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Map

A map is a simplified depiction of a space, a navigational aid which highlights relations between objects within that space. Most usually a map is a two-dimensional, geometrically accurate representation of a three-dimensional space. The science and art of map-making is cartography Cartography

Cartography or mapmaking is the study and practice of making map [i]s or globe [i]s. ... 

; see that page for further discussion of the history of maps and map-making. Map-making dates back to the Stone Age Stone Age

The period encompasses the first widespread use of technology [i] in human evolution [i] and the spread of humanity [i] ... 

 and appears to predate written language by several millennia. One of the oldest surviving maps is painted on a wall of the Catal Huyuk Çatalhöyük

atalhyk was a very large Neolithic [i] and Chalcolithic [i] settlement in southern Anatolia [i], datin ... 

 settlement in south-central Anatolia Anatolia

Anatolia is a region of Southwest Asia [i] which corresponds today to the Asiatic portion of Turkey [i] ... 

 ; it dates from about 6200 BC.

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A map is a simplified depiction of a space, a navigational aid which highlights relations between objects within that space. Most usually a map is a two-dimensional, geometrically accurate representation of a three-dimensional space. The science and art of map-making is cartography Cartography

Cartography or mapmaking is the study and practice of making map [i]s or globe [i]s. ... 

; see that page for further discussion of the history of maps and map-making.

Map-making dates back to the Stone Age Stone Age

The period encompasses the first widespread use of technology [i] in human evolution [i] and the spread of humanity [i] ... 

 and appears to predate written language by several millennia. One of the oldest surviving maps is painted on a wall of the Catal Huyuk Çatalhöyük

atalhyk was a very large Neolithic [i] and Chalcolithic [i] settlement in southern Anatolia [i], datin... 

 settlement in south-central Anatolia Anatolia

Anatolia is a region of Southwest Asia [i] which corresponds today to the Asiatic portion of Turkey [i] ... 

 ; it dates from about 6200 BC. [Harvey 2000, p. 142].

While we tend to think of maps today as products of a rationalistic, scientific world-view, maps also have a mythic quality. Pre-modern maps, and mapping traditions outside the Western tradition, often merge geography with non-scientific cosmography, showing the relationship of the viewer to the universe. Medieval "T-O" maps T and O map

A T and O map or T-O map, is a type of medieval [i] world map [i], sometimes also called a Beat... 

, for example, show Jerusalem Jerusalem

Jerusalem is Israel [i]'s capital [i] and largest city, with a population of 724,000 contained in 123 ... 

 at the centre of the world, and in some cases related the "body" of the Earth to the body of Christ. By contrast, navigational charts of the Mediterranean from the same period are remarkably accurate. Even today, maps can be powerful rhetorical tools beyond their purely practical value, and this has been the source of much fruitful map criticism over the last twenty years, notably in the works of J.B. Harley, Mark Monmonier, and Denis Wood.


Because maps are abstract representations of the world, they are not neutral documents and must be carefully interpreted. It is, of course, this abstraction that makes them useful. Lewis Carroll Lewis Carroll

The Reverend [i] Charles Lutwidge Dodgson , better known by the pen name [i] Lewis Carroll, was an ... 

 made this point humorously in Sylvie and Bruno with his mention of a fictional map that had "the scale of a mile to the mile". A character notes some practical difficulties with this map and states that "we now use the country itself, as its own map, and I assure you it does nearly as well". This concept is elaborated in a one-paragraph story by Jorge Luis Borges Jorge Luis Borges

Jorge Luis Borges , was an Argentine [i] writer [i] who is considered one of the foremost lite ... 

 and Adolfo Bioy Casares, generally known in English English language

English is a widely distributed language that originated in England [i] but is now the primary language ... 

 as "On Exactitude in Science".

Road maps are perhaps the most widely used maps today, and form a subset of navigational maps, which also include aeronautical and nautical chart Nautical chart

A nautical chart is a graphic representation of a maritime [i] area and adjacent coast [i]al regions ... 

s, railroad network maps, and hiking and bicycling maps. In terms of quantity, the largest number of drawn map sheets is probably made up by local surveys, carried out by municipalities, utilities, tax assessors, emergency services providers, and other local agencies. Many national surveying projects have been carried out by the military, such as the British United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a country and sovereign state [i] tha ... 

 Ordnance Survey Ordnance Survey

Ordnance Survey is an executive agency [i] of the United Kingdom [i] government.... 

 .

Orientation of maps



Conventionally, on most geometrically accurate maps text is upright when the map is oriented with the north up, hence north is identified with the top of a sheet.

Maps that don't put north at the top:
  1. Polar map Azimuthal equidistant projection

    The azimuthal equidistant projection is a particular map projection [i].

... 

s
  1. Dymaxion map Dymaxion map

    The Dymaxion map of the Earth [i] is a projection [i] of a global map [i] onto the surfac ... 

    s
  2. Old maps of Edo Edo

    Edo , once also spelled Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name [i] of the Japan [i] ... 

     show the Japanese imperial palace Kokyo

    The Kokyo is the Imperial Palace of Japan [i] and the residence of the Emperor of Japan [i]. ... 

     as the "top," but also at the centre, of the map. Labels on the map are oriented in such a way that you cannot read them properly unless you put the imperial palace above your head.
  3. Medieval Middle Ages

    The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history [i] ... 

     European T and O map T and O map

    A T and O map or T-O map, is a type of medieval [i] world map [i], sometimes also called a Beat... 

    s such as the Hereford Mappa Mundi Hereford Mappa Mundi

    The Hereford [i] Mappa Mundi [i] is a T and O map [i] dating to ca. ... 

     were centred on Jerusalem Jerusalem

    Jerusalem is Israel [i]'s capital [i] and largest city, with a population of 724,000 contained in 123 ... 

    , with East East

    East is most commonly a noun [i], adjective [i], or adverb [i] indicating direction [i] or geography [i] ... 

     at the top.
  4. Medieval Arab maps, such as the one by Muhammad al-Idrisi Muhammad al-Idrisi

    Al-Idrisi full name Abu Abd Allah Muhammad al-Idrisi was an Arab [i] cartographer [i], ... 

    , which placed south at the top.
  5. Some rectangular maps produced in Australia show the south pole at the top. To someone used to seeing the map the other way around, this map may appear to be "upside down". These are primarily intended as novelty and tourist maps.
  6. Other modern maps put south on top, generally either out of a sense of playful confusion or to make a political statement about the North-South divide North-South divide

    The North-South divide is the socio-economic [i] and political [i] division whic... 

    . See Reversed map Reversed map

    A reversed map, also known as an Upside-Down map or South-Up map, is a world map [i] that ge ... 

    .


If a person is located at an identifiable point within the area of such a map, then the map can be oriented in such a way that every point on the map lies in the same direction as the corresponding point in reality. The practice of navigating in this way is orienteering Orienteering

Orienteering is a running [i] sport [i] involving navigation [i] with a map [i] and compass [i]. ... 

.

For a vertically positioned map representing a horizontal area true orientation is not possible, of course, but it is sometimes approximated by putting the forward direction up.

Occasionally a map is on a ceiling, correctly showing directions; in that case, looking up we have in clockwise direction backward, right, forward, and left. If the map is prepared on a table, to be attached to the ceiling, then on the table it is a mirror image of a normal map. If the map would be transparent, one could prepare a normal map, move it up without rotating it, and thus look at the "backside".

Scale and accuracy


Many but not all maps are drawn to a scale, allowing the reader to infer the actual sizes of, and distances between, depicted objects. A larger scale shows more detail, thus requiring a larger map to show the same area. For example, maps designed for the hiker are often scaled at the ratio 1:24,000, meaning that 1 of any unit of measurement on the map corresponds to 24,000 of that same unit in reality; while maps designed for the motorist are often scaled at 1:250,000. Maps which use some quality other than physical area to determine relative size are called cartogram Cartogram

A cartogram is a diagram [i] which uses the form of a map [i] to present numeric information while maint ... 

s.

A famous example of a map without scale is the London Underground map Tube map

Tube map is the commonly used name for the schematic diagram that represents the lines, stations, and zo... 

, which best fulfils its purpose by being less physically accurate and more visually communicative to the hurried glance of the commuter. This is not a cartogram but a topological Topology

Topology is a branch of mathematics [i] concerned with spatial properties preserved under bicontinuous ... 

 map that also depicts approximate bearings. The simple maps shown on some directional road sign Traffic sign

Most countries erect signage, known as traffic signs or road signs, at the side of road [i]s to im ... 

s are further examples of this kind.

In fact, most commercial navigational maps, such as road maps and town plans, sacrifice an amount of accuracy in scale to deliver a greater visual usefulness to its user, for example by exaggerating the width of roads. With the end-user similarly in mind, cartographers will censor the content of the space depicted by a map in order provide a useful tool to that user.
For example, a road map may or may not show railroad Rail transport

Rail transport is the transport [i] of passenger [i]s and goods [i] along railways or ... 

s, and if it does, it may show them less clearly than highway Highway

Highway is a term commonly used to designate major road [i]s intended for travel by the public [i] betwe... 

s.

Some maps such as topographical maps show constant values such as average temperature, these are often represented, along with other characteristics, depending on the scale of the map, in the form of Isolines Contour line

A contour line for a function of two variables is a curve [i] connecting points where the function has ... 

. Isolines are often on a map or chart along which there is constant value .

World maps and projections


Maps of the world or large areas are often either 'political' or 'physical'. The most important purpose of the political map is to show territorial borders; the purpose of the physical is to show features of geography Geography

Geography is the study of the Earth's features and of the distribution of life on the earth, including ... 

 such as mountains, soil type or land use. Geological maps show not only the physical surface, but characteristics of the underlying rock, fault Geologic fault

Geologic faults or simply faults are planar rock fractures, which show evidence of relative moveme... 

 lines, and subsurface structures.

Maps that depict the surface of the Earth also use a projection Map projection

A map projection is any method used in cartography [i] to represent the two-dimensional [i] curved surface [i] ... 

, a way of translating the three-dimensional real surface of the geoid to a two-dimensional picture. Perhaps the best-known world-map projection is the Mercator Projection Mercator projection

The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection [i] presented by th ... 

, originally designed as a form of nautical chart Nautical chart

A nautical chart is a graphic representation of a maritime [i] area and adjacent coast [i]al regions ... 

.

Airplane pilots use aeronautical charts based on a Lambert conformal conic projection Lambert conformal conic projection

Often used for aeronautical chart [i]s, a Lambert conformal conic projection in essence superimposes a cone [i]... 

, in which a cone is laid over the section of the earth to be mapped. The cone intersects the sphere at one or two parallels which are chosen as standard lines. This allows the pilots to plot a great-circle route approximation on a flat, two-dimensional chart.

Electronic maps


From the last quarter of the 20th century, the indispensable tool of the cartographer has been the computer. Much of cartography, especially at the data-gathering survey level, has been subsumed by Geographic Information Systems Geographic Information System

A Geographic Information System is a system for creating, storing, analyzing and managing spatial data ... 

 . Even when GIS is not involved, most cartographers now use a variety of computer graphics programs to generate new maps. Interactive, computerised maps are commercially available, allowing users to zoom in or zoom out , sometimes by replacing one map with another of different scale, centred where possible on the same point. In-car satellite navigation systems Satellite navigation system

Satellite navigation systems allow small electronic [i] devices to determine their location ... 

 are computerised maps with route-planning and advice facilities which monitor by satellite the position of the users.

From the computer scientist's standpoint, zooming in entails one or a combination of:

  1. replacing the map by a more detailed one
  2. enlarging the same map without enlarging the pixel Pixel

    A pixel is a single point in a graphic image.... 

    s, hence show more detail
  3. enlarging the same map with the pixels enlarged ; no additional detail is shown, but, depending on the quality of one's vision, possibly more detail can be seen; if a computer display does not show adjacent pixels really separate, but overlapping instead , then replacing a pixel by a rectangle of pixels does show more detail. A variation of this method is that interpolation Interpolation

    In the mathematical [i] subfield of numerical analysis [i], interpolation is a method of con ... 

     is performed.


For example:

  • Typically applies to a Portable Document Format Portable Document Format

    Portable Document Format is a file format [i] proprietary [i] to Adobe Systems [i] for representing two ... 

      file. The increase in detail is, of course, limited to the information contained in the file: enlargement of a curve may eventually result in a series of standard geometric figures such as straight lines or arcs of circles.
  • may apply to text and to the outline of a map feature such as a forest or building.
  • may apply to the text , while applies to the rest of the image. Text is not necessarily enlarged when zooming in. Similarly, a road represented by a double line may or may not become wider when one zooms in.
  • The map may also have layers which are partly raster graphics Raster graphics

    A raster graphics digital image [i], or bitmap, is a data file or structure representing a ... 

     and partly vector graphics Vector graphics

    Vector graphics or geometric modeling is the use of geometrical primitive [i]s such as ... 

    . For a single raster graphics image applies until the pixels in the image file correspond to the pixels of the display, thereafter applies.


The word "map" has also been used to describe places within video games Computer and video games

A computer game is a computer [i]-controlled game. ... 

, such as and Counter-Strike Counter-Strike

Counter-Strike, commonly abbreviated to CS, is a team-based, tactical first-person shooter [i] ... 

, that players choose to compete on, as a synonym for level.

See also Webpage Web page

A web page or webpage is a resource of information that is suitable for the World Wide Web [i] and... 

, PDF Portable Document Format

Portable Document Format is a file format [i] proprietary [i] to Adobe Systems [i] for representing two ... 

, Mapquest MapQuest

MapQuest is a free Web Map Server [i], owned by AOL [i].
... 

, Google Maps Google Maps

A related product is Google Earth [i], a standalone Apple Mac [i], Windows [i] and ... 

, Google Earth Google Earth

Google Earth is a free-of-charge, downloadable virtual globe [i] program.... 

 or Yahoo! Maps Yahoo! Maps

Yahoo! Maps is a free online mapping portal provided by the Yahoo! [i] network, based out of Sunnyvale, California [i] ... 

.

References


  • David Buisseret, ed., Monarchs, Ministers and Maps: The Emergence of Cartography as a Tool of Government in Early Modern Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, [ISBN 0-226-07987-2]
  • Miles Harvey Miles Harvey

    Miles Harvey is an American [i] journalist [i] and author [i]. ... 

    , The Island of Lost Maps: A True Story of Cartographic Crime. New York : Random House Random House

    Random House is a publishing [i] division of the German media conglomerate Bertelsmann [i] bas ... 

    , 2000. [ISBN 0-7679-0826-0, cited above; also ISBN 0-375-50151-7]
  • Mark Monmonier, How to Lie with Maps, [ISBN 0-226-53421-9]
  • O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson, . Scotland : St. Andrews University, 2002. http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Cartography.html

See also

General
  • Cartography Cartography

    Cartography or mapmaking is the study and practice of making map [i]s or globe [i]s. ... 

  • History of cartography
  • Geography Geography

    Geography is the study of the Earth's features and of the distribution of life on the earth, including ... 

  • Atlas Atlas

    An atlas is a collection of map [i]s, traditionally bound into book form, but also found in multimedia [i] ... 

  • Ancient world maps Ancient world maps

    Ancient world maps cover depictions of the world from Classical times [i] to the Age of Discovery [i] an ... 




Map design and types
  • Map design Cartography

    Cartography or mapmaking is the study and practice of making map [i]s or globe [i]s. ... 

  • World map World map

    A world map is a map [i] of the surface of the Earth [i], which may be made using any of a number of dif ... 

  • Topographic map Topographic map

    Topographic maps, also called contour maps, topo maps or topo quads, are map [i]s that show topography [i] ... 

  • Geologic map
  • Dymaxion map Dymaxion map

    The Dymaxion map of the Earth [i] is a projection [i] of a global map [i] onto the surfac ... 

  • Roadmap
  • Navigation map Nautical chart

    A nautical chart is a graphic representation of a maritime [i] area and adjacent coast [i]al regions ... 

  • Cartogram Cartogram

    A cartogram is a diagram [i] which uses the form of a map [i] to present numeric information while maint ... 

  • Plat Plat

    A plat consists a map [i], drawn to scale, showing the divisions of a piece of land. ... 

  • Floor plan Floor plan

    A floor plan in architecture [i] and building engineering [i] is a scale diagram [i] of the arrangements ... 

  • Planform Planform

    A planform or plan view [i] is a vertical orthographic projection [i] of an object on a horizontal plane ... 




Modern maps
  • WikiMapia
  • Maps of the UK and Ireland
  • Maps of the United States Maps of the United States

    Supranational maps can be found at Maps of the Americas [i]. ... 

  • Google Maps Google Maps

    A related product is Google Earth [i], a standalone Apple Mac [i], Windows [i] and ... 

  • MapQuest MapQuest

    MapQuest is a free Web Map Server [i], owned by AOL [i].

... 


  • Japanese map symbols


Map history
  • George Bradshaw George Bradshaw

    George Bradshaw was an English cartographer [i], printer [i] and publisher [i] and the originato ... 

    , including maps of the British railway network, first published in 1839
  • Sanborn Maps Sanborn Maps

    Sanborn Maps were originally created for assessing fire insurance [i] liability in urbanized areas in th ... 

     - detailed American fire insurance maps
  • Ordnance Survey Ordnance Survey

    Ordnance Survey is an executive agency [i] of the United Kingdom [i] government.... 



External links


Map discussion and history

  • , by the staff of the US Library of Congress Library of Congress

    The Library of Congress is the de facto [i] national library [i] of the United States [i] and the re ... 

    .
  • by Carl Moreland and David Bannister - complete text of the book
  • , a weblog Blog

    Blog is the contraction universally used for weblog, a type of website where entries are made , di... 

     about maps, with a
  • Pictures and info about maps which are oriented without North at the top
  • , use of maps on Wikipedia Wikipedia

    Wikipedia is a Web [i]-based free-content [i] multilingual encyclopedia [i] ... 

  • - Community-driven and ad-free website for news and discussions about Maps and Geospatial technologies
  • Article on Online Maps from The New Yorker

Map link sites


  • British Library links for and , both their own collections and other sites
  • , a huge database of maps and articles; searchable, or use the categories list. Modern and historical maps and information.
  • , many map-related links
  • , links to websites for archives of research material.
  • , links to country maps and capital city maps.

Modern maps and atlases online


World:
  • Some also at and ; .



National:
  • , United States Geological Survey United States Geological Survey

    border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">

... 


  • and host USGS topographic maps ; hosts historical USGS topos in the northeast United States.





Antique and historical maps online

  • , Perry-Castañeda Library, University of Texas
  • and list of organized by geographical region
  • , 12,600 maps online
  • at the Library of Congress Library of Congress

    The Library of Congress is the de facto [i] national library [i] of the United States [i] and the re ... 

  • - browse over 1000 maps from as early as 1544. DjVu format; requires free plugin or JAVA


Online map creation tools

  • : Webinterface to GMT mapping package; new version at
  • The Free Wiki World Map