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Spain

Spain, officially the Kingdom of Spain , is a Europe Europe

Europe is one of the seven traditional continent [i]s of the Earth [i]. ... 

an parliamentary monarchy Constitutional monarchy

A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchical [i] government [i] established under a constitution [i] ... 

. It is the largest of the three sovereign nations that make up the Iberian Peninsula Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe [i]. ... 

—the others are Portugal Portugal

Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic is located in southwestern Europe [i] on the Iberian Peninsula [i] ... 

 and Andorra Andorra

The Principality of Andorra is a small, landlocked [i] principality [i] in southwest ... 

—located in Southern Europe Southern Europe

Southern Europe is a region [i] of the Europe [i]an continent [i]. ... 

. To the west and to the south of Galicia, Spain borders Portugal Portugal

Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic is located in southwestern Europe [i] on the Iberian Peninsula [i] ... 

. To the south, it borders Gibraltar Gibraltar

Gibraltar is a British overseas territory [i]. ... 

 and, through its cities in North Africa , Morocco Morocco

The Kingdom of Morocco is a country in North Africa [i]. ... 

. To the northeast, along the Pyrenees Pyrenees

[Image:Pic de Bugatet.jpg|thumb|250px|Pic de Bugatet [i] in the Nouvielle Natural Reserve [i].]] [i] ... 

 mountain range, it borders France France

France, officially the French Republic, is a country [i] whose metropolitan territory [i] ... 

 and the tiny principality Principality

A principality is a monarchical [i] feudatory or sovereign state [i], ruled or reigned over by ... 

 of Andorra Andorra

The Principality of Andorra is a small, landlocked [i] principality [i] in southwest ... 

. It also includes the Balearic Islands Balearic Islands

The Balearic Islands are an archipelago [i] in the western Mediterranean Sea [i], near the coast of Spain [i] ... 

 in the Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean [i] almost completely enclosed by land: on the nor ... 

, the Canary Islands Canary Islands

The Canary Islands IPA [i] are an archipelago [i] of the Kingdom of Spain [i] ... 

 in the Atlantic Ocean Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest ocean [i], covering approximately one-fifth of the Earth [i]'s ... 

 and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the strait of Gibraltar Strait of Gibraltar

The Strait of Gibraltar is the strait [i] that connects the Atlantic Ocean [i] from the Mediterranean Sea [i] ... 

, known as , such as the Chafarine Islas Chafarinas

Islas Chafarinas is a group of three small island [i]s located in the Mediterranean Sea [i] off the coas ... 

 islands,

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Timeline

49 BC   Caesar advances against Pompeian forces in Spain.

49 BC   Caesar arrives in Spain; seizes the Pyrenees Pyrenees

[Image:Pic de Bugatet.jpg|thumb|250px|Pic de Bugatet [i] in the Nouvielle Natural Reserve [i].]] [i] ... 

 passes against the Pompeians L. Afranius and M. Petreius.

69   Galba, governor of Spain, names himself ''legatus senatus populique Romani'', breaking the line of Roman emperors begun with Caesar Julius Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar , July 12 [i] or July 13 [i], 100 BC [i] – March 15 [i], 44 BC [i]) was a Roman [i] ... 

 and Augustus. He was assassinated by the Praetorian Guards Praetorian Guard

The Praetorian Guard comprised a special force of bodyguard [i]s used by Roman [i] Emperor [i] ... 

 in favor of Marcus Salvius Otho Otho

Marcus Salvius Otho was Roman Emperor [i] from January 15 [i] to April 16 [i], in 69 [i], ... 

.

169   Northern African Moors Moors

The Moors were the medieval Muslim [i] inhabitants of al-Andalus [i] and the Maghreb [i] and western Africa [i] ... 

 invade what is now Spain.

258   Gaul Gaul

Gaul was the name given, in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe [i] comprising present-day n ... 

, Britain and Spain break off from the Roman Empire Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was a phase of the ancient Roman [i] civilization characterized by an autocratic [i] ... 

 to form the Gallic Empire

259   Postumus Postumus

Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus was emperor of the Gallic Empire [i] from 259 [i] to 268 [i]. ... 

 revolts against Gallienus Gallienus

Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus ruled the Roman Empire [i] as co-emperor with his father Valerian [i] ... 

, in Gaul Gaul

Gaul was the name given, in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe [i] comprising present-day n ... 

. The western provinces of Britain Roman Britain

[i] controlled by the [[Roman Empire]... 

 and Spain join his independent realm—which is called in modern times the Gallic Empire.

409   The Vandals Vandals

The Vandals were an East Germanic tribe [i] that entered the late Roman Empire [i] during the 5th century [i] ... 

, Alans Alans

The Alans or Alani were an Iran [i]ian nomadic group among the Sarmatian [i] people, w ... 

 and Suevi Suebi

The Suebi or Suevi were Elbe [i]-Germanics [i] whose origin was near the Baltic Sea [i] ... 

 break through Constantine III Constantine III (usurper)

Constantine III was a Roman [i] general who declared himself Western Roman Emperor [i] in 407 [i] ... 

's garrisons into Hispania Hispania

Hispania was the name given by the Romans [i] to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula [i] and ... 

. They share the Iberian Peninsula Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe [i]. ... 

 by drawing lots, with the Vandals getting Hispania Baetica Hispania Baetica

Hispania Baetica was one of three Imperial Roman province [i]s ... 

 (modern Andalusia Andalusia

Andalusia is an autonomous community [i] of Spain [i]. ... 

), the Suevi Gallaecia Gallaecia

Gallaecia or Callaecia was the name of a Roman province [i] that comprised a territory in ... 

 (modern Galicia Galicia (Iberian peninsula)

Galicia is an autonomous community [i] in the northwest of Spain [i]. ... 

 and northern Norte, Portugal

Região Norte, the northern part of Portugal [i] is a land of dense vegetation and profound historic and ... 

 Portugal Portugal

Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic is located in southwestern Europe [i] on the Iberian Peninsula [i] ... 

) and the Alans Lusitania Lusitania

Lusitania was an ancient Roman [i] province [i] approximately including curr ... 

 (the rest of modern Portugal and Spanish Spain

Spain, officially the Kingdom of Spain , is a Europe [i]an parliamentary monarchy [i]. ... 

 Extremadura Extremadura

Extremadura is an autonomous community [i] of western Spain [i]. ... 

).

411   The Alans Alans

The Alans or Alani were an Iran [i]ian nomadic group among the Sarmatian [i] people, w ... 

 establish their rule in the Roman Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome was a civilization [i] that grew out of the city-state [i] of Rome [i], founded in the Italian Peninsula [i] ... 

 province Roman province

In Ancient Rome [i], a province was the basic, and until the Tetrarchy [i], largest territorial and admi ... 

 of Lusitania Lusitania

Lusitania was an ancient Roman [i] province [i] approximately including curr ... 

 (modern Portugal Portugal

Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic is located in southwestern Europe [i] on the Iberian Peninsula [i] ... 

 south of the Douro River Douro

The Douro or Duero is one of the major river [i]s of the Iberian Peninsula [i], flowing from its s ... 

 and Spanish Spain

Spain, officially the Kingdom of Spain , is a Europe [i]an parliamentary monarchy [i]. ... 

 Extremadura Extremadura

Extremadura is an autonomous community [i] of western Spain [i]. ... 

).

534   Toledo Toledo, Spain

Toledo is a city and municipality [i] located in central Spain [i], about 70 kilometers [i] south of Madrid [i] ... 

 becomes the capital of the Visigoths Visigoth

The Visigoths were one of two main branches of the Goths [i], an East Germanic tribe [i] . ... 

 in Spain

551   The Byzantine Empire Byzantine Empire

Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used since the 19th century [i] to describe the Greek-spea ... 

 captures part of southern Spain from the Visigoths Visigoth

The Visigoths were one of two main branches of the Goths [i], an East Germanic tribe [i] . ... 

.

   More Events >>



Encyclopedia

Spain, officially the Kingdom of Spain , is a Europe Europe

Europe is one of the seven traditional continent [i]s of the Earth [i]. ... 

an parliamentary monarchy Constitutional monarchy

A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchical [i] government [i] established under a constitution [i] ... 

. It is the largest of the three sovereign nations that make up the Iberian Peninsula Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe [i].... 

—the others are Portugal Portugal

Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic is located in southwestern Europe [i] on the Iberian Peninsula [i] ... 

 and Andorra Andorra

The Principality of Andorra is a small, landlocked [i] principality [i] in southwest ... 

—located in Southern Europe Southern Europe

Southern Europe is a region [i] of the Europe [i]an continent [i]. ... 

. To the west and to the south of Galicia, Spain borders Portugal Portugal

Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic is located in southwestern Europe [i] on the Iberian Peninsula [i] ... 

. To the south, it borders Gibraltar Gibraltar

Gibraltar is a British overseas territory [i].... 

 and, through its cities in North Africa , Morocco Morocco

The Kingdom of Morocco is a country in North Africa [i]. ... 

. To the northeast, along the Pyrenees Pyrenees

[Image:Pic de Bugatet.jpg|thumb|250px|Pic de Bugatet [i] in the Nouvielle Natural Reserve [i].]] [i]
... 

 mountain range, it borders France France

France, officially the French Republic, is a country [i] whose metropolitan territory [i] ... 

 and the tiny principality Principality

A principality is a monarchical [i] feudatory or sovereign state [i], ruled or reigned over by ... 

 of Andorra Andorra

The Principality of Andorra is a small, landlocked [i] principality [i] in southwest ... 

. It also includes the Balearic Islands Balearic Islands

The Balearic Islands are an archipelago [i] in the western Mediterranean Sea [i], near the coast of Spain [i] ... 

 in the Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean [i] almost completely enclosed by land: on the nor... 

, the Canary Islands Canary Islands

The Canary Islands IPA [i] are an archipelago [i] of the Kingdom of Spain [i] ... 

 in the Atlantic Ocean Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest ocean [i], covering approximately one-fifth of the Earth [i]'s ... 

 and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the strait of Gibraltar Strait of Gibraltar

The Strait of Gibraltar is the strait [i] that connects the Atlantic Ocean [i] from the Mediterranean Sea [i] ... 

, known as , such as the Chafarine Islas Chafarinas

Islas Chafarinas is a group of three small island [i]s located in the Mediterranean Sea [i] off the coas... 

 islands, the isle of Alborán Isla de Alborán

Isla de Alborn is a tiny island [i] on the Alborn Sea [i], located about 1/3 of the
... 

, the "rocks" of Vélez Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera

Pen de Vlez de la Gomera is one of the Spanish [i] territories on North Africa off the Moroccan [i] ... 

 and Alhucemas Peñón de Alhucemas

Pen de Alhucemas, or "Lavender Rock", is one of the Spanish [i] enclaves in North Africa [i] off t ... 

, and the tiny Isla Perejil Isla Perejil

The Isla Perejil is a small, rocky island [i] located in the Strait of Gibraltar [i], 200 m off the coa ... 

. In the northeast along the Pyrenees Pyrenees

[Image:Pic de Bugatet.jpg|thumb|250px|Pic de Bugatet [i] in the Nouvielle Natural Reserve [i].]] [i]
... 

, a small exclave Enclave and exclave

In political geography [i], an enclave is a country or part of a country lying wholly within the boundar ... 

 town called Llívia in Catalonia Catalonia

The Autonomous Community of Catalonia , known throughout history simply as Catalonia, is today one... 

 is surrounded by French France

France, officially the French Republic, is a country [i] whose metropolitan territory [i] ... 

 territory.

The name Spain comes from the Latin name Hispania Hispania

Hispania was the name given by the Romans [i] to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula [i] and... 

.

History


Prehistory and Pre-Roman peoples in the Iberian Peninsula

The earliest record of hominids living in Europe to date has been found in the Spanish cave of Atapuerca Atapuerca

Atapuerca is a Spanish town in the province of Burgos [i], Castile-Leon [i], that gives name to the Sierra [i] ... 

 which has become a key site for world Paleontology due to the importance of the fossils found there, dated roughly 1.000.000 years ago.

Modern humans in the form of Cro-Magnons  began arriving in the Iberian peninsula from north of the Pyrenees Pyrenees

[Image:Pic de Bugatet.jpg|thumb|250px|Pic de Bugatet [i] in the Nouvielle Natural Reserve [i].]] [i]
... 

 some 35,000 years ago. The more conspicuous sign of prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in the northern Spanish Altamira , which were done ca. 15,000 BCE and are regarded, along with those in Lascaux Lascaux

Lascaux is a complex of cave [i]s in southwestern France [i] famous for its cave painting [i]s. ... 

, France France

France, officially the French Republic, is a country [i] whose metropolitan territory [i] ... 

, as paramount instances of cave art Cave painting

Cave or rock paintings are painting [i]s painted on cave [i] or rock [i] walls and ceilings, ... 

.

The earliest urban culture documented is that of the semi-mythical southern city of Tartessos, pre- 1100 BCE. The seafaring Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over a period of several centuries.
Around 1100 BCE, Phoenician merchants founded the trading colony of Gadir Cádiz

Cdiz – Phoenician [i]: ??? - Gadir; Greek [i]: ... 

 or Gades near Tartessos. In the 9th century BCE the first Greek colonies, such as Emporion , were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the East, leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians. The Greeks are responsible for the name Iberia, after the river Iber . In the 6th century BCE the Carthaginians arrived in Iberia while struggling with the Greeks for control of the Western Mediterranean Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean [i] almost completely enclosed by land: on the nor... 

. Their most important colony was Carthago Nova Cartagena, Murcia

Cartagena is a Spanish Mediterranian City and Naval Station [i] in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula [i] ... 

 .

The native peoples which the Romans met at the time of their invasion in what is now known as Spain were the Iberians Iberians

The Iberians [i] were an ancient, Pre-Indo-European [i] people who inhabited the east and southeast of the Iberian Peninsula [i]... 

, inhabiting from the Southwest part of the Peninsula through the Northeast part of it, and then the Celts Celt

The term Celt, normally pronounced // , refers to a member of any of a number of peoples in Europe u... 

, mostly inhabiting the north and northwest part of the Peninsula. In the inner part of the Peninsula, where both groups were in contact, a mixed, distinctive, culture was present, the one known as Celtiberian Celtiberians

The Celtiberians were a Celt [i]ic people living in the Iberian Peninsula [i], chiefly in what is now no ... 

.

Roman Empire and Germanic Invasions



The Romans Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome was a civilization [i] that grew out of the city-state [i] of Rome [i], founded in the Italian Peninsula [i] ... 

 arrived in the Iberian peninsula during the Second Punic war Second Punic War

The Second Punic War lasted from 218 [i] to 202 BC [i] and involved combatants in the western an ... 

 in the 2nd century BCE, and annexed it under Augustus after two centuries of war with the tenacious Celtic and Iberian tribes . These, along with the Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian Carthage

The term Carthage refers both to an ancient city in North Africa [i] located in modern day Tunis [i] an ... 

 coastal colonies, became the province of Hispania Hispania

Hispania was the name given by the Romans [i] to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula [i] and... 

. It was divided into Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior during the late Roman Republic Roman Republic

The Roman Republic was a phase of the ancient Roman civilization [i] characterized by a republic [i]... 

; and, during the Roman Empire Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was a phase of the ancient Roman [i] civilization characterized by an autocratic [i] ... 

, Hispania Taraconensis Hispania Tarraconensis

[i]
... 

 in the northeast, Hispania Baetica Hispania Baetica

Hispania Baetica was one of three Imperial Roman province [i]s
... 

 in the south and Lusitania Lusitania

Lusitania was an ancient Roman [i] province [i] approximately including curr ... 

  in the southwest.

Hispania supplied Rome with food, olive oil, wine and metal. The emperors Trajan Trajan

Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus , Roman Emperor [i] , commonly called , was the second of th ... 

, Hadrian Hadrian

Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus , known as Hadrian in English [i], was Roman [i] ... 

, Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius

Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus was Roman Emperor [i] from 161 [i] to his death.... 

 and Theodosius I Theodosius I

Flavius Theodosius , also called Theodosius I and Theodosius the Great, was [[Roman Emperor]... 

, the philosopher Seneca Seneca the Younger

Lucius Annaeus Seneca was a Roman [i] philosopher [i], statesman [i], dramatist [i], and in ... 

 and the poets Martial Martial

Marcus Valerius Martialis, known in English [i] as Martial, was a Latin [i] ... 

, Quintilian and Lucan were born in Spain. The Spanish Bishops held the Council at Elvira in 306. The collapse of the Western Roman empire Western Roman Empire

The Western Roman Empire is the name given to the western half of the Roman Empire [i] after its divisio ... 

 did not lead to the same wholesale destruction of Western classical society as happened in areas like Britain, Gaul Gaul

Gaul was the name given, in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe [i] comprising present-day n ... 

 and Germania Inferior Germania Inferior

[i]
... 

 during the Dark Ages Dark Ages

In historiography [i] the phrase the Dark Ages is most commonly known in relation to the Europe [i]an Early Middle Ages [i] ... 

, even if the institutions, infrastructure and economy did suffer considerable degradation. Spain's present languages, its religion, and the basis of its laws originate from this period. The centuries of uninterrupted Roman rule and settlement left a deep and enduring imprint upon the culture of Spain.

The first hordes of Barbarians to invade Hispania arrived in the 5th century 5th century

The 5th century is the period from 401 [i] - 500 [i] in accordance with the Julian calendar [i] in the Christian Era [i]... 

, as the Roman empire decayed. The tribes of Goths Goths

The Goths were an East Germanic tribe [i] who from the 2nd century [i] settled Scythia [i], Dacia [i] a... 

, Visigoths Visigoth

The Visigoths were one of two main branches of the Goths [i], an East Germanic tribe [i] . ... 

, Swebians , Alans Alans

The Alans or Alani were an Iran [i]ian nomadic group among the Sarmatian [i] people, w ... 

, Asdings and Vandals Vandals

The Vandals were an East Germanic tribe [i] that entered the late Roman Empire [i] during the 5th century [i] ... 

, arrived to Spain by crossing the Pyrenees mountain range. They were all of Germanic origin. This led to the establishment of the Swebian Kingdom Suebi

The Suebi or Suevi were Elbe [i]-Germanics [i] whose origin was near the Baltic Sea [i] ... 

 in Gallaecia Gallaecia

Gallaecia or Callaecia was the name of a Roman province [i] that comprised a territory in ... 

, in the northwest, and the Visigothic Kingdom Visigoth

The Visigoths were one of two main branches of the Goths [i], an East Germanic tribe [i] . ... 

 elsewhere. The Visigothic Kingdom eventually encompassed the entire Iberian Peninsula with the Catholic conversion of the Goth monarchs. The famous horseshoe arch, which was adapted and perfected to great effect by the later Muslim era builders was in fact originally an example of Visigothic art Visigothic art

The Visigoths [i] entered Hispania [i] in 415 [i] and they rose to be the dominant people there until th ... 

.

Muslim Iberia


In the 8th century 8th century

The 8th century is the period from 701 [i] - 800 [i] in accordance with the Julian calendar [i] in the Christian Era [i]... 

, nearly all the Iberian peninsula Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe [i].... 

, which had been under Visigoth Visigoth

The Visigoths were one of two main branches of the Goths [i], an East Germanic tribe [i] . ... 

ic rule, was quickly conquered , by mainly Berber Berber people

The Berbers are an ethnic group [i] indigenous to Northwest Africa [i], speaking the Berber languages [i] ... 

 Muslim Muslim

A Muslim is an adherent of Islam [i]. ... 

s , who had crossed over from North Africa North Africa

North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost [i] region [i] of the Africa [i]n continent [i] ... 

, led by Tariq ibn Ziyad. Visigothic Spain was the last of a series of lands conquered in a great westward charge by the Islamically inspired armies of the Umayyad empire. Indeed they continued northwards until they were defeated in central France at the Battle of Tours Battle of Tours

The Battle of Tours , often called Battle of Poitiers and also called in Arabic [i] The Court o ... 

 in 732. Astonishingly the invasion started off as an invitation from a Visigoth faction within Spain for support. But instead the Moorish army, having defeated King Roderic proceeded to conquer the peninsula for itself. The Roman Catholic populace, unimpressed with the constant internal feuding of the Visigothic leaders, often stood apart from the fighting, often welcoming the new rulers, thereby forging the basis of the distinctly Spanish-Muslim culture of Al-Andalus Al-Andalus

Al-Andalus was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula [i] governed by Muslims fro ... 

. Only three small counties in the mountains of the north of Spain managed to cling to their independence: Asturias Asturias

The Principality [i] of Asturias is an autonomous community [i] within ... 

, Navarra Navarre

Navarre is an autonomous community in Spain [i].... 

 and Aragon Aragon

Aragon is an autonomous community [i] of north-eastern Spain [i]. ... 

, which eventually became kingdoms Monarchy

A monarchy, from the Greek [i] ????, "one," and a??e?? [i], "to rule", is... 

.

The Muslim emirate proved strong in its first three centuries; stopping Charlemagne Charlemagne

Charlemagne was the King of the Franks [i] who conquered Italy [i] and took the Iron Crown of Lombardy [i]... 

's massive forces at Saragossa Zaragoza

Zaragoza is the capital [i] city [i] of the autonomous region [i] and f ... 

 and, after a serious Viking Viking

The term Viking commonly denotes the ship-borne explorers, traders, and warriors of the Norsemen [i] who ... 

 attack, established effective defences. Indeed it became a terror in its own right to Christian neighbours, with its "al-jihad fil-bahr" . Christian Spain struck back from its mountain redoubts by seizing the lands north of the Duero Douro

The Douro or Duero is one of the major river [i]s of the Iberian Peninsula [i], flowing from its s ... 

 river, and the Franks Franks

The Franks or the Frankish people were one of several west Germanic federations [i] ... 

 were able to seize Barcelona and the Spanish Marches), but save for these and some other small incursions in the north, the Christians were unable to make headway against the superior forces of Al-Andalus for several centuries. It was only in the 11th century 11th century

As a means of recording the passage of time [i], the 11th century was that century [i] which lasted from ... 

 that the break up of Al-Andalus led to the creation of the Taifa Taifa

The term taifa in the history of Iberia [i] refers to an independent Muslim [i]-ru... 

 kingdoms, who attempted to outshine each other in art and culture and were often at war, became vulnerable to the consolidating power of Spain's Christian kingdoms.

The Moorish capital was Córdoba Córdoba, Spain

Crdoba, also called Crdova, is a city [i] in Andaluca [i], southern Spain [i], and the capital of the province of Crdoba [i] ... 

, in southern Spain. During this time large populations of Jews, Christians and Muslims lived in close quarters, and at its peak some non-Muslims were appointed to high offices under the some of the more lenient Muslim rulers. At its best it produced exquisite architecture and art, and Muslim and Jewish scholars played a major part in reviving the study of and Roman cultures Culture of ancient Rome

Ancient Roman [i] culture [i] evolved throughout the almost 1200-year history of that civilization [i]... 

. However there were restrictions on non-Muslims that grew after the death of Al-Hakam II in 976. Later invasions of stricter Muslim groups led to persecutions of non-Muslims, forcing some to seek safety in the then still relatively tolerant city of Toledo Toledo, Spain

Toledo is a city and municipality [i] located in central Spain [i], about 70 kilometers [i] south of Madrid [i] ... 

 after its Christian reconquest in 1085.

Spanish society under Muslim rule became increasingly complex, partly because Islamic conquest did not involve the systematic conversion of the much larger conquered population to Islam Islam

Islam is a monotheistic [i] religion [i] based upon the Qur'an [i], which adherents believe w ... 

. At the same time, Christians and Jew Jew

Jews are followers of Judaism [i] or, more generally, members of the Jewish people , an ethno [i]... 

s were recognized under Islam as "peoples of the book", and so given dhimmi Dhimmi

A dhimmi was a "free" , non-Muslim [i] subject of a state governed in accordance with sharia [i] Islamic [i] ... 

 status. Most importantly, the Islamic Berber and Arab invaders were a small minority, ruling over a few million Christians. Thus, Christians and Jews were free to practise their religion, but faced certain restrictions and financial burdens. Conversion to Islam proceeded at a steadily increasing pace, as it offered social and economic and political advantages. Merchants, nobles, large landowners, and other local elites were usually among the first to convert. By the 11th century 11th century

As a means of recording the passage of time [i], the 11th century was that century [i] which lasted from ... 

 Muslims are believed to have outnumbered Christians in Al-Andalus.

The Muslim community in Spain was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. From the beginning, the Berber people of North Africa North Africa

North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost [i] region [i] of the Africa [i]n continent [i] ... 

 had provided the bulk of the armies, clashed with the Arab leadership from the Middle East Middle East

The Middle East is a subcontinent [i] for the historical [i] and cultural [i] ... 

. The Berbers, who were comparatively recent converts to Islam, resented the aristocratic pretensions of the Arab elite. They soon gave up attempting to settle the harsh lands of the north of the Meseta Central Geography of Spain

Spain is located in southwestern Europe [i] and comprises about 84 percent of the Iberian Peninsula [i]. ... 

 handed to them by the Arab rulers, and many returned to Africa during a Berber uprising against Arab rule. However, the Berbers later took over power and Muslim Spain fell under the rule of the Almoravid Almoravids

Almoravides , was a Berber [i] dynasty from the Sahara [i] that flourished over a wide area of Africa an... 

 and then the Almohad Almohad

The Almohad Dynasty were a Berber [i] Muslim religious [i] power which founded the fifth Moorish [i] ... 

 dynasties, amongst others. Over time the relatively tiny number of Moors gradually increased with immigration and cross marriages. Large Moorish populations grew, particularly in the south, especially in the Guadalquivir river Guadalquivir

The Guadalquivir is the third longest river [i] in Spain [i], and the longest in Andalusia [i].... 

 valley, along the narrow but fertile Mediterranean coastal plain and in the Ebro river Ebro

The Ebro is Spain [i]'s most voluminous and second longest river [i]. ... 

 valley, south of Barcelona.

Muslim Spain was wealthy and sophisticated under Islamic rule. Cordoba was the richest and most sophisticated city in all of western Europe Europe

Europe is one of the seven traditional continent [i]s of the Earth [i]. ... 

. It was not until the 12th century 12th century

As a means of recording the passage of time [i], the 12th century was that century [i] which lasted from ... 

 that western medieval Christiandom High Middle Ages

The High Middle Ages was the period [i] of European history [i] in the 11th [i] ... 

 began to reach comparable levels of sophistication, and this was due in part to the stimulus coming from Muslim Spain. Mediterranean Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean [i] almost completely enclosed by land: on the nor... 

 trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich intellectual tradition from the Middle East Middle East

The Middle East is a subcontinent [i] for the historical [i] and cultural [i] ... 

 and North Africa North Africa

North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost [i] region [i] of the Africa [i]n continent [i] ... 

, including knowledge of mathematics and science, and they helped revived. Crops and farming techniques introduced by the Arabs, led to a remarkable expansion of agriculture, which had been in decline since Roman times. In towns and cities magnificent mosques, palaces, and other monuments were constructed. Outside the cities, the mixture of large estates and small farms that existed in Roman times remained largely intact because Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed landowners. The Muslim conquerors were relatively few in number and so they tried to maintain good relations with their subjects. This relative social peace, which was already deteriorating from the late 10th century 10th century

As a means of recording the passage of time [i], the 10th century was that century [i] which lasted from ... 

, broke down with the later, stricter, Muslim sects.

Roman, Jewish, and Muslim culture interacted in complex ways. A large part of the population gradually adopted Arabic. Arabic was the official language of government. Even Jews and Christians often spoke Arabic Arabic language

The Arabic language , or simply Arabic , is the largest member of the Semitic [i] branch of the Afro-Asiatic [i] ... 

, while Hebrew Hebrew language

Hebrew is a Semitic language [i] of the Afro-Asiatic language family [i] ... 

 and Latin Latin

Latin is an ancient Indo-European language [i] originally spoken in Latium [i], ... 

 were frequently written in Arabic script. These diverse traditions interchanged in ways that gave Spanish culture — religion, literature, music, art and architecture, and writing systems — a rich and distinctive heritage. However, as the 11th century drew to a close most of the north and centre of Spain was back under Christian control.

Fall of Muslim rule and Unification



The long period of expansion of the Christian kingdoms, beginning in 722, only eleven years after the Moorish invasion, is called the Reconquista Reconquista

The Reconquista was the process by which the Christian Kingdoms of northern Hispania [i] defeated ... 

. As early as 739 Muslim forces were driven out of Galicia, which came to host one of Christianity´s holiest sites, Santiago de Compostela Santiago de Compostela

Santiago de Compostela is the capital of the autonomous community [i] o ... 

. Areas in the northern mountains and around Barcelona were soon captured by Frankish and local forces, providing a base for Spain's Christians. The 1085 conquest of the central city of Toledo Toledo, Spain

Toledo is a city and municipality [i] located in central Spain [i], about 70 kilometers [i] south of Madrid [i] ... 

 largely completed the reconquest of the northern half of Spain.

In 1086 the Almoravids Almoravids

Almoravides , was a Berber [i] dynasty from the Sahara [i] that flourished over a wide area of Africa an... 

, an ascetic Islamic sect from North Africa North Africa

North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost [i] region [i] of the Africa [i]n continent [i] ... 

, conquered the divided small Moorish states in the south and launched an invasion in which they captured the east coast as far north as Saragossa. By the middle of the 12th century the Almoravid empire had disintegrated. The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa

The July 16 [i] 1212 [i] battle of Las Navas de Tolosa is considered a major turning point in the histo ... 

 in 1212 heralded the collapse of the great Moorish strongholds in the south, most notably Córdoba Córdoba, Spain

Crdoba, also called Crdova, is a city [i] in Andaluca [i], southern Spain [i], and the capital of the province of Crdoba [i] ... 

 in 1236 and Seville Seville

Seville is the artistic, cultural, and financial capital of southern Spain [i], irrigated by the river... 

 in 1248. Within a few years of this nearly the whole of the Iberian peninsula had been reconquered, leaving only the Muslim enclave of Granada Granada

Granada – Greek [i]: - Elibyrge; Latin [i]: Illiberis or Illiberi ... 

 as a small tributary state in the south. Surrounded by Christian Castile Crown of Castile

The starting point of Crown of Castile [i] can be considered when the union of the Kingdoms of Castile a ... 

 but afraid of another invasion from Muslim northern Africa, it clung tenaciously to its isolated mountain splendour for two and half centuries. It came to an end in 1492 when Isabella Isabella of Castile

Isabella of Castile was Queen regnant of Castile and Leon [i]. ... 

 and Ferdinand Ferdinand II of Aragon

[i], [[Crown of Castile|Castile]... 

 captured the southern city of Granada Granada

Granada – Greek [i]: - Elibyrge; Latin [i]: Illiberis or Illiberi ... 

, the last Moorish city in Spain. The Treaty of Granada  guaranteed religious tolerance toward Muslim Muslim

A Muslim is an adherent of Islam [i]. ... 

s while Spain's Jewish population of over 200,000 people was