.Casablanca is Morocco's largest city as well as its chief port. It is also the biggest city in the Maghreb. The 2004 census recorded a population of 2,949,805 in the prefecture...
, normalizing relations. - 1971 - Western powersPolitical powerPolitical power is a type of power held by a group in a society which allows administration of some or all of public resources, including labour, and wealth. There are many ways to obtain possession of such power. At the nation-state level political legitimacy for political power is held by the...
recognize self-determination as a legal right and its denial as a violation of the United Nations CharterUnited Nations CharterThe Charter of the United Nations is the foundational treaty of the international organization called the United Nations. It was signed at the San Francisco War Memorial and Performing Arts Center in San Francisco, United States, on 26 June 1945, by 50 of the 51 original member countries...
.
- January Second round of elections for the Djema'a take place.
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Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
in Morocco.
- 1972 - June Colonel Muammar al-GaddafiMuammar al-GaddafiMuammar Muhammad Abu Minyar Gaddafi or "September 1942" 20 October 2011), commonly known as Muammar Gaddafi or Colonel Gaddafi, was the official ruler of the Libyan Arab Republic from 1969 to 1977 and then the "Brother Leader" of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya from 1977 to 2011.He seized power in a...
of LibyaLibyaLibya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
announces he would back a war of liberation in the Sahara.
- June 5–19 At a session in Rabat the OAU echoes UN calls for a referendum.
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- 1973 - May 10 Polisario FrontPolisario FrontThe POLISARIO, Polisario Front, or Frente Polisario, from the Spanish abbreviation of Frente Popular de Liberación de Saguía el Hamra y Río de Oro is a Sahrawi rebel national liberation movement working for the independence of Western Sahara from Morocco...
founded.
- May 20 First Polisario attacks against the Spanish army.
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Non-Aligned Movement
The Non-Aligned Movement is a group of states considering themselves not aligned formally with or against any major power bloc. As of 2011, the movement had 120 members and 17 observer countries...
, meeting in Algiers
Algiers
' is the capital and largest city of Algeria. According to the 1998 census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 and that of the urban agglomeration was 2,135,630. In 2009, the population was about 3,500,000...
, endorses the UN resolutions.
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Francisco Franco
Francisco Franco y Bahamonde was a Spanish general, dictator and head of state of Spain from October 1936 , and de facto regent of the nominally restored Kingdom of Spain from 1947 until his death in November, 1975...
announces that Spain will prepare the Sahara for internal autonomy.
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Luis Carrero Blanco
Don Luis Carrero Blanco, 1st Duke of Carrero Blanco, Grandee of Spain was a Spanish admiral and long-time confidant of dictator Francisco Franco.- Biography :...
, Franco's successor-apparent, by ETA
ETA
ETA , an acronym for Euskadi Ta Askatasuna is an armed Basque nationalist and separatist organization. The group was founded in 1959 and has since evolved from a group promoting traditional Basque culture to a paramilitary group with the goal of gaining independence for the Greater Basque Country...
.
- 1974 - Spanish censusCensusA census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population. The term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common...
, including the Saharan region.
- January 26 Spanish forces capture their first Polisario prisoners in an engagement at Guelb Lahmar.
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Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
dictatorship overthrown
Carnation Revolution
The Carnation Revolution , also referred to as the 25 de Abril , was a military coup started on 25 April 1974, in Lisbon, Portugal, coupled with an unanticipated and extensive campaign of civil resistance...
following colonial wars.
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Kuala Lumpur
Kuala Lumpur is the capital and the second largest city in Malaysia by population. The city proper, making up an area of , has a population of 1.4 million as of 2010. Greater Kuala Lumpur, also known as the Klang Valley, is an urban agglomeration of 7.2 million...
.
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International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands...
.
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Prime Minister of Algeria
The Prime Minister is the head of government of Algeria.The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of Algeria, along with other ministers and members of the government that the new Prime Minister recommends. The People's National Assembly must approve the legislative program of the new...
Houari Boumédienne declares support for a Moroccan-Mauritanian partition plan.
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United Nations General Assembly
For two articles dealing with membership in the General Assembly, see:* General Assembly members* General Assembly observersThe United Nations General Assembly is one of the five principal organs of the United Nations and the only one in which all member nations have equal representation...
approves a Moroccan resolution urging postponement of the planned referendum and requesting an International Court of Justice advisory opinion.
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- 1975 - Algeria begins to oppose Moroccan policy on the Sahara.
- January 16 Spain announces that it will suspend the referendum and give evidence to the International Court of Justice.
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Ceuta
Ceuta is an autonomous city of Spain and an exclave located on the north coast of North Africa surrounded by Morocco. Separated from the Iberian peninsula by the Strait of Gibraltar, Ceuta lies on the border of the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Ceuta along with the other Spanish...
and Melilla
Melilla
Melilla is a autonomous city of Spain and an exclave on the north coast of Morocco. Melilla, along with the Spanish exclave Ceuta, is one of the two Spanish territories located in mainland Africa...
.
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Guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare and refers to conflicts in which a small group of combatants including, but not limited to, armed civilians use military tactics, such as ambushes, sabotage, raids, the element of surprise, and extraordinary mobility to harass a larger and...
.
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Tropas Nómadas
The Tropas Nómadas were an auxiliary regiment to the colonial army in Spanish Sahara , from the 1930s until the end of the Spanish presence in the territory in 1975...
(the Spanish-founded Saharawi paramilitary
Paramilitary
A paramilitary is a force whose function and organization are similar to those of a professional military, but which is not considered part of a state's formal armed forces....
police force) desert to the Polisario.
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International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion on Western Sahara
One of the main functions of the International Court of Justice is to provide Advisory Opinions - non-binding legal interpretations admitted by United Nations organs. In the summer of 1975, the court considered two questions regarding the disputed territory of Western Sahara...
published. It contradicts Moroccan and Mauritanian claims to sovereignty over the Sahara and rejects the view of the territory as terra nullius
Terra nullius
Terra nullius is a Latin expression deriving from Roman law meaning "land belonging to no one" , which is used in international law to describe territory which has never been subject to the sovereignty of any state, or over which any prior sovereign has expressly or implicitly relinquished...
(territory belonging to no-one) upon colonization; rather it belonged its inhabitants - the Sahrawis.
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Military of Morocco
The Royal Moroccan Armed Forces are the summation of the armed forces of the kingdom of Morocco.It was founded in 1956 after Morocco's independence from France and Spain...
forces occupy outposts evacuated by Spain.
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Green March
The Green March was a strategic mass demonstration in November 1975, coordinated by the Moroccan government, to force Spain to hand over the disputed, autonomous semi-metropolitan Spanish Province of Sahara to Morocco.-Background:...
crosses border from Morocco; condemned by Algeria.
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Gibraltar
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. A peninsula with an area of , it has a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region...
; Moroccan troops arrive in El Aiun
El Aaiún
El-Aaiún , is a city in Western Sahara founded by the Spanish in 1928. Administered by Morocco since 1976, El-Aaiún is the capital of what the Moroccan government call the region of Laâyoune-Boujdour-Sakia El Hamra, and POLISARIO call Occupied Territories...
.
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Lagouira
La Güera or La Gouera is a town on the Atlantic coast at the southern tip of Western Sahara, on the western side of the Ras Nouadhibou peninsula...
.
- 1976 - January 21 First loss of a Moroccan plane in the conflict.
- January 29 A Moroccan attack on Amgala
Amgala
Amgala is an oasis in Western Sahara. It is situated between Tifariti, Smara and Meharrize, close to the east of the Moroccan Wall, in the POLISARIO-held part of Western Sahara.Its population was estimated in 2,000 inhabitants in 1975....
, inside Western Sahara, kills dozens of Algerian soldiers.
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Valéry Giscard d'Estaing
Valéry Marie René Georges Giscard d'Estaing is a French centre-right politician who was President of the French Republic from 1974 until 1981...
declares opposition to "microstates".
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Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
becomes the first state
Sovereign state
A sovereign state, or simply, state, is a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither...
to recognize the SADR.
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Napalm
Napalm is a thickening/gelling agent generally mixed with gasoline or a similar fuel for use in an incendiary device, primarily as an anti-personnel weapon...
on refugee
Refugee
A refugee is a person who outside her country of origin or habitual residence because she has suffered persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or because she is a member of a persecuted 'social group'. Such a person may be referred to as an 'asylum seeker' until...
s during bombing raids, refugees move into Algeria.
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Partition (politics)
In politics, a partition is a change of political borders cutting through at least one territory considered a homeland by some community. That change is done primarily by diplomatic means, and use of military force is negligible....
treaty signed in Fés
FES
FES or Fes may refer to:* Fes or Fez, a city in Morocco* FES , a human gene that encodes the feline sarcoma oncogene enzyme* FES , a fictional singer from Chaos;Head anime series and alias of Yui Sakakibara for her songs from Chaos;Head and Steins;Gate anime series* Flywheel energy storage, an...
.
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Nouadhibou
Nouadhibou is the second largest city in Mauritania and serves as a major commercial centre. The city itself has about 75,000 inhabitants expanding to over 90,000 in the larger metropolitan area. It is situated on a 40-mile peninsula or headland called Ras Nouadhibou, Cap Blanc, or Cabo Blanco, of...
-Zouerate railway line inside Mauritania. Morocco captures Guelta Zemmour, the final Spanish outpost.
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El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed
El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed was a Sahrawi nationalist leader, co-founder and second Secretary-General of the Polisario Front, & also the first President of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic....
dies in attack on Nouakchott
Nouakchott
-Government:The town was first divided into districts in 1973. First it was divided into four. From 1986, the city has been split into nine districts.* Arafat* Dar Naim* El Mina* Ksar* Riad* Sebkha* Tevragh-Zeina* Teyarett* Toujounine...
.
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- 1977 February 17 Spanish-Moroccan fishing agreement signed; beginning of Polisario attacks on Spanish fishing vessels.
- May 1 Polisario attacked and held in Zouerate for over two hours, forcing French to evacuate and mining to come to a halt. Two French citizens killed.
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Opération Lamantin
Opération Lamatin was a December 1977 – July 1978 military intervention by France on the behalf of the Mauritanian government, in its war against Sahrawi guerrilla fighters of the Polisario Front, seeking independence for Western Sahara.-Background:...
) to begin.
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Paris
Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
after Polisario released them to the UN.
- 1978 January Beginning of continuous attacks on Complexe Minier du Nord (COMINOR) railway.
- May 3–5 French Jaguars attack Polisario in Zouerate.
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Moktar Ould Daddah
Moktar Ould Daddah was the President of Mauritania from 1960, when his country gained its independence from France, to 1978, when he was deposed in a military coup d'etat.- Background :...
's regime
Regime
The word regime refers to a set of conditions, most often of a political nature.-Politics:...
.
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- 1979 January 28 Polisario attack Tan-TanTan-TanTan-Tan is a city in Tan-Tan Province in southern Morocco. It is a desert town with a small population, with only few claims to fame:*The nearby port, Tan-Tan Plage, or Port of Tan-Tan, about 25 kilometres away from Tan-Tan itself...
, hold it for four hours.
- May 1–5 OAU committee visits parties.
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- 1980 April LibyaLibyaLibya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
recognizes the SADR.
- May 22 Polisario resumes attacks on Spanish boats fishing in Saharan waters.
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- 1981 January Spain withdraws boats from Saharawi waters due to Polisario attacks.
- March 2 First stretch of defensive wall (or berm)
Moroccan Wall
The Berm of Western Sahara is an approximately 2,700 km-long defensive structure, mostly a sand wall , running through Western Sahara and the southeastern portion of Morocco...
completed between Smara
Smara
Smara, also Semara , is a city in the Moroccan-Administered Western Sahara, with a population estimated at 42,056.-History:The largest city in its province, Smara was founded in the Saguia el-Hamra as an oasis for travellers in 1869. It is the only major city in Western Sahara that was not founded...
and the Zini Mountains.
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Bou Craa
Bou Craa is a town in the Saguia el-Hamra region of northern Western Sahara, south and slightly east of the city of El Aaiún. It is inhabited almost entirely by employees of the Moroccan-controlled Bou Craa phosphate industry...
.
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Riot
A riot is a form of civil disorder characterized often by what is thought of as disorganized groups lashing out in a sudden and intense rash of violence against authority, property or people. While individuals may attempt to lead or control a riot, riots are thought to be typically chaotic and...
s in Casablanca
Casablanca
Casablanca is a city in western Morocco, located on the Atlantic Ocean. It is the capital of the Grand Casablanca region.Casablanca is Morocco's largest city as well as its chief port. It is also the biggest city in the Maghreb. The 2004 census recorded a population of 2,949,805 in the prefecture...
, between 66 and 637 killed by FAR.
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François Mitterrand
François Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand was the 21st President of the French Republic and ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra, serving from 1981 until 1995. He is the longest-serving President of France and, as leader of the Socialist Party, the only figure from the left so far elected President...
as President of France, Polisario open an office in Paris, .
- 1982 - Over 130 U.S. military advisors work with the FAR, several of them seen in Western Sahara.
- January FAR begin to go on the offensive.
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Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions. With a total area of about , it covers approximately 20% of the Earth's surface and about 26% of its water surface area...
.
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United States House of Representatives
The United States House of Representatives is one of the two Houses of the United States Congress, the bicameral legislature which also includes the Senate.The composition and powers of the House are established in Article One of the Constitution...
Foreign Affairs Committee prohibit U.S. military advisors from working in Western Sahara.
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- 1983 - Spanish-Moroccan fishing disputes settled by treaty.
- January 25 General Ahmed Dlimi
Ahmed Dlimi
Ahmed Dlimi was a Moroccan General under the rule of Hassan II. After General Mohamed Oufkir's 1972 assassination, he became Hassan II's right-hand man. He was promoted to General during the Green March in 1975, and took charge of the Moroccan Armed Forces in the Southern Zone, where the military...
, commander of Moroccan forces in the Sahara, dies in a mysterious car-accident after numerous rumors circulate of a coup attempt.
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Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia...
.
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- 1984 - August 13 Treaty of Oujda signed by Morocco and Libya.
- November 12 Admission of SADR to OAU after several stalled attempts; Morocco withdraws.
- 1985 - September Start of revitalized UN role in Sahara.
- October 23 Morocco offers a cease-fire and a referendum under UN auspices.
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- 1986 - July King Hassan II of Morocco and United Nations Secretary-GeneralUnited Nations Secretary-GeneralThe Secretary-General of the United Nations is the head of the Secretariat of the United Nations, one of the principal organs of the United Nations. The Secretary-General also acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the United Nations....
Javier Pérez de CuéllarJavier Pérez de CuéllarJavier Pérez de Cuéllar y de la Guerra is a Peruvian diplomat who served as the fifth Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 1, 1982 to December 31, 1991. He studied in Colegio San Agustín of Lima, and then at Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. In 1995, he ran unsuccessfully...
meet in Rabat, with no resolution.
- August Treaty of Oujda abrogated.
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- 1987] - April 16 The Moroccan Armed Forces finish constructing the sixth section of the berm.
- May 4 Moroccan and Algerian leaders meet again at Akid Lotfi.
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- 1988 - January Polisario announce a temporary truce to facilitate the UN's work.
- May 4 Morocco and Algeria re-establish diplomatic relations.
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Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , commonly known in British English as Saudi Arabia and in Arabic as as-Sa‘ūdiyyah , is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab World...
.
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Settlement Plan
The Settlement Plan was an agreement between the Polisario Front and Morocco on the organization of a referendum, which would constitute an expression of self-determination for the people of Western Sahara, leading either to full independence, or integration with the kingdom of Morocco...
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- 1989 - January 4–5 Kiung Hassan II meets Polisario leaders for the first time.
- January Polisario allowed to re-open an office in Madrid
Madrid
Madrid is the capital and largest city of Spain. The population of the city is roughly 3.3 million and the entire population of the Madrid metropolitan area is calculated to be 6.271 million. It is the third largest city in the European Union, after London and Berlin, and its metropolitan...
, improving ties with Spain. Later, Polisario announces that it will cease military actions in February.
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Amgala
Amgala is an oasis in Western Sahara. It is situated between Tifariti, Smara and Meharrize, close to the east of the Moroccan Wall, in the POLISARIO-held part of Western Sahara.Its population was estimated in 2,000 inhabitants in 1975....
, causing heavy losses to FAR.
- 1990 - Spring Moroccan-Algerian relations cool.
- March The independence of Namibia
Namibia
Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia , is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east. It gained independence from South Africa on 21 March...
increases the UN's involvement with decolonization
Decolonization
Decolonization refers to the undoing of colonialism, the unequal relation of polities whereby one people or nation establishes and maintains dependent Territory over another...
issues.
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Islamic Salvation Front
The Islamic Salvation Front is an outlawed Islamist political party in Algeria.-Goals:...
wins local Algerian elections.
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Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
in the Gulf War
Gulf War
The Persian Gulf War , commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a U.N.-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by the United States, against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.The war is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf...
.
- 1991 - April The UN General Assembly approves the Secretary-General's referendum plan, establishing Mission des Nations unies pour l'Organisation d'un Référendum au Sahara Occidental (MINURSO) with a budget of $177 million.
- April 29 UN Security Council Resolution 690 approves the establishment of MINURSO.
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- 1992 - January Provisional date for referendum.
- 1993 - May MINURSO's Voter Identification Committee established.
- July Direct talks held between Morocco and Polisario.
- 1994 - April Identification Committee begins to process voters.
- 1995 - Morocco and the European UnionEuropean UnionThe European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
sign a Partnership agreement. - 1996 - May Identification process suspended, most civilian staff withdrawn from MINURSO.
- 1997 - March 17 American James Baker III installed as United Nations Special Representative in Western Sahara.
- June 11–12 Baker holds first talks with both sides separately in London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
.
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Lisbon
Lisbon is the capital city and largest city of Portugal with a population of 545,245 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Lisbon extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of 3 million on an area of , making it the 9th most populous urban...
.
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- 1998 - September 3 Voter identification nearly completed, except for three contested tribes.
- November 7–15 UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan
Kofi Annan
Kofi Atta Annan is a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the UN from 1 January 1997 to 31 December 2006...
visits Maghrebi countries in a search for a solution.
- 1999 - June 15 Identification Committee begins to look at contested tribes.
- July Death of King Hassan II. His son King Mohammed VI
Mohammed VI of Morocco
Mohammed VI is the present King of Morocco and Amir al-Mu'minin . He ascended to the throne on 23 July 1999 upon the death of his father.-Education:...
succeeds to the throne.
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Driss Basri
Driss Basri was a Moroccan politician who served as Interior Minister from 1979 to 1999. After General Oufkir's death in 1972, and then Ahmed Dlimi's death in 1983, Driss Basri became Hassan II's right-hand man and number two of the regime from the beginning of the 1980s to the end of the 1990s...
sacked as Minister of the Interior of Morocco.
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- 2000 - May 14 Baker introduces "Third Way" Framework AgreementFramework AgreementFramework Agreement is a term that can refer to a number of international accords, including:* The Baker Plan on Western Sahara* The Agreed Framework between the United States of America and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea...
plan as an alternative to the referendum process.
- June 28 Further talks in London end without agreement.
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Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
without applying for permission from the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is a partially recognised state that claims sovereignty over the entire territory of Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony. SADR was proclaimed by the Polisario Front on February 27, 1976, in Bir Lehlu, Western Sahara. The SADR government controls about...
.
- 2001 - March Talks aimed at setting a date for the first meeting of heads of stateHead of StateA head of state is the individual that serves as the chief public representative of a monarchy, republic, federation, commonwealth or other kind of state. His or her role generally includes legitimizing the state and exercising the political powers, functions, and duties granted to the head of...
of UMAArab Maghreb UnionThe Arab Maghreb Union is a trade agreement aiming for economic and some sort of future political unity in North Africa between the countries Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania...
countries since 1995 break down after arguments between Algerian and Moroccan diplomats over the Sahara.
- May 16 Morocco announces that it had presented a plan for Saharan autonomy to the UN.
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Jacques Chirac
Jacques René Chirac is a French politician who served as President of France from 1995 to 2007. He previously served as Prime Minister of France from 1974 to 1976 and from 1986 to 1988 , and as Mayor of Paris from 1977 to 1995.After completing his studies of the DEA's degree at the...
of France describes the Sahara as Morocco's Southern Provinces
Southern Provinces
The Southern Provinces or Moroccan Sahara are the terms used by Morocco for Western Sahara, in reference to the part of Western Sahara that lies to the west of the Moroccan Berm...
.
- 2002 - February 19 Kofi Annan presents the Security Council with four options to break the impasse in the Sahara: referendum, autonomy, partition, or complete withdrawal.
- March MINURSO's total expenditure exceeds $500 million.
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- 2003 - January James Baker announces the "new Baker Plan", the Peace Plan for Self-Determination of the People of Western Sahara. It describes a proposed Western Sahara Authority to administer the territory autonomously until the holding of a referendum in 2007 or in 2008. In a surprise move, the Polisario accepts the document as a basis of negotiations; Morocco stalls for several months, but eventually rejects the plan, stating that the kingdom will no longer accept independence as one of the ballot options.
- July UN Security Council Resolution 1495 announces support for Baker's latest plan, and extends the mandate of MINURSO to January 31, 2004.
- 2004 - January MINURSO extended until April.
- April The UN extends MINURSO's mandate for another year.
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Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
vian Alvari de Soto takes his place.
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Miguel Ángel Moratinos
Miguel Ángel Moratinos Cuyaubé is a Spanish diplomat and politician, a member of the Socialist Workers' Party and member of Congress where he represents Córdoba....
, Foreign Minister of Spain, vows that Spain will support the Baker Plan.
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South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
recognizes the SADR.
- 2005 - April 22 Foreign Minister of South Africa Nkosazana Dlamini Zuma visits the SADR on official business.
- May 25 An intifada (or uprising) begins in the cities of El Aiun and Smara, and student uprisings occur in Moroccan universities. Reports circulate of police brutality and of the kidnapping of peaceful demonstrators.
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Kenya
Kenya , officially known as the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator, with the Indian Ocean to its south-east...
gives full recognition to the SADR.
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Peter van Walsum
A. Peter van Walsum is a Dutch diplomat who served as United Nations Secretary-General's Personal Envoy for Western Sahara...
confirmed as James Baker's replacement.
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Sudan
Sudan , officially the Republic of the Sudan , is a country in North Africa, sometimes considered part of the Middle East politically. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the...
becomes the first state to support Moroccan sovereignty over the Western Sahara.http://www.moroccotimes.com/paper/article.asp?idr=2&id=11765
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Uruguay
Uruguay ,officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay,sometimes the Eastern Republic of Uruguay; ) is a country in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to some 3.5 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area...
recognizes the SADR.
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(The above text derives in part from the unpublished paper The Western Sahara: A Case Study by John Carthy, written for the University of Portsmouth
University of Portsmouth
The University of Portsmouth is a university in Portsmouth, Hampshire, England. The University was ranked 60th out of 122 in The Sunday Times University Guide...
, with permission.)