Caterina Sforza,
Countess of Forlì (early 1463 – 28 May, 1509), was the illegitimate daughter of
Galeazzo Maria SforzaGaleazzo Maria Sforza was Duke of Milan from 1466 until his death. He was famous for being lustful, cruel and tyrannical....
, Duke of
MilanMilan in Italy, is the capital of the region of Lombardia and of the province of Milan. The city proper has a population of about 1.3 million, while the urban area is the fifth largest in the E.U. with an estimated population of 4.3 million...
and
Lucrezia LandrianiLucrezia Landriani , was the mistress of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan, and the mother of his renowned illegitimate daughter, Caterina Sforza, Lady of Imola, Countess of Forlì.Lucrezia had three other children by the Duke, and two by her husband.- Biography :Lucrezia was the wife of Count...
, the wife of the courtier Gian Piero Landriani, a close friend of the Duke.
Raised in the refined Milanese court, which in the 15th century was admired by all of Europe, Caterina later held the titles of Lady of
ImolaImola is a town, comune in the province of Bologna, located on the Santerno river, in the Emilia-Romagna region of north-central Italy. The town is traditionally considered the western entrance to the historical region Romagna....
and Countess of
ForlìForlì is a comune and city in Emilia-Romagna, Italy, famed as the birthplace of the great painter Melozzo da Forlì, of the humanist historian Flavio Biondo, of the famous physicians Geronimo Mercuriali and Giovanni Battista Morgagni....
, by her marriage to Girolamo Riario. She was also the Regent for her first-born son, Octaviano.
The descendant of a dynasty of famous
condottierithumb|280px|Depiction of [[Farinata degli Uberti]] by [[Andrea del Castagno]], showing a 15th century condottiero's typical attire.Condottieri were the mercenary soldier leaders of the professional, military Free companies contracted by the Italian city-states and the Papacy, from the late...
, Caterina, at an early age, distinguished herself by her bold and impetuous actions that were instigated to safeguard her possessions from possible usurpers, and to uphold the military defense of her states, when they were involved in the myriad political intrigues that were a distinguishing feature of 15th century Italy.
In her private life Caterina was devoted to various activities, among which were "experiments" in
alchemyAlchemy is both a philosophy and a practice with an aim of achieving ultimate wisdom as well as immortality, involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of several substances described as possessing unusual properties...
and a love of hunting and dancing.
She was a devoted mother as well as a dedicated teacher to her many children, from whom only the youngest, the famous captain
Giovanni dalle Bande NereGiovanni de' Medici, also known as Giovanni dalle Bande Nere was an Italian condottiero.-Biography:...
, inherited the forceful, militant character of his mother.
Following a heroic resistance on her part, she had to face the vindictive fury of
Cesare BorgiaCesare Borgia , Duke of Valentinois was a Spanish-Italian condottiero, lord and cardinal. He was the son of Pope Alexander VI and his long-term mistress Vannozza dei Cattanei, sibling to Lucrezia Borgia, Gioffre Borgia , Prince of Squillace, and Giovanni Borgia, duke of Gandia, and half-brother to...
, who took Caterina as his prisoner. Upon regaining her liberty following her imprisonment in
RomeRome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated municipality , with over 2.7 million residents in , while the population of the urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 3.46 million. The metropolitan area of Rome is estimated by OECD to have a population of 3.7 million...
, she led a quiet life in Florence.
In the final years of her life, she confided to a monk: "If I were to write the story of my life, I would shock the world".
Childhood
Caterina Sforza was born in
MilanMilan in Italy, is the capital of the region of Lombardia and of the province of Milan. The city proper has a population of about 1.3 million, while the urban area is the fifth largest in the E.U. with an estimated population of 4.3 million...
.
It is believed that she spent the first years of her life with the family of her natural mother. The close relationship between mother and daughter was never severed; in fact, Lucrezia followed the growth of Caterina, and she was always beside her in the crucial moments of her life, even in her final years in Florence.
Upon the succession of
Galeazzo Maria SforzaGaleazzo Maria Sforza was Duke of Milan from 1466 until his death. He was famous for being lustful, cruel and tyrannical....
as Duke of Milan in 1466, following the death of his father Francesco, he arranged for his four children to be brought to court: Carlo (born in 1461; later Count of Magenta), Caterina, Alessandro (born in 1465; later Lord of Francavilla) and Chiara (born in 1467), who by her first marriage, became Countess dal Verme di Sanguinetto and Lady of Vigevano, and by her second marriage, Lady of Novi) all mothered by his mistress Lucrezia. The children were entrusted to their paternal grandmother, Bianca Maria Visconti and, subsequently, all were eventually adopted by
Bona of SavoyBona of Savoy, Duchess of Milan , was the second wife of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan and a member of the noble Italian House of Savoy.- Family and marriage :...
, who became Galeazzo Maria's second wife on 9 May 1468.
At the Sforza court, frequented by writers and artists, Caterina and her siblings received a
humanistic educationHumanistic education is an alternative approach to education based on the work of humanistic psychologists, most notably Abraham Maslow, who developed a famous hierarchy of needs, Carl Rogers, and Rudolf Steiner, the founder of Waldorf education. In humanistic education, the whole person, not just...
. At that time, in the Italian courts, the girls of noble families were receiving the same education as their male siblings. In addition to Latin and the reading of the Classics, which were imposed by the teachers, Caterina was taught, in particular by her paternal grandmother, to be proud of her militant ancestors, to be bold in the application of arms, and astute in the skill of government. From her adoptive mother, she received her share of the maternal warmth and affection that Bona of Savoy poured over all of the children of her husband, confirmed by the correspondence between the two women after Caterina had left the Milanese court.
The Duke's family resided in
MilanMilan in Italy, is the capital of the region of Lombardia and of the province of Milan. The city proper has a population of about 1.3 million, while the urban area is the fifth largest in the E.U. with an estimated population of 4.3 million...
and
PaviaPavia , the ancient Ticinum, is a town and comune of south-western Lombardy, northern Italy, 35 km south of Milan on the lower Ticino river near its confluence with the Po. It has a population of c. 71,000...
, and often stayed at
GalliateGalliate is a comune in the Province of Novara in the Italian region Piedmont, located about 90 km northeast of Turin and about 7 km northeast of Novara...
or
CusagoCusago is a comune in the Province of Milan in the Italian region Lombardy, located about 11 km west of Milan. As of 31 December 2004, it had a population of 3,343 and an area of 11.5 km²....
, where Galeazzo Maria devoted himself to hunting. It was likely at one or the other of the two places that Caterina also acquired her passion for hunting, which would remain with her for the rest of her life.
Marriage
In 1473 Caterina was betrothed to
Girolamo RiarioGirolamo Riario was Lord of Imola and Forlì in the 15th century.- Biography :Born in Savona, Riario was the son of Paolo Riario and Bianca della Rovere...
, the putative son of Paolo Riario and Bianca della Rovere, sister of
Pope Sixtus IVPope Sixtus IV , born Francesco della Rovere, was Pope from 1471 to 1484. He founded the Sistine Chapel where the team of artists he brought together and introduced the Early Renaissance to Rome with the first masterpiece of the city's new artistic age.-Biography:Francesco was born to a modest...
. There were persistent rumours, however that Girolama was a son of the Pope). Caterina replaced her cousin, the eleven-year-old Costanza Fogliani, as Girolamo's bride because, (according to some historians), the girl's mother refused to allow the consummation of the marriage until Costanza reached the legal age, which was then fourteen. Despite the bride being just ten years of age, the marriage of Caterina and Girolamo was celebrated on 17 January 1473, but
consummatedConsummation is the initial sexual act made within a marriage.Consummation can also refer to:* Consummation , 1970 recordingSee also:* Consummation of days, event predicted in Daniel Chapter 12, verses 1-4...
four years later (1477) when Caterina reached the age of fourteen.
Pope Sixtus IV gave Girolamo the Lordship of
ImolaImola is a town, comune in the province of Bologna, located on the Santerno river, in the Emilia-Romagna region of north-central Italy. The town is traditionally considered the western entrance to the historical region Romagna....
, already a Sforza city, but at the time a fief of the Riario family. After a triumphal entrance into Imola in 1477, Caterina went to Rome with her husband, where he lived for many years at the service of his uncle, the Pope. The following year, in March 1478, Caterina gave birth to her first child, a daughter named Bianca after Girolamo's mother, Bianca della Rovere, and Caterina's paternal grandmother, Bianca Maria Visconti. Caterina subsequently gave birth to five more children in the next nine years.
In the Vatican court
Upon her arrival in Rome in May 1477, Caterina found a city full of cultural fervour, with a desire for renovation.
Rome, at the end of the 15th century was no longer a medieval city, but was not yet the important centre of artistic endeavors which it would be a few decades later. It was shortly to become one of the most important cities of the
RenaissanceThe Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe...
.
The atmosphere was a mix of intrigue, and power, which was pursued without scruples, with the material interests far exceeding the spiritual. Caterina was banned from meddling in politics by her husband, but she quickly integrated- owing to her extroverted and sociable character- into aristocratic Roman society.
Caterina, as evidenced by correspondence from that period, immediately became admired in her new role as one of the most beautiful and elegant among the noble Roman women. She was welcomed everywhere, treated with great respect and lavishly praised by all of society including the Pope. She soon transformed from a simple adolescent into a refined and powerful intermediary between the Roman court and other Italian courts, especially Milan.
In the meanwhile, Girolamo was given a leading position in the expansion policy of Pope Sixtus IV after the premature death of the Pope's brother,
CardinalA cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical official, usually a bishop, of the Catholic Church. They are collectively known as the College of Cardinals, which as a body elects a new pope. The duties of the cardinals include attending the meetings of the College and making themselves available...
Pietro RiarioPietro Riario , was an Italian cardinal and Papal diplomat.-Biography:Born in Savona, he was the son of Paolo Riario and Pope Sixtus IVs' sister, Bianca Della Rovere. Sixtus nominated him in 1471 bishop of Treviso and cardinal, and, in 1473, archbishop of Florence. He was entrusted with Sixtus'...
. His power grew daily, and he soon displayed increasing ruthlessness towards his enemies. In 1480, the Pope, with the objective of attaining a strong domain in the land of
RomagnaRomagna is an Italian historical region that approximately corresponds to the south-eastern portion of present-day Emilia-Romagna. Traditionally, it is limited by the Apennines to the south-west, the Adriatic to the east, and the rivers Reno and Sillaro to the north and west...
, assigned to Girolamo the Lordship of
ForlìForlì is a comune and city in Emilia-Romagna, Italy, famed as the birthplace of the great painter Melozzo da Forlì, of the humanist historian Flavio Biondo, of the famous physicians Geronimo Mercuriali and Giovanni Battista Morgagni....
, which had remained vacant after it was sequestered from the Ordelaffi family. The new Lord tried to earn the favour of the populace by erecting magnificent public buildings and churches, and by abolishing taxes.
The lives of Caterina and Girolamo changed abruptly with the death of Sixtus IV, which occurred on 12 August 1484.
Prisoner of Castel Sant'Angelo
At the news of the death of the Pope, all who had suffered under his regime commenced to loot and sack the city, bringing chaos, disorder, and terror to the streets of Rome. Girolamo's residence, the Orsini palace in
Campo de' FioriCampo dei Fiori is a rectangular piazza near Piazza Navona in Rome, Italy, on the border of rione Parione and rione Regola. Campo dei Fiori, translated literally from Italian, means "field of flowers." The name was first given during the Middle Ages when the area was actually a meadow.In Ancient...
, was assaulted, stripped of all its content and almost destroyed.
In this time of anarchy, Caterina, who was in her seventh month of pregnancy, crossed on horseback to occupy the
rocca (fortress) of
Castel Sant'AngeloThe Mausoleum of Hadrian, usually known as the Castel Sant'Angelo, is a towering cylindrical building in Rome, initially commissioned by the Roman Emperor Hadrian as a mausoleum for himself and his family...
on behalf of her husband. From this position and with the obedience of the soldiers, Caterina could monitor the Vatican and dictate the conditions for the new conclave.
Meanwhile, the disorders in the city increased. A
militiaThe term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
accompanied the arrival of the
CardinalA cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical official, usually a bishop, of the Catholic Church. They are collectively known as the College of Cardinals, which as a body elects a new pope. The duties of the cardinals include attending the meetings of the College and making themselves available...
s. The latter did not want attend the funeral of Sixtus IV and refused to enter into conclave, for fear of coming under the fire of Caterina's
artilleryArtillery is a military combat Arm that employs weapons capable of discharging large projectiles in combat. They are generally capable of adding considerable fire power to the military capability of an armed force...
. The situation was difficult because only the election of a new Pope would put an end to the violence in the city.
Girolamo and his army occupied a strategic position at that point, yet could not implement an effective solution. The Sacred College asked Girolamo to leave Rome, offering in return the sum of 8,000
ducatThe ducat is a gold coin that was used as a trade currency throughout Europe before World War I. Its weight is 3.4909 grams of .986 gold, which is 0.1107 troy ounce, AGW, actual gold weight.-History:...
s in compensation for the damages to his property, the confirmation of his Lordship over Imola and Forlì and the post of Captain General of the Church. Girolamo accepted. When Caterina was informed of the decisions taken by her husband, she increased the quota of her soldiers and made preparations for resistance in order to force the Cardinals to parlay with her. The Cardinals again approached Girolamo, who took up a counterposition against his wife. As a result, on 25 October Caterina surrendered the fortress to the Sacred College and left Rome with her family. The Sacred College were able to meet in conclave.
Forlì
Upon their arrival in Forlì, where law and order had been maintained due to Ludovico il Moro, the Riarios were informed of the election of an old opponent as the new Pope Innocent VIII, who confirmed Girolamo in his Lordships of Imola and Forlì and the appointment of Captain General of the Pontifical army. That appointment, however, was only nominal; the Pope deprived it of any real function and payments upon releasing Girolamo from his presence in Rome.
Despite the loss of income, Girolamo did not reimplement the payment of taxes for the people of Forlì.
This situation lasted until the end of 1485, when public spending became untenable and Girolamo, strongly pushed by a member of the
Council of Elders, Nicolò Pansecco, was forced to reconsider his taxation policy and was obliged to levy the taxes. This measure was deemed by the population as expensive and, soon, Girolamo made enemies amongst all the citizens of Forlì.
The increase of the taxes, which affected mainly the artisan class and landowners, added to the discontent that had previously been limited to the families who had suffered under the Girolamo's system of persecution against all whom he suspected of treachery. His enemies soon began to conspire against him with a view to making
Franceschetto CyboFranceschetto Cybo was an Italian nobleman, the illegitimate son of Pope Innocent VIII ....
, nephew of
Pope Innocent VIIIPope Innocent VIII , born Giovanni Battista Cybo , was Pope from 1484 until his death.-Early years:...
, lord of Imola and Forlì in his stead. In this climate of dissatisfaction among the Forlì nobility flourished the idea of overthrowing the rule of Riario.
Girolamo's death
After more than a half dozen of failed conspiracies, Girolamo was eventually killed on 14 April 1488, by a conspiracy led by members of the
OrsiOrsi is a surname, and may refer to:* Adolfo Orsi* Clodomil Orsi* Fernando Orsi* Giuseppe Agostino Orsi* Hoover Orsi* John Orsi* Leigh Ann Orsi* Lelio Orsi* Raimundo Orsi...
s, a noble family of Forlì. The palace of the Lord was sacked, while Caterina and her children were made prisoners.
Since the fortress of Ravaldino, a citadel of strategic importance to the defense of the city, refused to surrender, Caterina offered to go to convince the
castellanA castellan was the governor or caretaker of a castle or keep. The word stems from the Latin Castellanus, derived from castellum "castle".-Duties:...
, Tommaso Feo. The Orsinis believed the good intentions of Caterina because she left her children as hostages, but once inside she let loose a barrage of threats and promises of vengeance against her former captors. According to a famous legend (without historical veracity) when they threatened to kill her children still in captivity she exposed her genitals from the fortress walls and said:
Ho con me lo stampo per farne degli altri! (I have the instrument to bear more!). With the assistance of her uncle
Ludovico il MoroLudovico Sforza Duke of Milan , a member of the Sforza dynasty of Milan, Italy, was the second son of Francesco Sforza, and was famed as patron of Leonardo da Vinci and other artists....
, Duke of Milan, she was able to defeat her enemies and to regain possession of all her dominions; she wreaked vengeance on those who had opposed her and re-established her power.
Lady of Imola and Forlì
On 30 April 1488 Caterina began her government as the regent of her eldest son
OttavianoOttaviano Riario was an Italian condottiero and Lord of Imola and Forlì.He was a son of Girolamo Riario, a nephew of Pope Sixtus IV who had obtained possession in Italy thanks to the pontiff's patronage, and Caterina Sforza. He was created lord of Imola and Forlì in July 1488 by Pope Innocent...
, who was recognized by all members of the City and heads of the judiciaries, as the new Lord of Forlì, but considered him too young to rule in his own right.
Her first act as Regent was to avenge the death of her husband, according to the custom of the time. She ordered that all the people who were involved were to be imprisoned, among them the Pope's governor, Monsignor Savelli, all the pontifical generals, the castellan of the fortress of
ForlimpopoliForlimpopoli is a town and comune in the Province of Forlì-Cesena, northern Italy. It is located on the Via Emilia between Cesena and Forlì.-History:...
, on account of their treachery, and also all women of the Orsini and other families who had assisted in the conspiracy. Soldiers sought out anyone who had taken part in the conspiracy. The houses owned by those imprisoned were razed to the ground, while the valuables were distributed to the poor. On 30 July came the news that Pope Innocent VIII had given to Ottaviano the official investiture of his state "until his line ended." In the meantime, a Forlì was visited by Cardinal
Raffaele RiarioRaffaele Sansoni Galeoti Riario was an Italian Cardinal of the Renaissance, mainly known as the constructor of the Palazzo della Cancelleria and the one who invited Michelangelo to Rome. He is regarded as one of the most tasteful prelates of his age and a generous patron of the arts...
, officially to protect the orphan children of his late cousin Girolamo but, in agreement with the Pope, to oversee the government of Caterina.
The young Countess personally dealt with all issues concerning the government of her state, both public and private. To consolidate her power she exchanged gifts with the Lords of neighboring states and involved herself in the marriage negotiations of her children following the custom of the time. She also revised the Tax system by reducing and eliminating some duties, also controlled all costs, even those derisory. Caterina dealt directly with the training of her militia and of weapons and horses. It was her intention that the lives of the people in her cities were orderly and peaceful, and expected her subjects to appreciate these efforts.
The states of Forlì and Imola was smaller but, due to their geographical position, had a considerable importance in the political arena of that time. On 25 July Innocent VIII also died, and was replaced by Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, who took the name of
Pope Alexander VIPope Alexander VI , born Roderic Llançol, later Roderic de Borja i Borja was Pope from 1492 to 1503. He is one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes, and his surname became a byword for the debased standards of the papacy of that era...
. His election seemed to be a favourable event for the rule of Caterina, as while she and her husband had lived in Rome, the Cardinal had often been a guest at their home, and in addition, he was godfather of their first son, Ottaviano.
In September 1494, when, encouraged by Ludovico il Moro Sforza, King
Charles VIII of FranceCharles VIII, called the Affable, , was King of France from 1483 to his death. Charles was a member of the House of Valois...
formally claimed the Kingdom of Naples as the heir of the
House of AnjouAngevin is the name applied to the residents of Anjou, a former province of the Kingdom of France, as well as to the residents of Angers....
. At first Pope Alexander VI also gave his support to this act.
During the conflict between Milan and Naples, Caterina, who knew herself to be placed in a strategic position as Forlì was situated in a vulnerable position to any invading army travelling south, and thus tried to remain neutral. On one side, her uncle Ludovico wrote her that he had made an alliance with Charles VIII, and the other Cardinal Raffaele Riario argued in favour of the King of Naples, now also supported by the Pope who had switched sides. Caterina finally chose to support
King Ferdinand IIFerdinand I , also called Don Ferrante, was the King of Naples from 1458 to 1494. He was the natural son of Alfonso V of Aragon by Giraldona Carlino.-Biography:...
and prepared the defense of Imola and Forlì.
Betrayed by her Neopolitan allies, which the first attack of the French defeated, the Countess immediately allied with Charles VIII, leaving his army
via libera to reach the Kingdom of Naples. The King of France conquered Naples in thirteen days. This frightened the Italian principalities, worried about their independence, and they joined forces in an Anti- French League against Charles VIII, who was forced to quickly return to France after the defeat of
FornovoFornovo may refer to the following Italian comuni :*Fornovo di Taro, in the province of Parma.*Battle of Fornovo .*Combat of Fornovo, event of Spring 1945 offensive in Italy, end of Italian Campaign during the World War II....
.
On this occasion Caterina managed to remain neutral. Not participating in the expulsion of the French, she maintained the support of her uncle Ludovico in Milan and also that of the Pope.
Second marriage
Two months after the death of Girolamo a rumour was spread that Caterina was close to marrying Antonio Maria Ordelaffi, who had started to court her. This marriage would end the claims of family Ordelaffi on the city of Forlì. Antonio Maria, feeling confident, wrote to the Duke of Ferrara that the Countess had made promises to that marry him. When Caterina saw how things stood, she imprisoned all those who had helped to spread the false news. It was also addressed before the Senate in
VeniceVenice is a city in northern Italy, the capital of the region Veneto, a population of 271,367 . Together with Padua, the city is included in the Padua-Venice Metropolitan Area . The city historically was an independent nation...
that summoned Antonio Maria to
FriuliFriuli is an area of northeastern Italy with its own particular cultural and historical identity. It comprises the major part of the autonomous region Friuli-Venezia Giulia, i.e. the province of Udine, Pordenone, Gorizia, leaving Trieste out...
, where he remained confined for ten years.
In point of fact, Caterina fell in love with Giacomo Feo, brother of Tommasso Feo, the castellan who had remained faithful to her in the days following the assassination of her husband. Caterina married him secretly in 1488, in order to avoid losing the custody of her children and, therefore, the Regency of her states.
Giacomo was appointed castellan of the fortress of Ravaldino instead of his brother, and was awarded with an order of chivalry from Ludovico il Moro. In April 1489, Caterina gave birth Giacomo's son, Bernardino, later called
Carlo in honor of King Charles VIII, who had granted Giacomo the title of
Baron of France.
All the chronicles of the period reported that Caterina was very much in love with the young Giacomo. Soon, many people had begun to worry that there was the possibility that she would remove her son Ottaviano from the government and give all the important posts to her paramour. She had replaced the castellans of the fortresses of her states with her closest relatives: the fortress of Imola was given to Gian Piero Landriani, the husband of her mother, and the fortress of Forlimpopoli to Piero Landriani, her half-brother, while Tommaso Feo was married to Bianca Landriani, Caterina's half-sister. In the meanwhile, a Tossignano conspiracy was planned to the effect that in order to take possession of the fortress by those who were loyal to Ottaviano, they had to kill both Giacomo and Caterina. The Countess discovered the plot and imprisoned or executed those who were involved in the conspiracy.
Immediately after this conspiracy was foiled there followed another plot organised by Antonio Maria Ordelaffi, who had never resigned to the loss of Forlí, but this also failed.
The power of Giacomo meanwhile had increased and with his cruelty and insolence, he won the hatred of all the citizens, including the children of Caterina. On one occasion he slapped the eldest in full view of the public, but nobody had the courage to defend the boy. After this incident the situation in Forlì became very difficult and the adherents of Ottaviano decided to liberate the city from the domination of Giacomo Feo.
On the evening of 27 August 1495, returning from a hunt, Caterina, her daughter Bianca Riario and some of her ladies-in-waiting, were travelling in their carriage, followed on horseback by Ottaviano, his brother Cesare and Giacomo, as well as many
staffieri and soldiers. Giacomo was attacked and mortally wounded, as a result of a conspiracy in which Caterina's children were involved. The same day Gian Antonio Ghetti, the main conspirator behind the plot, went to Caterina satisfied with the outcome, convinced that she had secretly given the order to kill Giacomo. Caterina, however, was not aware of the plot, and her revenge was terrible. When her first husband was murdered, she avenged his death according to the criteria of justice of the time; now she reacted with vindictive fury. Caterina was not satisfied with mere executions, their deaths had to be among the most cruel and painful. She not only prosecuted the wives and mistresses of the conspirators, but she also sought out the children, even those in early infancy, and all were summarily tortured and executed.
The involvement of Caterina's emotions in her revenge prevented her from understanding the political reasons that had inspired the plot, whose vast proportions indicate that it was long and carefully planned. It had involved almost all the supporters of Riario, convinced that Caterina had given her tacit consent to the removal of the man who was considered the "usurper". They had wanted to uphold the power of the Riario family. Caterina, as a result of the massacre which followed the assassination of Giacomo Feo, lost forever the favour and good will of her people.
Third marriage
In 1496, the ambassador of the
Republic of FlorenceThe Republic of Florence , or the Florentine Republic, was a city-state that was centered on the city of Florence, located in modern Tuscany, Italy. The republic was founded in 1115, when the Florentine people rebelled against the Margraviate of Tuscany upon Margravine Matilda's death. The...
,
Giovanni de' Medici il PopolanoGiovanni de' Medici, later known as il Popolano was an Italian nobleman of the Medici House of Florence. He was the son of Pierfrancesco di Lorenzo de' Medici, and therefore a member of a secondary branch of the family....
. paid a visit to Caterina. The second son of
Pierfrancesco il VecchioPierfrancesco de' Medici the Elder was an Italian banker and diplomat, a member of the House of Medici of Florence....
, he belonged to a collateral branch of the Medici family. Along with his older brother
LorenzoLorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici , nicknamed the Popolano, was an Italian banker and politician, the brother of Giovanni de' Medici il Popolano....
, he had been sent into exile because of his open hostility toward their cousin
PieroPiero de' Medici , called Piero the Unfortunate, was the Gran maestro of Florence from 1492 until his exile in 1494.Life and death=...
, who succeeded his father Lorenzo il Magnifico in the government of Florence. In 1494, when King Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, Piero was forced to sign an unconditional treaty which allowed the French army to move freely into the Kingdom of Naples. The people of Florence were liberated, deposed Piero and proclaimed the Republic. Giovanni and his brother were able to return to their homeland. They renounced the surname of the family and took the name of
Popolano. The government appointed Giovanni as ambassador of the Florentine Republic to Forlì.
Shortly after having paid tribute to the Countess as befitted his status of ambassador, Giovanni and his entourage were housed, in the apartments adjacent to Caterina's in the fortress of Ravaldino. The rumours of a possible marriage between Giovanni and Caterina, as well as a conflict which loomed on the horizon between Venice and Florence alarmed all the lords of the League and the Duke of Milan.
Caterina couldn't keep hide from her uncle Ludovico these third wedding plans and her own feelings; she truly fell in love with the handsome, charming, and intelligent Giovanni. The situation was different from the previous one, because this time Caterina had the approval of her children and finally she also obtained the consent of her uncle. The marriage of two people from such powerful families, however, was likely to arouse opposition, so they were wed in secret. The marriage took place in September 1497.
In April 1498, Caterina bore Giovanni a son, the last of her children. The child was baptized as Ludovico after his mother's uncle, the Duke of Milan, but later he became renowned under the name
Giovanni dalle Bande NereGiovanni de' Medici, also known as Giovanni dalle Bande Nere was an Italian condottiero.-Biography:...
.
Meanwhile, the situation between Florence and
VeniceVenice is a city in northern Italy, the capital of the region Veneto, a population of 271,367 . Together with Padua, the city is included in the Padua-Venice Metropolitan Area . The city historically was an independent nation...
was getting worse and Caterina, who stood in the way of the passage of the two armies, was preparing the defense. She also sent a contingent of knights to the aid of Florence, leaded by her eldest son, who was accompanied by men she trusted, who were trained by herself, and her husband, Giovanni.
Suddenly Giovanni became seriously ill and was compelled to leave the battlefield and return to Forlì. There, despite treatment, his condition continued to deteriorate and he was transferred to
Santa Maria in BagnoBagno di Romagna is a comune in the Province of Forlì-Cesena in the Italian region Emilia-Romagna, located about 90 km southeast of Bologna and about 45 km south of Forlì....
, where he hoped for a miraculous recovery. On 14 September 1498 Giovanni died in the presence of Caterina, who had been summoned to attend him urgently. Giovanni's death left Caterina alone to face one of the most ruthless, ambitious, and implacable families in Europe, the
Borgiathumb|right|150px|Coat of Arms of the House of Borgia.The Borgias or Borjas were a Valencian-Italian noble family who became prominent during the Renaissance. They are remembered today for their corrupt rule when one of them was Pope...
s.
The defense against Venice
After having returned immediately to Forlì in order to make the preparations for the defense of her states, Caterina was kept occupied directing the military maneuvers, the supply of troops, arms and horses. The training of the militias was executed by the Countess in person, to find additional money and troops, she never tired of writing to her uncle Ludovico, the Republic of Florence and the neighbouring states who were her allies. Only the Dukes of Milan and Mantua sent a small contingent of soldiers.
After a first attack by the Venetien army, which inflicted severe destruction in the occupied territories, the army of Caterina managed to outmanoeuvre the Venetians. Afterwards, the war continued with small skirmishes until the Venetians were able to circumvent Forlì to reach Florence by another route.
From this point, many Romagna historians had bestowed on Caterina the nickname of "
Il Tigre" (The Tiger).
The conquest of the Duke of Valentinois
In the meantime,
Louis XIILouis XII , called "the Father of the People" was king of France and the sole monarch from the Valois-Orléans branch of the House of Valois. He reigned from 1498 to 1515 and pursued a very active foreign policy....
, had succeeded to the French throne, and who claimed the rights both to the Duchy of Milan -as a grandson of
Valentina ViscontiValentina Visconti was the wife of Louis de Valois, Duke of Orléans, a younger brother of Charles VI of France.She was born in Milan and was the daughter of Giangaleazzo Visconti, the first Duke of Milan, and his first wife, Isabelle of Valois .She married her first cousin, Louis de Valois, in...
-, and the Kingdom of Naples -as heir to the House of Anjou. Louis XII, before starting his campaign in Italy, secured an alliance with
SavoySavoy is a region of Europe on the western flank of the Alps that emerged following the collapse of the Frankish Kingdom of Burgundy. The historical land of Savoy is shared between the modern republics of France and Italy.-Background:...
, the Republic of Venice and Pope Alexander VI. In the summer of 1499 Louis XII came to Italy, with his formidable army, and without having to fight a single battle, occupied
PiedmontPiedmont is one of the 20 regions of Italy. It has an area of 25,399 km
2 and a population of about 4.4 million. The capital is Turin. The main local language is Piedmontese. Occitan is also spoken by a minority in the so-called Occitan Valleys...
, as well as the cities of
GenoaGenoa is a city and an important seaport in northern Italy, the capital of the Province of Genoa and of the region of Liguria. The city has a population of about 610,000 and the urban area has a population of about 900,000...
and
CremonaCremona is a city in northern Italy, situated in Lombardy, on the left bank of the Po River in the middle of the Pianura Padana...
. On 6 October he settled in Milan, which was abandoned the previous month by Duke Ludovico who was a refugee in the territories of
TyrolThe Princely County of Tyrol was an independent county within the Holy Roman Empire, and later a Kronland of Cisleithanian Austria. Today its territory is divided between the Italian region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and the Austrian state of Tyrol...
under the protection of his nephew-by-marriage
Maximilian I, Holy Roman EmperorMaximilian I of Habsburg was King of the Romans from 1493 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death, but had ruled jointly with his father for the last ten years of his father's reign, from circa 1483...
.
Alexander VI had allied with the King of France in return for his support to establishing a Kingdom for his son
Cesare BorgiaCesare Borgia , Duke of Valentinois was a Spanish-Italian condottiero, lord and cardinal. He was the son of Pope Alexander VI and his long-term mistress Vannozza dei Cattanei, sibling to Lucrezia Borgia, Gioffre Borgia , Prince of Squillace, and Giovanni Borgia, duke of Gandia, and half-brother to...
in Romagna. With this aim in mind, he issued a
Papal BullA Papal bull is a particular type of letters patent or charter issued by a pope. It is named after the bulla that was appended to the end to authenticate it....
on 9 March 1499 to invalidate the investiture of the feudal Lords of the lands, including Caterina. When the French army left Milan with the Duke of Valentinois to began the conquest of Romagna, Ludovico il Moro regained the Duchy with the help of the Austrians.
Caterina sought relief from Florence against the approaching French army, but Florence was threatened by the Pope. She immediately began to recruit and train many soldiers and began to store weapons, ammunition and food. She reinforced the defenses of her states with important works, especially that of Ravaldino where she resided and which was already considered impenetrable. She also evacuated her children to the city of Florence.
On 24 November Cesare Borgia arrived in Imola. The city gates were opened by some of the habitants, and he was able to take possession, after having conquered the fortress where the castellan Dionigi Naldi of
BrisighellaBrisighella is a comune in the Province of Ravenna in the Italian region Emilia-Romagna, located about 45 km southeast of Bologna and about 40 km southwest of Ravenna....
resisted for several days. After seeing what had happened with her minor city, Caterina specifically asked the people of Forlì if they wanted to do the same, or if they wanted to be defended and, in this case endure a
siegeA siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by attrition or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for "to sit"....
. Because the people hesitated to answer, Caterina absolved the citizens of Forlì from their oath of
fealtyAn oath of fealty, from the Latin fidelitas , is a pledge of allegiance of one person to another. Typically the oath is made upon a religious object such as a Bible or saint's relic, thus binding the oath-taker before God....
, and defended herself in the citadel.
On 19 December, the Duke of Valentinois also took possession of Forlì and began the siege of the fortress. Caterina repeatedly refused all the offers of peace, first from the Duke of Valentinois and another by Cardinal Raffaele Riario. In response, Cesare Borgia offered 10,000 ducats for her, live or dead. She also tried to take the Duke prisoner, when he came near to the fortress to parlay, but this attempt failed.
For several days the artillery of both factions continued to bombard each other: those of Caterina inflicted many losses to the French army, but this could served only to dismantle the defenses of the main fortress. What was destroyed during the day was later rebuilt during the night. The besieged also found time to play and dance.
The solitary resistance of Caterina was admired throughout all Italy;
Niccolò MachiavelliNiccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was an Italian philosopher, writer, and is considered one of the main founders of modern political science. He was a diplomat, political philosopher, musician, and playwright, but, foremost, he was a civil servant of the Florentine Republic...
reports that many songs and
epigramAn Epigram is a brief, clever, and usually memorable statement. Derived from the "to write on - inscribe", the literary device has been employed for over two millennia....
s were composed in her honour, but sadly all were lost except that of Marsilio Compagnon.
As the time passed, without obtaining any results, the Duke of Valentinois changed his tactics. His troops began to bombard the walls of the fortress continuously, even at night until after six days, opened two large gaps in the walls. On 12 January 1500, the bloody battle was decisive, quick and Caterina continued to resist fighting herself with weapons in her hands until she was finally captured and taken prisoner. Immediately she surrendered herself to Antoine Bissey,
bailliBailli was the rank and title of the head of each of the bailiwicks of the Knights Hospitaller and also of the head, at Rhodes and Malta, of one of the seven, later eight, Langues into which the members of the Knights Hospitaller were grouped once the Order was established on Rhodes and...
of
DijonDijon is a city in eastern France, the capital of the Côte-d'Or département and of the Bourgogne region. Dijon is the historical capital of the province of Burgundy. Population : 150,800 for the commune; 236,953 for the greater Dijon area....
, as a prisoner of the French, knowing that there was a law that prevented France to hold women as prisoners of war.
Rome
Cesare Borgia obtained the custody of Caterina from the French General-commander, Yves d'Allègre, promising that he would treat her not as a prisoner but only a guest. They were therefore forced to go with the army that was preparing to conquer
PesaroPesaro is a town and comune in the Italian region of the Marche, capital of the Pesaro e Urbino province, on the Adriatic. According to the 2007 census, its population was 92,206....
. The conquest had to be postponed because on 5 February Ludovico il Moro returned to Milan, forcing French troops to turn back. The Duke of Valentinois then left alone with the Papal army, went to Rome, where he took Caterina, where she was held in the Belvedere Palace.
Towards the end of March, Caterina tried to escape; but she was discovered and immediately imprisoned in Castel Sant'Angelo.
In the prison of Castel Sant'Angelo
To justify the imprisonment of Caterina, Pope Alexander VI accused her of trying to kill him with letters impregnated with poison in November 1499, as a response to the Papal bull which had deprived the Countess of her fiefdoms.
Even today it is not known if the accusation was founded or not. Machiavelli believed that Caterina had really tried to poison the Pope, while other historians, such as
Jacob BurckhardtCarl Jacob Christoph Burckhardt was a historian of art and culture, and an influential figure in the historiography of each field. He is known as one of the major progenitors of cultural history, albeit in a form very different from how cultural history is conceived and studied in academia today...
and
Ferdinand GregoroviusFerdinand Gregorovius was a German historian who specialized in the medieval history of Rome. He is best known for Wanderjahre in Italien, his account of the walks he took through Italy in the 1850s, and the monumental Die Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter , a classic for Medieval and early...
are not certain. A trial was also conducted which never ended and Caterina remained imprisoned until 30 June 1501, when she was released by Yves d'Allègre, who had come to Rome with the army of Louis XII for the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples.
Alexander VI alleged that Caterina signed documents were she had renounced all of her fiefs, because in the meantime his son Cesare, with the acquisition of Pesaro,
RiminiRimini is a city in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy and capital city of the Province of Rimini. It is located on the Adriatic Sea, near the coast between the rivers Marecchia and Ausa...
and
FaenzaFaenza is an Italian city and comune, in the province of Ravenna, Emilia-Romagna, situated 50 km southeast of Bologna.Faenza is noted for its manufacture of majolica ware glazed earthenware pottery, known from the name of the town as "faience"....
, was appointed Duke of Romagna.
After a brief stay in the residence of Cardinal Raffaele Riario, Caterina embarked in
LivornoLivorno or until recently in English Leghorn , is a port city on the Ligurian Sea on the western edge of Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Livorno and the third-largest port on the western coast of Italy, having a population of approximately 170,000 residents as of the year...
to Florence, where her children were waiting for her.
Florence
In Florence, Caterina lived in the villas which had belonged to her last husband Giovanni, often staying at the
Villa Medici di CastelloThe Villa di Castello is one of the Medici villas in Florence, Tuscany, central Italy.Niccolò Tribolo was one of the architects involved in its construction.- External links :...
. Soon, she complained of being mistreated and living in a straitened financial situation.
For many years she conducted a legal battle against her brother-in-law Lorenzo for the custody of her son Giovanni, who was entrusted to him during her detention. In 1504, her son was finally returned to her, because the Judge recognized that her confinement as a prisoner of war wasn't comparable with a criminal's detention.
With the death of Alexander VI on 18 August 1503, Cesare Borgia lost all his power. These reopened all the possibilities to restore to power all of the old feudal Lords in the Romagna who had been deposed. Caterina lost no time and began to send letters to adherents and plead her case in her own name and that of her son Ottaviano to
Pope Julius IIPope Julius II , nicknamed Il Papa Terribile , was born Giuliano della Rovere. He was Pope from 1503 to 1513. His reign was marked by an aggressive foreign policy, ambitious building projects, and patronage for the arts.-Early life:There is disagreement about Julius' date of birth...
. The new Pope was favourable to restoring the Lordships of Imola and Forlì to the Riarios, but the populace of both cities declared that a majority of the people opposed the return of the Countess, so that the state passed to Antonio Maria Ordelaffi on 22 October 1503.
After having lost her last chance to return to her former power, Caterina spent the last years of her life dedicated to her children, in particular to the youngest son Giovanni -who was her favorite and the most like her in personality and character- her grandchildren, her "experiments" in alchemy, and her correspondence with former friends of hers.
Death
In April 1509 Caterina was stricken by a severe case of
pneumoniaPneumonia is an inflammatory illness of the lung. Frequently, it is described as lung parenchyma/alveolar inflammation and abnormal alveolar filling with fluid ....
. She appeared to have recovered, but had a relapse of the disease, after which she made her will and arranged her burial. At the age of forty-six years, "
The Tiger of Forlì", who had "
frightened all of Romagna" died on 28 May 1509.
Historical legacy
In her book
The Warrior Queens: Boadicea's Chariot, British historian
Antonia FraserLady Antonia Fraser, CBE , née Pakenham, is an English author of history and novels, best known as Antonia Fraser for writing biographies and detective fiction...
presents Caterina Sforza as a contrasting figure to her contemporary Isabella of Castile. Fraser points out that whilst the murders ordered by Caterina were no worse than the massacres ordered by Isabella, historians have been much harsher in their judgment of the former. Fraser accounts for this fact by pointing out that Isabella's actions were spiritually sanctioned, carried out in the name of
CatholicismCatholicism is a broad term for the body of the Catholic faith, its theologies and doctrines, its liturgical, ethical, spiritual, and behavioral characteristics, as well as a religious people as a whole...
, whilst Caterina's were motivated by the personal, secular desire to preserve her property and rights.
Children
From her first marriage with Girolamo Riario, Caterina had six children:
- Bianca
Bianca Riario was an Italian noblewoman. She was the eldest child and only daughter of Caterina Sforza, Lady of Imola, Countess of Forlì, by her first husband, Girolamo Riario, a nephew of Pope Sixtus IV. She was married twice...
(b. Rome, March 1478 - d. after 1522), married firstly in 1494, Astorre III ManfrediAstorre III Manfredi was lord Faenza, in northern Italy, from 1488 to 1501.He was born in Faenza, the son of Galeotto Manfredi. He succeeded his father in the lordship of Faenza in 1488 at the age of three....
, Lord of FaenzaFaenza is an Italian city and comune, in the province of Ravenna, Emilia-Romagna, situated 50 km southeast of Bologna.Faenza is noted for its manufacture of majolica ware glazed earthenware pottery, known from the name of the town as "faience"....
(d. 1502), and secondly in 1503, Troilo Rossi (d. 1521), the first Marchese di San Secondo. From her second marriage, she had 9 children.
- Ottaviano (b. Rome, 31 August 1479 - d. Bologna, 6 October 1523), Lord of Imola and Forlì (1488-99), later Bishop of Volterra and Viterbo.
- Cesare (b. Rome, 24 August 1480 - d. Rome, 1518 or 1540?), Archbishop of Pisa and Patriarch of Alexandria.
- Giovanni Livio (b. Forlì, 30 October 1484 - d. 1496).
- Galeazzo (b. Forlì, 4 December 1485 - d. Bologna, 1557), married in 1504, Maria Giovanna della Rovere (b. Senigallia, 1486 - d. Bologna 1538), Dowager Lady of Camerino
Camerino is small town of 7,000 inhabitants in the Marches , in the province of Macerata, Italy. It is located in the Apennines bordering Umbria, between the valleys of the rivers Potenza and Chienti, about 40 miles from Ancona.-History:...
, and eldest sister of Francesco Maria I della RovereFrancesco Maria I della Rovere was an Italian condottiero, who was Duke of Urbino from 1508 until 1538.- Biography :...
, Duke of UrbinoUrbino is a walled city in the Marche region in Italy, south-west of Pesaro, a World Heritage Site notable for a remarkable historical legacy of independent Renaissance culture, especially under the patronage of Federico da Montefeltro, duke of Urbino from 1444 to 1482...
. They had a daughter, Giulia, and a son, Giulio (d. 1565). Their descendants, who later received a Ducal title, became extinct in the male line with Francesco Maria Riario della Rovere in 1676.
- Francesco, called "Sforzino" (b. Imola, 17 August 1487 - d. after 1509), Bishop of Lucca.
From her second marriage with Giacomo Feo, Caterina had one son:
- Bernardino (later Carlo) (b. April 1489 - d. 1509).
From her third marriage to Giovanni de' Medici, Caterina had one son:
- Ludovico (b. Forlì, 6 April 1498 - d. Mantua, 30 November 1526), renamed Giovanni after the death of his father, and later became one of the greatest condottieri of his time and a national hero as Giovanni dalle Bande Nere
Giovanni de' Medici, also known as Giovanni dalle Bande Nere was an Italian condottiero.-Biography:...
. He married Maria SalviatiMaria Salviati was an Italian noblewoman, the daughter of Lucrezia di Lorenzo de' Medici and Jacopo Salviati. She married Giovanni dalle Bande Nere and was the mother of Cosimo I de Medici. Her husband died November 30, 1526, leaving her a widow at the age of 27...
(17 July 1499- 29 December 1543), the daughter of Jacopo SalviatiJacopo Salviati was an Italian politician born in Florence on 15 September 1461.Son of Giovanni Salviati and Maddalena Gondi, he devoted himself in the economic affairs of the family, becoming very wealthy. He then engaged in political life...
and Lucrezia di Lorenzo de' Medici. Cosimo de Medici (1519- 1574) was their son.
In June 1537, twenty-eight years after Caterina's death, her grandson
Cosimo de' MediciCosimo I de' Medici was Duke of Florence from 1537 to 1574, reigning as the first Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1569.-Biography:...
, the only son of Giovanni, became in Duke of Florence and in 1569, in Grand Duke of
TuscanyTuscany is a region in North-Central Italy. It has an area of and a population of about 3.6 million inhabitants. The regional capital is Florence.Tuscany is known for its landscapes and its artistic legacy...
. Through him, Caterina was the direct ancestress of the later Grand Dukes of Tuscany, the Dukes of Modena and Reggio and the
Kings of Spain and FranceThe House of Bourbon is an important European royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. Bourbon kings first ruled Navarre and France in the 16th century. By the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples & Sicily, and Parma...
. Other notable descendants included Marie de Medici, King
Charles II of EnglandCharles II was the King of England, Scotland, and Ireland.Charles II's father King Charles I was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. The English Parliament did not proclaim Charles II king at this time. Instead they passed a statute making such a...
, and
Diana, Princess of WalesDiana, Princess of Wales, was the first wife of Charles, Prince of Wales. Their sons, Princes William and Harry, are second and third in line to the thrones of the United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth Realms.A public figure from the announcement of her engagement to Prince Charles, Diana...
.
Sources
- Machiavelli, The Discourses, English translation by Fr Leslie J. Walker, S.J. (1929). The countess is featured in Bk III, Ch 6 in relating examples of dangers that can arise subsequent to a successful conspiracy.