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The London Clay is a marine
Sediment

Sediment is any particulate matter that can be sediment transport by fluid dynamics, and which eventually is deposited.Sediments are most often transported by water transported by wind and glaciers....
 geological formation of Ypresian
Ypresian

The Ypresian is the first faunal stage of the Eocene epoch and usually corresponds to the Early Eocene subepoch, though sometimes the Lutetian is included therein....
 (Lower Eocene
Eocene

The Eocene Geologic time scale is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Palaeogene period in the Cenozoic era....
 Epoch, c. 56-49 Ma) age which crops out
Outcrop

Outcrop is a Geology term referring to the appearance of bedrock or superficial deposits exposed at the surface of the Earth. In most places the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by a mantle of soil and vegetation and cannot be seen or examined closely....
 in the southeast of England
England

native_name =|conventional_long_name = England|common_name = England|image_flag = Flag of England.svg|image_coat = England COA.svg|symbol_type = Royal Coat of Arms...
. The London Clay is well known for the fossil
Fossil

Fossils are the preserved remains or trace fossil of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous Rock formations and sedimentary rock layers is known as the fossil record....
s it contains. The fossils from the Lower Eocene indicate a moderately warm climate, the flora being tropical or subtropical. Though sea level
Sea level

Mean sea level is the average height of the sea, with reference to a suitable reference surface. Defining the reference level , however, involves complex measurement, and accurately determining MSL can prove difficult....
s changed during the deposition of the Clay, the habitat
Habitat

The term habitat has a number of meanings:* Habitat , a place where a species lives and grows** Human habitat, a place where humans live, work or play...
 was generally a lush forest - perhaps like in Indonesia
Indonesia

The Republic of Indonesia , is a transcontinental country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Comprising Islands of Indonesia, it is the world's largest Archipelago state....
 or East Africa
East Africa

East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easterly region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. In the UN subregion, 19 territories constitute Eastern Africa:...
 today - bordering a warm, shallow ocean.

The London Clay consists of a stiff, bluish coloured clay
Clay

Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained minerals, which show plasticity through a variable range of water content, and which can be hardened when dried and/or fired....
 which becomes brown when weathered.






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Encyclopedia


The London Clay is a marine
Sediment

Sediment is any particulate matter that can be sediment transport by fluid dynamics, and which eventually is deposited.Sediments are most often transported by water transported by wind and glaciers....
 geological formation of Ypresian
Ypresian

The Ypresian is the first faunal stage of the Eocene epoch and usually corresponds to the Early Eocene subepoch, though sometimes the Lutetian is included therein....
 (Lower Eocene
Eocene

The Eocene Geologic time scale is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Palaeogene period in the Cenozoic era....
 Epoch, c. 56-49 Ma) age which crops out
Outcrop

Outcrop is a Geology term referring to the appearance of bedrock or superficial deposits exposed at the surface of the Earth. In most places the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by a mantle of soil and vegetation and cannot be seen or examined closely....
 in the southeast of England
England

native_name =|conventional_long_name = England|common_name = England|image_flag = Flag of England.svg|image_coat = England COA.svg|symbol_type = Royal Coat of Arms...
. The London Clay is well known for the fossil
Fossil

Fossils are the preserved remains or trace fossil of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous Rock formations and sedimentary rock layers is known as the fossil record....
s it contains. The fossils from the Lower Eocene indicate a moderately warm climate, the flora being tropical or subtropical. Though sea level
Sea level

Mean sea level is the average height of the sea, with reference to a suitable reference surface. Defining the reference level , however, involves complex measurement, and accurately determining MSL can prove difficult....
s changed during the deposition of the Clay, the habitat
Habitat

The term habitat has a number of meanings:* Habitat , a place where a species lives and grows** Human habitat, a place where humans live, work or play...
 was generally a lush forest - perhaps like in Indonesia
Indonesia

The Republic of Indonesia , is a transcontinental country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Comprising Islands of Indonesia, it is the world's largest Archipelago state....
 or East Africa
East Africa

East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easterly region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. In the UN subregion, 19 territories constitute Eastern Africa:...
 today - bordering a warm, shallow ocean.

The London Clay consists of a stiff, bluish coloured clay
Clay

Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained minerals, which show plasticity through a variable range of water content, and which can be hardened when dried and/or fired....
 which becomes brown when weathered. Nodular lumps of pyrite
Pyrite

The mineral pyrite, or iron pyrite, is an iron sulfide with the chemical formula ironsulfur2. This mineral's metallic Lustre and pale-to-normal, brass-yellow hue have earned it the nickname fool's gold due to its resemblance to gold....
 and crystals of selenite
Selenite

Selenite, satin spar, desert rose, and gypsum flower are four varieties of gypsum; all four varieties show obvious crystalline structure....
 frequently occur within the clay, and large septarian concretions
Concretion

A concretion is a volume of sedimentary rock in which a mineral cement fills the porosity . Concretions are often ovoid or spherical in shape, although irregular shapes also occur....
 are also common. These have been used in the past for the manufacturing of cement. They were once dug for this purpose at Sheppey, near Sittingbourne
Sittingbourne

Sittingbourne is an industrial town about eight miles east of Gillingham, Medway in England, beside the Ancient Rome Watling Street off a creek in the Swale, a channel separating the Isle of Sheppey from mainland Kent....
, and at Harwich
Harwich

Harwich is a town in Essex, England and one of the Haven ports, located on the coast with the North Sea to the east. It is in the Tendring district....
, and also dredged off the Hampshire
Hampshire

Hampshire , sometimes historically Southamptonshire, Hamptonshire, , or the County of Southampton, is a Counties of England on the south coast of England....
 coast. The clay itself has been used commercially for making brick
Brick

A brick is a block of ceramic material used in masonry construction, usually laid using mortar ....
s, tiles, and coarse pottery. It is infertile for gardens and crops.

Distribution

The London Clay is well developed in the London Basin
London Basin

The London Basin is an elongated, roughly triangular syncline approximately long which underlies London and a large area of south east England and south eastern East Anglia....
, where it thins westwards from around in Essex and north Kent to around in Wiltshire
Wiltshire

Wiltshire is a Ceremonial counties of England in the South West England of England. It is landlocked and borders the counties of Dorset, Somerset, Hampshire, Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire and Berkshire....
. though it is not frequently exposed as it is to a great extent covered by more recent neogene
Neogene

The Neogene is a Geologic time scale#Terminology starting 23.03 ? 0.05 million years ago and lasting either until today or ending 2.588 million years ago with the beginning of the Quaternary....
 sediments and Pleistocene
Pleistocene

The Pleistocene is the epoch from 1.8 million to 10,000 years Before Present covering the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek and ....
 gravel deposits. One location of particular interest is Oxshott Heath
Oxshott Heath

Oxshott Heath and Woods is an area of woods and heathland in Oxshott, Surrey, England covering approximately 200 acres and having an interesting geology where the London Clay stratum meets the overlying sand stratum and emerges to the surface....
, where the overlying sand and the London Clay layers are exposed as a sand escarpment, rising approximately 25 metres. This supported a thriving brick industry in the area until the 1960s. The London Clay is also well developed in the Hampshire Basin
Hampshire Basin

The Hampshire Basin is a geological syncline in southern England underlying parts of Hampshire, the Isle of Wight, Dorset, and Sussex. Like the London Basin to the Ordinal direction, it consists of an area of sands and clays of Paleocene and younger age surrounded by a broken rim of chalk hills of Cretaceous age....
, where an exposure thick occurs at Whitecliff Bay
Whitecliff Bay

Whitecliff Bay is a sandy bay near the easternmost point of the Isle of Wight, England about 2 miles south-west of Bembridge and just to the north of Culver Down....
 on the Isle of Wight
Isle of Wight

The Isle of Wight is an England island and county, located 3-8 km from the south coast of the mainland, in the English Channel. It is situated south of the county of Hampshire and is separated from mainland Britain by the Solent....
 and around is spread along 6km of foreshore at Bognor Regis
Bognor Regis

Bognor Regis is a seaside resort town and civil parish in the Arun District of West Sussex, on the south coast of England. It lies south southwest of London, west of Brighton, and southeast of the county town of Chichester....
, West Sussex
West Sussex

West Sussex is a county in the south of England, bordering onto East Sussex , Hampshire and Surrey. The county of Sussex has been divided into East and West since the 12th century, and obtained separate county councils in 1888, but it remained a single ceremonial counties of England until 1974 and the coming into force of the Local Government...
.

Formation

The clay was deposited in a sea up to deep at the eastern end. Up to five cycles of deposition (representing transgression
Transgression (geology)

A marine transgression is a geology event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground, resulting in flooding....
 followed by shallowing of the sea) have been found, most markedly at the shallower, western end. Each cycle begins with coarser material (sometimes including rounded flint pebbles), followed by clay which becomes increasingly sandy. The final cycle ends with the Claygate Beds.

Claygate Beds

The youngest part of the London Clay, known as the Claygate Beds or Claygate Member forms a transition between the clay and the sandier Bagshot Beds
Bagshot Beds

In geology, the Bagshot Beds are a series of sands and clays of shallow-water origin, some being fresh-water, some marine. They belong to the upper Eocene formation of the London Basin and Hampshire Basin basins, in England and derive their name from Bagshot, Surrey....
 above. This is shown separately on many geological maps, and often caps hills. It is up to thick at Claygate
Claygate

Claygate is a large village in the England county of Surrey, approximately south west of London on the edge of the Green belt .It is primarily a residential area but with offices, farms and two shopping areas with a supermarket, five pubs and numerous restaurants....
, Surrey. It is now believed to be diachronous
Diachronous

A diachronous deposit in Geology is a sedimentary rock formation in which apparently similar material varies in age from place to place.Typically this occurs as a result of a Transgression or regression, or the progressive development of a River delta....
, with the formation at Claygate for example being the same age as the end of the fourth cycle of deposition further east.

Fossil fauna and flora

Notable coastal exposures from which fossils can be collected are on the Isle of Sheppey
Isle of Sheppey

The Isle of Sheppey is an island off the northern coast of Kent, England in the Thames Estuary, some 38 miles to the east of central London. It has an area of 36 square miles ....
 in Kent
Kent

Kent is a Counties of England in southeast England, and is one of the home counties. It borders East Sussex, Surrey and Greater London and has a defined boundary with Essex in the middle of the River Thames estuary....
 and Walton-on-the-Naze
Walton-on-the-Naze

Walton-on-the-Naze is a small town in Essex, England, on the North Sea coast in the Tendring district. It is north of Clacton and south of the port of Harwich....
, Essex
Essex

Essex is a counties of England in the East of England England. The county town is Chelmsford, and the highest point of the county is Chrishall Common near the village of Langley, Essex, close to the Hertfordshire border, which reaches ....
 in the London Basin, and Bognor Regis
Bognor Regis

Bognor Regis is a seaside resort town and civil parish in the Arun District of West Sussex, on the south coast of England. It lies south southwest of London, west of Brighton, and southeast of the county town of Chichester....
 in the Hampshire Basin.

Animal fossils include bivalves
Bivalvia

Bivalves are molluscs belonging to the class Bivalvia. They have two-part animal shells, and typically both valves are symmetry along the hinge line....
, gastropods, nautilus
Nautilus

Nautilus is the common name of any marine creatures of the cephalopod family Nautilidae, the sole family of the suborder Nautilina....
, worm tubes, brittle star
Brittle star

Brittle stars, or Ophiuroidea, are echinoderms, closely related to sea stars. They crawl across the seafloor using their flexible arms for locomotion....
s and starfish, crab
Crab

Crabs are Decapoda crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" , or where the reduced abdomen is entirely hidden under the thorax....
s, lobster
Lobster

Clawed lobsters compose a family of large marine crustaceans. Lobsters are economically important as seafood, forming the basis of a global industry that nets United States dollar1.8 billion in trade annually....
s, fish
Fish

A fish is any marine biology vertebrate animal that is typically ectothermic , covered with scale , and equipped with two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins....
 (including shark
Shark

Sharks are a type of fish with a full Cartilage skeleton and a highly Streamlines, streaklines and pathlinesd body. They respire with the use of five to seven gill slits....
 and ray
Batoidea

Batoidea is a superorder of Chondrichthyes containing more than 500 described species in thirteen families. They are commonly known as rays, but that term is also used specifically for batoids in the order Rajiformes, the "true rays"....
 teeth), reptile
Reptile

Reptiles, or members of the class Reptilia, are air-breathing, cold-blooded vertebrates that have skin covered in scale as opposed to hair or feathers....
s (particularly turtle
Turtle

Turtles are reptiles of the Order Testudines , most of whose body is shielded by a special bone or cartilage animal shell developed from their ribs....
s), and a large diversity of bird
Bird

Birds are wing, Bipedalismal, endothermic , vertebrate animals that lay egg . There are around 10,000 living species, making them the most numerous tetrapod vertebrates....
s. A few mammal
Mammal

Mammals are a class of vertebrate animals whose name is derived from their distinctive feature, mammary glands, with which they feed their young....
 remains have also been recorded. Preservation varies; articulated skeletons are generally rare. Of fish, isolated teeth are very frequent. Bird bones are not infrequently encountered compared to other lagerstätte
Lagerstätte

File:Greenww.jpgA Lagerst?tte is a Sedimentation deposit that exhibits extraordinary Fossils richness or completeness. Palaeontologists distinguish two kinds....
n, but usually occur as single bones and are often broken.

Plant fossils, including seeds and fruits, may also be found in abundance. The flora demonstrates the much hotter climate of that time, with plants such as Nypa
Nypa

Nypa or NYPA may refer to:* Nypa fruticans, a palm that grows in the mangrove of Southeast Asia.* New York Power AuthoritySee also:*Nipa...
 (Nipah palms) being frequently encountered. Plant fossils have been collected from the London Clay for almost 300 years. Some 350 named species of plant have been found, making the London Clay flora one of the world's most varied for fossil seeds and fruits.

Vertebrates


Mammals
  • Argillotherium
  • Coryphodon
    Coryphodon

    Coryphodon is an extinct genus of mammal. It was widespread in North America between 59 and 51 million years ago. It is regarded as the ancestor of the genus Hypercoryphodon of Mid Eocene Mongolia....
     eocaenus     - a pantodont
  • Hyracotherium
    Hyracotherium

    Hyracotherium was a genus of dog-sized perissodactyl ungulates that lived in the Northern Hemisphere, with species ranging throughout Asia, Europe, and North America during the Early to Mid Eocene, about 60 to 45 million years ago....
     - the famous horse
    Horse

    The horse is a hoofed mammal, a subspecies of one of seven extant species of the family Equidae. The horse has evolution of the horse over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, odd-toed ungulate animal of today....
     ancestor
  • Oxyaena
    Oxyaena

    Oxyaena is an extinct genus of extinct creodont mammal from the latest Paleocene to early Eocene of North America . The species were superficially cat or wolverine-like, with a flexible body long, and short limbs....
     - a creodont


Birds
  • Anatalavis
    Anatalavis

    Antalavis is genus of prehistoric birds related to ducks and geese, perhaps in particular the Magpie-goose. The species Anatalavis rex - formerly placed in Telmatornis - is known from the Hornerstown Formation of New Jersey....
     oxfordi     - a waterbird possibly related to the Magpie-goose
    Magpie-goose

    The Magpie-goose, Anseranas semipalmata, is a waterbird species found in coastal northern Australia and savannah in southern New Guinea. It is a unique member of the order Anseriformes, and arranged in a Family and genus distinct from all other living waterfowl....
     of Australia
    Australia

    Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the southern hemisphere comprising the Australia of the world's smallest continent, the major island of Tasmania, and numerous list of islands of Australia in the Indian Ocean and Pacific Oceans....
  • Argilliornis
    Argilliornis

    Argilliornis is an extinct genus of pelagornithidae. It was named by Owen in 1878.External links* at the Paleobiology Database...
     - possibly a pseudo-tooth bird
  • Argillipes - perhaps a landfowl
    Galliformes

    Galliformes are an order of birds containing turkey , grouse, chickens, quails, and pheasants. More than 250 living species are found worldwide....
  • Dasornis
    Dasornis

    Dasornis is an extinct genus of pseudo-tooth bird in the family Pelagornithidae. It was first named by Owen in 1869. It lived over 50 million years ago....
    , Odontopteryx
    Odontopteryx

    Odontopteryx is an extinct genus of Pelagornithidae....
     and Pseudodontornis
    Pseudodontornis

    Pseudodontornis is an extinct genus of Pelagornithidae. It was established by K?lm?n Lambrecht in 1930....
     - pseudo-tooth birds
  • Eocolius - a coliiform
  • Eostrix - an owl
    Owl

    The Strigiformes are an order of bird of prey, comprising 200 species. Most are solitary, and Nocturnal animal, with some exceptions . Owls mostly hunt small mammals, insects, and other birds, though a few species specialize in hunting fish....
  • Halcyornis - a parrot
    Parrot

    File:Ara ararauna -eating -Wilhelma Zoo-8-2rc.jpgParrots, also known as psittacines , are birds of the roughly 372 species in 86 genus that make up the order Psittaciformes, found in most warm and tropical regions....
     or roller relative
  • Lithornis
    Lithornis

    Lithornis is a genus of extinct Paleognathae birds. Lithornis were able to fly well, but are closely related to today's tinamous which are poor flyers and the flightless ratites....
     and Promusophaga - paleognaths
  • Neptuniavis
    Neptuniavis

    Neptuniavis is an extinct genus of pelagornithidae....
     - probably another pseudo-tooth bird
  • Parvigyps - perhaps a diurnal raptor
    Falconiformes

    The order Falconiformes is a group of about 290 species of birds that include the diurnal bird of prey. Most species end in falcon, such as the peregrine falcon, but kites, such as the red kite, are also Falcinoformes but do not end in falcon....
  • Pediorallus - a paleognath or landfowl
  • Percolinus - perhaps another landfowl
  • "Precursor
    Precursor (bird)

    "Precursor" is a controversial prehistoric bird genus from the Early Eocene. It was established based on fossils found in England, e.g. in the famous London Clay deposits....
    "     - apparently a chimera
    Chimera

    Chimera, chimaira or chimaera may refer to:* Chimera , a monstrous creature made of the parts of multiple animals* Mount Chimaera, the region in Lycia that some believe was the inspiration for the myth...
     of Charadriiformes
    Charadriiformes

    Charadriiformes is a diverse order of small to medium-large birds. It includes about 350 species and has members in all parts of the world. Most Charadriiformes live near water and eat invertebrates or other small animals; however, some are pelagic , some occupy deserts and a few are found in thick forest....
     and Psittaciformes (and possibly other) bones
  • Primapus
    Primapus

    Primapus is an extinct genus of Apodiformes bird from the Early Eocene of the United Kingdom. Its fossils were found in the London Clay, which was deposited around 50 million years ago....
     - a swift
    Swift

    The swifts are a family, Apodidae, of highly aerial birds. They are superficially similar to swallows but are actually not closely related to those passerine species at all; swifts are in the separate order Apodiformes, which they share with the hummingbirds....
    -like bird
  • Primodroma - a tubenose
    Procellariiformes

    Procellariiformes is an order of seabirds that comprises four family : the albatrosses, Procellariidae, storm-petrels and diving petrels. Formerly called Tubinares and still called tubenoses in English, they are often referred to collectively as the petrels, a term that has been applied to all Procellariiformes or more commo...
    , possibly a storm-petrel
    Storm-petrel

    The storm-petrels are seabirds in the Family Hydrobatidae, part of the order Procellariiformes. These smallest of seabirds feed on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering....
  • Prophaeton
    Prophaeton

    Prophaethon is an extinct genus of seabird that lived during the Early Eocene . It is essentially known from fairly comprehensive remains of a single individual, namely skull and some limb bones, which were recovered from the London Clay on the Isle of Sheppey, England....
     - a tropicbird
    Tropicbird

    Tropicbirds are a family , Phaethontidae, of tropical pelagic seabirds now classified in their own order Phaethontiformes. Their relationship to other living birds is unclear, and they appear to have no close relatives....
    s relative
  • Proherodius - another waterbird
  • Proplegardis - a stork or ibis
    Ibis

    The ibises are a group of long-legged wading birds in the family Threskiornithidae. They all have long down curved bills, and usually feed as a group, probing mud for food items, usually crustaceans....
  • Pulchrapollia - a parrot
    Parrot

    File:Ara ararauna -eating -Wilhelma Zoo-8-2rc.jpgParrots, also known as psittacines , are birds of the roughly 372 species in 86 genus that make up the order Psittaciformes, found in most warm and tropical regions....
     relative
  • Stintonornis - probably a hawk
    Hawk

    The term hawk can be used in several ways:* In strict usage in Europe and Asia, to mean any of the species in the subfamily Accipitrinae, which comprises the genus Accipiter, Micronisus, Melierax, Urotriorchis and Megatriorchis....
     relative


Reptiles
Crocodilians
  • Diplocynodon
    Diplocynodon

    Diplocynodon is an extinct genus of alligatoroid that lived from the Paleocene to the Miocene of Europe....
     - an alligator
    Alligator

    An Alligator is a crocodilian in the genus Alligator of the family Alligatoridae. The name alligator is an anglicization form of the Spanish language el lagarto , the name by which early Spain explorers and settlers in Florida called the alligator....
  • Crocodilus spenceri - a crocodile
    Crocodile

    A crocodile is any species belonging to the family Crocodylidae . The term can also be used more loosely to include all members of the order Crocodilia: i.e....


Snakes
  • Palaeophis
    Palaeophis

    Palaeophis is an extinct genus of snake. The sea-dwelling creature was initially thought to have been the largest snake ever, reaching the almost mythical length of 30-40 m , but recent estimates put its length at about 9 m , about as long as the modern Eunectes murinus and Python reticulatus....
     toliapicus     and P. typhaeus


Turtles and tortoises
  • Allaeochelys - a pig-nosed turtle
  • Argillochelys
    Argillochelys

    Argillochelys is an extinct genus of sea turtle from the middle to lower Eocene in what is now Great Britain. It was first named by Lydekker in 1889....
    , Eochelone
    Eochelone

    Eochelone is an extinct genus of sea turtle from the late Eocene. It was first named by Dollo in 1903. Its type species is E. brabantica....
    , Puppigerus and "Thalassochelys
    Thalassochelys

    Thalassochelys is an extinct genus of sea turtle. It was first named by Fitzinger in 1835, and contains one species, T. libyca....
    "     sp. - true sea-turtles
  • Chrysemys bicarinata and C. testudiniformis - pond turtles
  • Eosphargis
    Eosphargis

    'Eosphargis' is an extinct genus of sea turtle from the Eocene of Africa, Europe, and North America. It was first named by Lydekker in 1889, and contains one species, E....
     - a leatherback sea-turtle
  • Homopus
    Homopus

    Homopus is a genus of turtle in the Testudinidae family.It contains the following species:* Berger's Cape Tortoise * Speckled Padloper Tortoise...
     comptoni     - a tortoise
    Tortoise

    Tortoises or land turtles are land-dwelling reptiles of the family of Testudinidae, order Turtle. Like their marine cousins, the sea turtles, tortoises are shielded from predators by a shell....
  • Lytoloma crassicostatum and L. planimentum - prehistoric sea-turtles
  • Palaeaspis - an African sideneck turtle
  • Podocnemis
    Podocnemis

    Podocnemis is a genus of turtles....
     bowerbanki     - an American sideneck turtle
  • Trionyx pustulatus and T. sp. - softshell turtles
  • Dacochelys and Pseudotrionyx - incertae sedis
    Incertae sedis

    Incertae sedis , abbreviation "inc. sed.", is a term used to define a taxonomy group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined....


Bony fish
  • Acestrus
    Acestrus

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     elongatus    , A. ornatus, Aglyptorhynchus sulcatus, A. venablasi, Xiphiorhynchus parvus and X priscus - swordfish
    Swordfish

    Swordfish , also known as Broadbill in some countries, are large, highly migratory, predatory fish characterized by a long, flat bill. They are a popular sport fish, though elusive....
     relatives
  • Acipenser
    Acipenser

    Acipenser is genus of sturgeons. With about 18 species, many of which are threatened, it is the largest genus in the order Acipenseriformes....
     toliapicus     - a true sturgeon
    Sturgeon

    Sturgeon is the common name used for some 26 species of fish in the family Acipenseridae, including the genus Acipenser, Huso, Scaphirhynchus and Pseudoscaphirhynchus....
  • Albula oweni - a bonefish
    Bonefishes

    The bonefishes are a family of ray-finned fish that are popular as game fish in Florida, select locations in the South Pacific, and the Bahamas where two bonefish are on their 10 cent coin, and elsewhere....
  • Ampheristus toliapicus - a scorpionfish
    Scorpionfish

    Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfish, are a family of mostly ocean fish that includes many of the world's most venomous species. As the name suggests, scorpionfish have a type of "sting" in the form of sharp spines coated with venomous mucus....
  • Ardiodus marriotti - incertae sedis
    Incertae sedis

    Incertae sedis , abbreviation "inc. sed.", is a term used to define a taxonomy group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined....
  • Argillichthys
    Argillichthys

    Argillichthys is a genus of prehistoric fish....
     toombsi     - a lancetfish
    Lancetfish

    Lancetfishes are large oceanic predatory fishes in the genus Alepisaurus , the only living genus in the family Alepisauridae.Lancetfishes grow up to in length....
     relative
  • Aulopopsis
    Aulopopsis

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     depressifrons    , A. egertoni and Labrophagus
    Labrophagus

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     esocinus     - aulopus
    Aulopidae

    The Aulopidae are a small family of Aulopiformes fish, containing the single genus Aulopus. They are found in most tropical and subtropical oceans, being absent only in the eastern Pacific....
    es
  • Beerichthys
    Beerichthys

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     ingens     and B. sp. - Two species of luvar or luvar-like fish
  • Bramoides
    Bramoides

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     brieni     and Goniocranion
    Goniocranion

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     arambourgi     - pomfret
    Pomfret

    Pomfret are perciform fishes belonging to the family Bramidae.They are found in the Atlantic, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Oceans, and the largest species, the Atlantic pomfret, Brama brama, grows up to one metre long....
    s
  • Brychaetus muelleri - an arowana
    Arowana

    Arowanas, also known as aruanas or arawanas are fresh water bony fish of the family Osteoglossidae, sometimes known as "bonytongues"....
  • Bucklandium diluvii - a naked catfish
    Bagridae

    Bagridae are a family of catfish that originate from Africa and Asia from Japan to Borneo. These fish are commonly known as naked catfishes or bagrid catfishes....
  • Cylindracanthus rectus and Hemirhabdorhynchus elliotti - Blochiidae
  • Cymbium
    Cymbium

    Cymbium may refer to:*Cymbium , feature of a spider's pedipalp*Cymbium , a genus of sea snails...
     proosti    , Eocoelopoma colei, E. curvatum, E. gigas, E. hopwoodi, Eothynnus
    Eothynnus

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     salmoneus    , Scombramphodon crassidens, S. sheppeyensis, Scombrinus
    Scombrinus

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     macropomus    , S. nuchalis, Sphyraenodus priscus, Tamesichthys decipiens, Wetherellus
    Wetherellus

    Wetherellus is an extinct genus of mackerel from the Eocene.Sources* Fossils by David Ward ...
     brevior    , W. cristatus, W. longior and Woodwardella
    Woodwardella

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     patellifrons     - mackerel and tuna relatives
    Scombridae

    Scombridae is the family of the mackerels, tunas, and bonitos, and thus includes many of the most important and familiar food fishes. The family consists of about 55 species in 15 genera and two subfamilies....
  • Diodon
    Diodon

    Members of the diodontidae, species of the genus diodon are usually known as porcupinefishes or balloonfishes....
     sp. - a porcupinefish
    Porcupinefish

    Porcupinefish are fish of the family Diodontidae, , also commonly called blowfish .They are sometimes confused with pufferfish....
  • Egertonia isodonta and Phyllodus
    Phyllodus

    Phyllodus is an extinct genus of fish from the Eocene.Sources* Fossils by David Ward ...
     toliapicus     - Phyllodontidae
  • Elops sp., Esocelops
    Esocelops

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     cavifrons    , Megalops oblongus, M. priscus, Promegalops
    Promegalops

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     sheppeyensis     and P. signeuxae - ladyfish
    Elopidae

    Elopidae is a family of ray-finned fish containing the single genus Elops. They are commonly known as ladyfishes or tenpounders....
  • Enniskillenus
    Enniskillenus

    Enniskillenus is a genus of prehistoric fish that was described by Casier in 1966....
     radiatus     - acanthomorph
    Acanthomorpha

    Acanthomorpha is an order of prehistoric fish that was described by Rosen in 1973. Fossils range from the Late Cretaceous to the Early Oligocene -28.4mya)....
  • Eutrichurides winkleri - a cutlassfish
    Cutlassfish

    The cutlassfishes are about 40 species of predatory fish in the family Trichiuridae found in seas throughout the world. Fish of this family are long, slender, and generally steely blue or silver in colour, giving rise to their name....
  • Halecopsis
    Halecopsis

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     insignis     - Halecopsidae
  • Laparon alticeps and Whitephippus tamesis - spadefish
    Ephippidae

    Ephippidae is the fish family containing the spadefishes. There are about eight genera with a total of 20 species, mostly marine. The most well-known species are probably those in the reef genus Platax, the batfishes, which are kept as aquarium fish....
  • Lehmanamia sheppeyensis - a bowfin
    Bowfin

    Bowfins are an order of primitive ray-finned fish. Only one species, the bowfin Amia calva, family Amiidae, exists today, although additional species in six families are known from Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Eocene fossils....
  • Myripristis toliapicus, Naupygus
    Naupygus

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     bucklandi     and Paraberyx
    Paraberyx

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     bowerbanki     - soldierfish
    Holocentridae

    The Holocentridae is a family of ray-finned fish, with the members of the subfamily Holocentrinae typically known as squirrelfish, while the members of Myripristinae typically are known as soldierfish....
  • Percostoma
    Percostoma

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     angustum    , Plesioserranus cf. wemmeliensi and Serranopsis
    Serranopsis

    Serranopsis is a genus of prehistoric fish related to the modern perch.References:External links...
     londinensis     - groupers
    Serranidae

    Serranidae is a large family of fishes, belonging to the order Perciformes. The family contains about 450 species of serranids in 64 genera, including the bass and the groupers ....
  • Podocephalus
    Podocephalus

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     curryi    , P. nitidus, Sciaenuropsis turneri and Sciaenurus
    Sciaenurus

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     bowerbanki     - porgies
    Sparidae

    The Sparidae is a family of fish, included in the order Perciformes. The fish of the family are commonly called breams and porgies ....
  • Progempylus
    Progempylus

    is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene....
     edwardsi     - a snake mackerel
    Snake mackerel

    Snake mackerel are perciform fishes in the family Gempylidae.They are elongate fishes with a similar appearance to barracudas, having a long dorsal fin, usually with one or finlets trailing it....
  • Pseudosphaerodon antiquus and P. navicularis - wrasse
    Wrasse

    The wrasses are a family , Labridae, of marine fish, many of which are brightly colored. The family is large and diverse, with about 500 species in 60 genera....
    s?
  • Pycnodus
    Pycnodus

    Pycnodus is an extinct genus of ray-finned fish from the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. It was about 12 cm long.Pycnodus looked very similar to the bigger Dapedium- it had the same grinding teeth and bulky shape....
     bowerbanki     and P. toliapicus - Pychnodontidae
  • Rhinocephalus planiceps and Trichurides sagittidens - hakes
    Merlucciidae

    Merlucciidae is a family of cod-like fishes, including most hakes.They are native to the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, being common in southern waters off Tasmania and New Zealand....
  • Rhynchorhinus branchialis and R. major - Eccelidae
  • Tetratichthys antiquitatis - a jack mackerel
    Carangidae

    Carangidae is a family of fish which includes the jacks, pompanos, jack mackerels, and scads.They are marine fish found in the Atlantic, Indian Ocean and Pacific Oceans....


Cartilaginous fish
  • Abdounia beaugi, Carcharhinus
    Carcharhinus

    Carcharhinus is a genus of requiem sharks, the type genus of the family Carcharhinidae....
     sp. and Physogaleus
    Physogaleus

    Physogaleus is a small prehistoric shark that lived in the Eocene....
     secundus     - requiem shark
    Requiem shark

    The requiem sharks refer to all members of the Carcharhinidae family that includes a family of migratory, live-bearing sharks of warm seas, sometimes also found in brackish or fresh water, such as the tiger shark, blue shark, bull shark, and milk shark....
    s
  • Aetobatis irregularis, Burnhamia daviesi, Myliobatis
    Myliobatis

    Myliobatis is a genus of eagle rays in the family Myliobatidae....
     dixoni    , M. latidens, M. raouxi and M. toliapicus - eagle ray
    Eagle ray

    Eagle rays are a family of mostly large batoidea living in the open ocean rather than at the bottom of the sea.The taxonomy of this group is uncertain; it is placed either in the order Myliobatiformes or Rajiformes....
    s
  • Anomotodon
    Anomotodon

    Anomotodon is an extinct genus of shark related to the extant goblin shark . The distribution of Anomotodon fossils is worldwide, in formations indicating that members of the genus lived from the Early Cretaceous epoch through the Eocene epoch, and perhaps through the Oligocene as well....
     sheppeyensis     - a goblin shark
    Goblin shark

    The goblin shark, Mitsukurina owstoni, is a deep-sea shark, the sole living species in the family Mitsukurinidae. The most distinctive characteristic of the goblin shark is the unorthodox shape of its head....
  • Carcharias
    Carcharias

    Sand sharks, or sand tigers, are lamniform sharks of the family Odontaspidae . They are found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean coast, but most notably in the Western Indian Ocean and in the Gulf of Maine....
     hopei    , Jackelotodus trigonalis, Odontaspis
    Odontaspis

    Odontaspis is one of two genera in the sand shark family , Odontaspididae. They are large-bodied sharks with long, conical snouts, broad-based dorsal fin and anal fins, and an asymmetrical caudal fin with a strong lower lobe....
     winkleri    , Palaeohypotodus rutoti and Striatolamia
    Striatolamia

    Striatolamia is an extinct genus of cartilaginous fish from the Paleocene.Sources* Fossils by David Ward ...
     macrota     - sand shark
    Sand shark

    Sand sharks, also known as sand tiger sharks or ragged tooth sharks, are lamniform sharks of the family Odontaspididae . They are sometimes called the "Dog fish Shark" or "ground shark." They are found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean coast, but most notably in the Western Indian Ocean and in the Gulf of Maine....
    s
  • Edaphodon
    Edaphodon

    Edaphodon was a prehistoric Chimaera fish genus belonging to the family callorhinchidae. Edaphodon was a type of rabbitfish, a Chondrichthyes related to sharks and Batoidea, and indeed some rabbitfishes are still alive today....
     bucklandi     and Elasmodus hunteri - chimaera
    Chimaera

    Chimaeras are Chondrichthyes in the order Chimaeriformes. They are related to the sharks and batoidea, and are sometimes called ghost sharks, ratfish , or rabbitfishes....
    s
  • Dasyatis
    Dasyatis

    Dasyatis is a genus of stingray....
     davisi     and D. wochadunensis - stingray
    Stingray

    The stingrays are a family, Dasyatidae of batoidea, cartilaginous fishes related to sharks. They are common in coastal tropical marine waters throughout the world, and several species are known to enter fresh water....
    s
  • Galeorhinus lefevrei, G. minor, G. recticonus, G. ypresiensis, Mustelus whitei and Triakis
    Triakis

    Triakis is a genus of houndshark in the family Triakidae.The name comes from the Greek, triakis = three times....
     wardi     - hound sharks
  • Heterodontus vincenti, H. wardenensis and H. woodwardi - bullhead sharks
  • Hexanchus
    Hexanchus

    Hexanchus is a genus of deepwater sharks in the family Hexanchidae. These sharks are characterized by broad pointed heads, six pairs of gill slits, comb-like lower teeth, and a long tail....
     agassizi    , H. collinsonae, H. hookeri, Notorhynchus
    Notorhynchus

    Notorynchus is a genus of Seven-gill shark that evolved in the Late Cretaceous through the Present Day. The Sevengill shark is a large shark which according to Compagno inhabits shallow , temperate coastal continental waters....
     serratissimus     and Weltonia burnhamensis - cow sharks
  • Isisteus trituratus and Squalus minor - dogfish sharks
    Squalidae

    Squalidae is the family of dogfish sharks. They are found in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, from tropical equatorial climates to the Arctic and Antarctic....
  • Isurolamna affinis, Isurus
    Isurus

    Isurus is the genus of mako sharks, large sharks in the family Lamnidae, the mackerel sharks or white sharks. There are two living species, the common shortfin mako shark and the relatively rare longfin mako shark , and several extinct species known from fossils....
     nova    , I. praecursor, Lamna
    Lamna

    Mackerel sharks are a genus of shark....
     inflata    , L. lerichei, Otodus obliquus
    Otodus obliquus

    Otodus was a large prehistoric mackerel shark which lived during the Paleocene and Eocene epochs, approximately about 60 to 45 million years ago....
     and Xiphodolamia eocaena - white sharks
    Lamnidae

    Lamnidae is a family of sharks, commonly known as mackerel sharks or white sharks. They are large, fast-swimming sharks, found in oceans worldwide....
  • Megascyliorhinus cooperi, Scyliorhinus
    Scyliorhinus

    Scylorhinus is a genus of catsharks in the Family Scyliorhinidae....
     casieri    , S. gilberti, S. pattersoni and S. woodwardi - catshark
    Catshark

    The cat sharks or catsharks are a family of sharks, with over 110 species recorded. Paradoxically perhaps, while the group is called the cat shark family, many species are commonly called dogfish....
    s
  • Pararhincodon sp? - an indeterminate shark
  • Raja
    Raja (genus)

    Raja is a genus of skates in the family Rajidae....
     sp.? - an indeterminate ray
  • Squatina prima - an angel shark
    Angel shark

    The angel sharks are an unusual genus of sharks with flattened bodies and broad pectoral fins that give them a strong resemblance to skate and batoidea....


Invertebrates


Crustaceans
  • Archiocarabus bowerbanki, Callianassa
    Callianassa (genus)

    Callianassa is a genus of mud shrimps, in the family Callianassidae. Three of the species in this genus have been split off into a new genus, Pestarella ....
     sp., Hoploparia gammaroides, Linuparus eocenicus, L. scyllariformis, Scyllarides tuberculatus, Scyllaridia koenigi and Thenops scyllariformis - lobster
    Lobster

    Clawed lobsters compose a family of large marine crustaceans. Lobsters are economically important as seafood, forming the basis of a global industry that nets United States dollar1.8 billion in trade annually....
    s and shrimp
    Shrimp

    Shrimp are swimming, Decapoda crustaceans classified in the infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh water and seawater. Adult shrimp are Filter feeder benthic animals living close to the bottom....
    s
  • Arcoscapellum quadratum, Scalpellum minutum and S. quadratum - barnacle
    Barnacle

    A barnacle is a type of arthropod belonging to infraclass Cirripedia in the Subphylum Crustacean, and is hence distantly related to crabs and lobsters....
    s
  • Campylostoma mutatiforme, Cyclocorystes pulchellus, Dromilites bucklandi, D. lamarki, Glyphthyreus wetherelli, Goniochela angulata, Harpactoxanthopsis cf. quadrilo, Mithracia libinioides, Oediosoma ambigua, Portunites
    Portunites

    Portunites is an extinct genus of crab from the Eocene .References...
     incerta    , P. stintoni, Xanthilites bowerbanki, Zanthopsis bispinosa, Z. dufori, Z. leachei, Z. nodosa and Z. unispinosa - crab
    Crab

    Crabs are Decapoda crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" , or where the reduced abdomen is entirely hidden under the thorax....
    s
  • Squilla
    Squilla

    Squilla is a genus of mantis shrimp. It includes the following species :*Squilla brasiliensis Calman, 1917*Squilla chydaea Manning, 1962...
     wetherelli     - a mantis shrimp
    Mantis shrimp

    Mantis shrimp or stomatopods are marine crustaceans, the members of the order Stomatopoda. They are neither shrimp nor Praying mantis, but receive their name purely from the physical resemblance to both the terrestrial praying mantis and the shrimp....


Molluscs
Cephalopods
  • Aturia ziczac, Cimomia imperialis, Deltoidonautilus sowerbyi, Euciphoceras regale, Eutrephoceras urbanum, Hercoglossa cassiniana and Simplicioceras centrale - nautilus
    Nautilus

    Nautilus is the common name of any marine creatures of the cephalopod family Nautilidae, the sole family of the suborder Nautilina....
    es
  • Belopterina levesquei, Belosepia blainvillei and B. sepioidea - cuttlefish
    Cuttlefish

    Cuttlefish are Marine animals of the order Sepiida belonging to the Cephalopoda class . Despite their common name, cuttlefish are not fish but molluscs....


Clams and other bivalves
  • Abra splendens - Semelidae
    Semelidae

    The Semelidae are a family of clams, Marine Bivalve molluscs of the order Veneroida....
  • Amygdalum depressum and Modiolus
    Modiolus (genus)

    Modiolus, the horsemussels, are a genus of medium-sized Marine bivalve molluscs in the family Mytilidae....
     tubicola     - Mytilidae
    Mytilidae

    Mytilidae is a family of small to large saltwater mussels, marine bivalve mollusks in the order Mytiloida. It is the only family in the order....
  • Anomia scabrosa - a jingle shell
    Anomiidae

    Anomiidae is a family of bivalve molluscs related to scallops and oysters, and known as anomiids.The family is known by several common names, including jingle shells, saddle oysters, windowpane oysters, mermaid's toenails and kapis shells....
  • Arca nitens, A. tumescens and Glycymeris wrigleyi - ark clam
    Ark clam

    Ark clam is the common name for a family of small to large-sized edible saltwater clams or Marine bivalve molluscs in the family Arcidae....
    s
  • Arctica planata - Arcticidae
    Arcticidae

    Arcticidae is a family of bivalve molluscs in the order Veneroida....
  • Astarte davisi, A. filigera and A. rugata - Astartidae
    Astartidae

    Astartidae is a family of bivalves related to the large family Veneridae or venus clams....
  • Calpitaria sulcataria - a venus clam
    Veneridae

    The Veneridae or venerids, also known as venus clams, are a very large family of minute to large, saltwater clams, marine bivalve mollusca....
  • Corbula globosa - Corbulidae
    Corbulidae

    Corbulidae is a family of bivalve molluscs in the order Myoida....
  • Cuspidaria inflata and C. lamallosa - Cuspidariidae
    Cuspidariidae

    Cuspidariidae is a family of bivalves in the order Pholadomyoida....
  • Nuculana amygdaloides and N. prisca - Nuculanidae
    Nuculanidae

    Nuculanidae is a family of small bivalve molluscs in the order Nuculoida.They have transversely elongated shells, usually wiktionary:rostrate at the posterior end....
  • Lentipecten corneus and Pecten
    Pecten (bivalve)

    Pecten is a genus of large scallops or saltwater clams, Marine bivalve mollusks in the family Pectinidae, the scallops.This is the type genus of the family....
     sp. - scallop
    Scallop

    A scallop is a Marine bivalve mollusk of the Family Pectinidae. Scallops are a wiktionary:cosmopolitan family, found in all of the world's oceans....
    s
  • Nemocardium nitens and N. semigranulatum - Cardiidae
  • Nucula
    Nucula

    Nucula is a genus of clams of the family Nuculidae....
     consors     - Nuculidae
    Nuculidae

    Nuculidae is a family of small seawater clams in the order Nuculoida.The shells are small, ovate to triagonal, usually somewhat inflated, inequivalve, the posterior end short....
  • Ostrea
    Ostrea

    Ostrea is a genus of oyster in the family Ostreidae. Evidence of a number of species of this genus in the geological fossil record demonstrates the ancient nature of this genus, and also gives testimony to the species that co-existed with members of the Ostrea genus....
     sp. - a true oysters
    Ostreidae

    The members of the family Ostreidae are the true oysters, and include all the species that are commonly eaten under the title "oyster". They do not include the pearl oysters; these species are only distantly related to the true oysters, since although they are also bivalves, they are members of the family Pteriidae, in the order Pterio...
  • Pinna
    Pinna (genus)

    Pinna is a genus of pen shells. It is a cosmopolitan genus of bivalve molluscs characterized by elongated, wedge-shaped shells which most commonly stand point-first in the sea bottom in which they live, anchored by a net of byssus threads....
     affinis     - a pen shell
    Pinnidae

    Pinnidae is a Family of large saltwater clams sometimes known as pen shells. They are Marine bivalve molluscs in the Scientific classification Pterioida....
  • Pleurolectroma media and Pteria papyracea - pearl oysters
    Pteriidae

    Pteriidae is a family of medium-sized to large saltwater clams. They are pearl oysters, Marine bivalve mollusks in the order Pterioida.Some of the species in this family are important economically as the source of saltwater pearls....
  • Pycnodonte gryphovicina - Pycnodontidae
  • Teredina
    Teredina

    Teredina is a now extinct genus of bivalvia mollusca that lived from the Late Cretaceous to the late Pliocene in Asia, Europe, and North America....
     personata     and Teredo sp. - shipworm
    Shipworm

    Shipworms are not worms at all, but rather a group of unusual saltwater clams with very reduced shells, notorious for boring into wooden structures that are immersed in sea water, such as piers, docks and wooden ships....
    s
  • Thyasira goodhali - Thyasiridae
    Thyasiridae

    Thyasiridae is a family of bivalve molluscs, including the cleftclams....
  • Venericardia
    Venericardia

    Venericardia is a genus of marine bivalve molluscs, in the family Carditidae....
     trinobantium     - Carditidae
    Carditidae

    Carditidae is a family of marine bivalve clams of the order Veneroida.The shells look very like venerids, but differ in several respects; the linge-teeth consist of several massive cardinals, but the laterals are either subobsolete or absent, there are no siphons, and the pallial line is simple, without a sinus....
  • Verticordia
    Verticordia

    Verticordia, a genus of the Myrtaceae family, are woody shrubs with small and exquisite flowers. They are mostly found in Southwest Australia, with several outlier species in northern regions....
     sulcata     - Verticordiidae
    Verticordiidae

    Verticordiidae is a family of marine bivalves of the Pholadomyoida order ....


Gastropods
  • Acrilla cymaea, Foratiscala perforata, Litoriniscala scalaroides and Undiscala primaeva - wentletrap
    Wentletrap

    Wentletraps are small, often white, very high-spire d, predatory sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks, in the family Epitoniidae.The word wentletrap originated in German-Dutch , and it means spiral staircase....
    s
  • Aporrhais
    Aporrhais

    Aporrhais is a genus of medium-sized sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Aporrhaidae and the superfamily Stromboidea.The genus is known from the Cretaceous to the recent periods....
     sowerbii     and Eotibia lucida - true conchs
    Strombidae

    Strombidae, common name the true conchs, is a taxonomic family of medium-sized to very large sea snails with an operculum . These are marine gastropod mollusks in the Order Sorbeoconcha....
  • Bathytoma granata, B. turbida, Clavatula conica, Cochlespira gyrata, Conolithus concinnus, Endiatoma cerithiformis, Fusiturris selysi, F. simillima, F. wetherelli, Gemmula koninckii, Hemipleurotoma fasciolata, H. prestwichi, Pseudotoma topleyi, Surculites errans, S. velatus, Turricula crassa, T. helix, T. latimarginata, T. nanodis, T. symmetrica and T. teretrium - Conoidea
    Conoidea

    Conoidea is a taxonomic superfamily of sophisticated predatory sea snails.This superfamily includes the Turridae, the Terebridae and the Conidae or cone snails....
  • Bonellitia clathratum and B. laeviuscula - nutmeg shells
    Cancellariidae

    Cancellariidae, or the cancellarids or nutmeg shells, are a family of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the order Sorbeoconcha....
  • Bullinella sp., Crenilabium elongatum, ?Roxiana sp., Scaphander
    Scaphander

    Scaphander is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Cylichnidae, the canoe bubbles....
     ?parisiensis     and Tornatellaea simulata - opisthobranchs
    Opisthobranchia

    An opisthobranch is any member of the very large and diverse group of rather specialized, highly evolved marine slugs and snails known as Opisthobranchia, within the Heterobranchia....
  • Camptoceratops prisca, Spiratella mercinensis, S. taylori and S. tutelina - sea-butterflies
    Sea butterfly

    Sea butterflies, also known as Thecosomata or flapping snails, are a taxonomic suborder of small pelagic swimming sea snails. These are holoplanktonic opisthobranch gastropod mollusks in the order Opisthobranchia....
  • Cassis striata and Mambrina gallica - tun shells
    Tonnidae

    Tonnidae is a family of medium-sized to very large sea snails, known as the tun shells. These are marine gastropod molluscs in the Order Sorbeoconcha and the infraorder Littorinimorpha....
  • Cepatia cepacea, Daphnobela juncea, Litiopa sulculosa, Orthochetus elongatus and Stellaxis pulcher - incertae sedis
    Incertae sedis

    Incertae sedis , abbreviation "inc. sed.", is a term used to define a taxonomy group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined....
  • Eocypraea oviformis - a cowrie
    Cypraeidae

    Cypraeidae, common name the cowries , is a taxonomic family of small to large sea snails. These are marine gastropod mollusks in the superfamily Cypraeoidea, the cowries and cowry allies....
  • Euspira glaucinoides and Sinum clathratum - moon snails
    Naticidae

    Naticidae, the moon snails or naticoids, is a family of minute to large-sized predatory sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the clade Littorinimorpha....
  • Falsifusus londini, Fusinus
    Fusinus

    Fusinus is a genus of large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusc in the family Buccinidae, the whelks.These shells are large and slender with a tall spire and a long straight siphonal canal....
     coniferus    , F. wetherelli, Pseudoneptunea curta, Siphonalia highgatensis, Streptolathyrus triliniatus, S. zonulatus, Wrigleya complanata and W. transversaria - true whelks
    Buccinidae

    Buccinidae is a taxonomic family of large sea snails, often known as whelks or true whelks to distinguish them from the Busycon whelks....
  • Ficopsis
    Ficopsis

    Ficopsis is an extinct genus of gastropod that lived from the Paleocene to the Miocene in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, and South America....
     multiformis     - a fig shell
    Ficidae

    Ficidae or the fig shells are a taxonomic family of medium to large sea snails, Marine gastropod molluscs in the clade Littorinimorpha....
  • Lacunella sp. - a periwinkle
    Littorinidae

    Littorinidae is a taxonomic family of about 200 sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the clade Littorinimorpha, commonly known as periwinkles and found world-wide....
  • Mathilda sororcula - Mathildidae
    Mathildidae

    Mathildidae are a family of minute sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the order Heterostropha....
  • Murex
    Murex

    Murex is a genus of medium to large sized predatory tropical sea snails. These are carnivore marine gastropod molluscs in the family Muricidae, the murexes or rock snails....
     subcristatus     and Paziella argillacea - murex snails
    Muricidae

    Muricidae, common names murex snails or rock snails, is a large and varied taxonomic family of small to large predatory sea snails....
  • Pachysyrnola sp. and Turbonilla subterranea - pyramid shells
    Pyramidellidae

    Pyramidellidae, common name the pyram family, or pyramid shells, is a voluminous taxonomic family of mostly small and minute parasitic sea snails, marine Heterobranchia gastropod molluscs or micromolluscs....
  • Patella sp. - Patellidae
    Patellidae

    Patellidae is a taxonomic family of sea snails or true limpets, marine gastropod molluscs in the clade Patellogastropoda.For more information, please see Limpet....
  • Ptychatractus aff. interuptus, Scaphella wetherelli and Volutospina
    Volutospina

    Volutospina is an extinct genus of gastropod that lived from the Cretaceous to the Eocene in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, and South America....
     nodosa     - volutes
    Volutidae

    Volutidae, common name volutes, are a taxonomic family of medium-sized to extremely large predatory sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks....
  • Rilla cf. tenuistriata - Streptaxidae
    Streptaxidae

    Streptaxidae is a family of air-breathing land snails, terrestrial animal pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the order Stylommatophora. Six Streptaxidae subfamilies are accepted in the Taxonomy of the Gastropoda ....
  • Ringicula turgida - Ringiculidae
    Ringiculidae

    Ringiculidae are a family of minute deep water sea snails or micromolluscs, marine opisthobranch gastropod mollusks in the order Heterostropha....
  • Sassia morrisi - a triton shell
    Ranellidae

    Ranellidae, common name the Triton shells or tritons, is a taxonomic family of small to very large predatory sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the clade Sorbeoconcha....
  • Sigapatella
    Sigapatella

    Sigapatella is a genus of small to medium-sized sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Calyptraeidae which are commonly known as slipper snails, cup and saucer shells and Chinese hat shells....
     sp. - Calyptraeidae
    Calyptraeidae

    Calyptraeidae, or the slipper shells, are a taxonomic family of small to medium-sized sea snails, marine prosobranch gastropod molluscs. This family includes the slipper snails, the chinaman's hat snails, the cup and saucer snails and others....
  • Tornus sp. and Turboella cf. misera - Rissoidae
    Rissoidae

    Rissoidae is a family of very small and minute sea snails with an Operculum , marine gastropod mollusks in the order Sorbeoconcha....
  • Xenophora
    Xenophora

    Xenophora, common name carrier shells, is a genera of medium sized to large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Xenophoridae, the carrier snails or carrier shells....
     extensum     - a carrier shell
    Xenophoridae

    Xenophoridae, common name carrier shells, are a taxonomic family of medium-sized to large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the order Sorbeoconcha....


Tusk shells
  • Antalis anceps and A. nitens


Echinoderms
  • Asteropecten crispatus, Coulonia colei, Hemiaster bowerbanki, Hippasteria tuberculata, Ophioglypha wetherelli and Teichaster stokesii - starfish
  • Coelopleurus
    Coelopleurus

    Coelopleurus is an extinct genus of echinoid that lived in the Eocene. Its remains have been found in Europe and North America....
     wetherelli     and Schizaster sp. - sea urchin
    Sea urchin

    Sea urchins are small, spiny, globular creatures that compose most of class Echinoidea. They are found in oceans all over the world. Their shell, or "test", is round and spiny, typically from 3 to 10 cm across....
    s
  • Democrinus londinensis - crinoid
    Crinoid

    Crinoids, also known as sea lilies or feather-stars, are marine animals that make up the class Crinoidea of the echinoderms . They live both in shallow water and in depths as great as 6,000 meters....
  • ?Ophiacantha sp., Ophioglypha wetherelli, Ophiomusium sp. and Ophiura wetherelli - brittlestars


Cnidarians
  • Paracyathus brevis and P. caryophyllus - coral
    Coral

    Corals are marine organisms from the class Anthozoa and exist as small sea anemone?like polyps, typically in colonies of many identical individuals....
    s
  • Graphularia wetherelli - hydrozoa
    Hydrozoa

    Hydrozoa are a taxonomic Class of very small, predatory animals which can be solitary or colonial and which mostly live in saltwater. A few genera within this class live in freshwater....
    n


Other invertebrates
  • Adenellopsis wetherelli, Aimulosia sp., Batopora clithridiata, Beisselina sp., Cribrilina sp., Didymosella sp., Dittosaria wetherelli, Entalophora sp., Idmonia sp., Lunulites sp., Nellia sp., Pachythecella incisa, Vibracellina sp. and Websteria crissioides - bryozoans
  • Hemiptera
    Hemiptera

    Hemiptera is an order of insects, comprising around 80,000 species of cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, shield bugs, and others. They range in size from 1 mm to around 15 cm, and share a common arrangement of sucking mouthparts ....
     gen. et sp. indet. - true bug
  • Lingula
    Lingula (genus)

    Lingula is a genus of brachiopods within the class Lingulata. Lingula is among the few brachiopods surviving today but also known from fossils over 500 million years old....
     tenuis    , Terebratulina striatula and T. wardenensis - lampshells
  • Stelleta sp. - sponge


Ichnofossils

  • Ditrupa plana, Rotularia bognorensis and Serpula trilineata - polychaete worm tubes?
  • Scolithos


Engineering

The presence of a thick layer of London Clay underneath London
London

London is the capital of both England and the United Kingdom, and the most populous municipality in the European Union. An important settlement for two millennia, History of London goes back to its founding by the Roman Empire....
 itself, providing a soft yet stable environment for tunnel
Tunnel

A tunnel is an underground passageway. The definition of what constitutes a tunnel is not universally agreed upon. However, in general tunnels are at least twice as long as they are wide....
ling, was instrumental in the early development of the London Underground
London Underground

The London Underground is a metro system serving a large part of Greater London and neighbouring areas of Essex, Hertfordshire and Buckinghamshire in the UK....
. The high degree of shrinkage and swelling of the clay with varying degrees of wetness can cause subsidence
Subsidence

In geology, engineering, and surveying, subsidence is the motion of a surface as it shifts downward relative to a datum such as sea-level. The opposite of subsidence is Tectonic uplift, which results in an increase in elevation....
 problems.

Agriculture


"London clay is not hospitable to most plants... ploughing it up where it lies so near the surface as to be accessible to the plough is injurious to the surface soil and future crops. In Middlesex it is called 'ploughing up poison'"

See also

  • Geology of London
    Geology of London

    The geology of London comprises various differing layers of sedimentary rock upon which London, England is built....
  • Geology of the United Kingdom
  • Geology of Hertfordshire
    Geology of Hertfordshire

    The Geology of Hertfordshire describes the rocks of the England county of Hertfordshire which are a northern part of the great shallow syncline known as the London Basin....
  • Geology of Hampshire
    Geology of Hampshire

    Hampshire's geology broadly comprises a major syncline in the Southern England Chalk Formation, surrounding a core of softer Tertiary rocks. This gives rise to two characteristic landscapes, the Hampshire Basin and the Downs....
  • List of fossil sites
    List of fossil sites

    This is a worldwide list of important and/or well-known localities where fossils have been found. Such locations may either be a geological formation or a single site....


Footnotes