4-Methylmethcathinone
Encyclopedia
Mephedrone, also known as 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC), or 4-methylephedrone, is a synthetic stimulant
and entactogen
drug
of the amphetamine
and cathinone
classes. Slang names include meph, drone, and MCAT. It is reportedly manufactured in China and is chemically similar to the cathinone compounds found in the khat
plant of eastern Africa. It comes in the form of tablets or a powder, which users can swallow, snort or inject, producing similar effects to MDMA, amphetamine
s, and cocaine
.
As well as producing the intended stimulant effects, negative side effects
occur when mephedrone is used, with teeth grinding
the most common. The metabolism
of mephedrone has been studied in rats and humans, and the metabolites can be detected in urine after usage. Nothing is known about the potential neurotoxicity
of mephedrone, but scientists have suggested possible dangers associated with its use based on its similarity to other drugs. Several people have died after consuming mephedrone, but some deaths that the media attributed to the drug were later determined to have been caused by other factors.
Mephedrone was first synthesised in 1929 but did not become widely known until it was rediscovered in 2003. By 2007 mephedrone was reported to be available for sale on the internet, by 2008 law enforcement agencies had become aware of the compound and by 2010 it had been reported in most of Europe, becoming particularly prevalent in the United Kingdom. Mephedrone was first made illegal in Israel in 2008, followed by Sweden later that year. In 2010 it was made illegal in many European countries and in December 2010, the EU ruled it illegal. In Australia, New Zealand, and the USA it is considered an analog of other illegal drugs and can be controlled by laws similar to the Federal Analog Act
. In September 2011 the USA temporarily classified mephedrone as illegal, with effect from October 2011.
s or legal highs that have been reported in recent years, including artificial chemicals such as synthetic cannabis and semi-synthetic substances such as methylhexaneamine. These drugs are primarily developed to avoid being controlled by laws against illegal drugs, thus giving them the label of designer drugs. According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction
, the synthesis of mephedrone was first reported in 1929 by Saem de Burnaga Sanchez in the Bulletin de la Société Chimique de France
, under the name "toluyl-alpha-monomethylaminoethylcetone", but the compound remained an obscure product of academia until 2003, when it was "re-discovered" and publicised by an underground chemist
on The Hive
website, working under the pseudonym "Kinetic." Kinetic posted on the site, "I’ve been bored over the last couple of days and had a few fun reagents lying around, so I thought I’d try and make some 1-(4-methylphenyl)-2-methylaminopropanone hydrochloride, or 4-methylmethcathinone." before going on to describe that after taking it they had a "fantastic sense of well-being that I haven’t got from any drug before except my beloved Ecstasy."
A drug similar to mephedrone, containing cathinone
, was sold legally in Israel from around 2004, under the name hagigat. When this was made illegal, the cathinone was modified and the new products were sold by the Israeli company, Neorganics. The products had names such as Neodoves pills, but the range was discontinued in January 2008 after the Israeli government made mephedrone illegal. The Psychonaut Research Project, an EU organisation that searches the internet for information regarding new drugs, first identified mephedrone in 2008. Their research suggests that the drug first became available to purchase on the internet in 2007, when it was also discussed on internet forums. Mephedrone was first seized in France in May 2007 after police sent a tablet that they assumed to be ecstasy to be analysed, with the discovery published in a paper titled "Is 4-methylephedrone, an “Ecstasy” of the twenty first century?" Mephedrone was reported as having been sold as ecstasy in the Australian city of Cairns, along with ethylcathinone in 2008. An annual survey of regular ecstasy users in Australia in 2010 found that 21% of those surveyed had used mephedrone, with 17% having done so in the previous six months. The price they paid per gram varied from A$
16 to $320.
Europol
noted that they became aware of it in 2008, after it was found in Denmark, Finland and the UK. The Drug Enforcement Agency noted it was present in the United States in July 2009. By May 2010, mephedrone had been detected in every one of the 22 EU member states that reported to Europol, as well as in Croatia and Norway. The Daily Telegraph reported in April 2009 that it was manufactured in China
, but it has since been made illegal there. In March 2009, Druglink magazine reported that it only cost a "couple hundred pounds" to synthesise a kilogram of mephedrone, the same month, The Daily Telegraph reported that manufacturers were making "huge amounts of money" from selling it. In January 2010 Druglink magazine reported that dealers in Britain spent £2,500 to ship one kilogram from China but could sell it for £10 a gram making a profit of £7,500. A later report, in March 2010, stated that the wholesale price of mephedrone was £4000 per kilogram.
s, head shop
s and on the internet. A survey of Mixmag
readers in 2009, found that it was the fourth most popular street drug in the United Kingdom
, behind cannabis
, cocaine
, and ecstasy. The drug is used by a diverse range of social groups. Whilst the evidence is anecdotal, researchers, charity workers, teachers and users have reported widespread and increasing use of the drug. The drug's rapid growth in popularity was believed to be related to both its availability and legality. Fiona Measham, a criminologist at The University of Lancaster, believes that the emergence of mephedrone was also related to the decreasing purity of ecstasy and cocaine on sale in the UK, a view reinforced in a report by the National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse
. The average cocaine
purity fell from 60% in 1999 to 22% in 2009 and about half of ecstasy pills seized in 2009 contained no MDMA, and by June 2010, almost all pills seized in the UK, contained no MDMA.
A similar pattern was observed in the Netherlands, with the number of ecstasy tablets containing no MDMA rising from 10% in mid 2008 to 60% by mid 2009 and mephedrone being detected in 20% of ecstasy tablets by mid 2009. The decrease of MDMA was thought in part, to be due to the seizure of 33 tonnes of sassafras oil, the precursor to MDMA, in Cambodia
in June 2008, which could have been used to make 245 million doses of MDMA. According to John Ramsey, a toxicologist at St George's, University of London
, the emergence of mephedrone was also related to the UK government banning the benzylpiperazine
class of drugs in December 2009. gamma-Butyrolactone
(GBL), another previously "legal high" was also banned in August 2009, despite concerns that it would be replaced by other drugs. By December 2009, mephedrone was available on at least 31 websites based in the UK and by March 2010 there were at least 78 online shops; half of which sold amounts of less than 200 grams and half that also sold bulk quantities. The price per gram varied from £9.50 to £14. Between July 2009 and February 2010, UK health professionals accessed the National Poisons Information Services (NPIS) entry on mephedrone 1664 times and made 157 telephone inquiries; the requests increased month on month over this period. In comparison over a similar time period, the entries for cocaine and MDMA were accessed approximately 2400 times. After mephedrone was made illegal, the number of inquiries to the NPIS fell substantially, to only 19 in June 2010.
Media organisations including the BBC
and The Guardian
, as well as a news section in the Annals of Botany
(later corrected), incorrectly reported that mephedrone was commonly used as a plant fertiliser. In fact sellers of the drug described it as "plant food" because it was illegal to sell the compound for human consumption. In late 2009, UK newspapers began referring to the drug as meow or miaow (sometimes doubled as meow meow or miaow miaow), a name that was almost unknown on the street at the time. In November 2009, the tabloid newspaper, The Sun published a story stating that a man had ripped off his own scrotum
whilst using mephedrone, but this story was later shown to be an online hoax
. Other myths that the media often repeated during 2010 were that mephedrone had led to the deaths of over 20 people, that teachers were unable to confiscate the drug off pupils and that the government was too slow to ban the drug. Parallels were drawn between the media coverage of mephedrone and a piece of satire by Chris Morris
in 1997 on Brass Eye
, when he tricked public figures into talking of the dangers of taking the fictional legal drug "cake". The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs
(ACMD) have suggested that the media coverage of the drug led to increased usage of it. Jon Silverman, a former BBC Home Affairs Correspondent, has written two articles discussing how the media had a strong influence over the governments drugs policy, particularly in that the government wished to demonstrate that they were being “tough” on drugs.
A survey of 1000 secondary school pupils and university students in Tayside
, conducted in February 2010, found that 20% of them had previously taken mephedrone. Although at the time it was available legally over the internet, only 10% of users reported purchasing it online, with most purchasing it from street dealers. Of those who had used mephedrone, 97% said that it was easy or very easy to obtain. Around 50% of users reported at least one negative effect associated with the use of mephedrone, of which teeth grinding
is the most common. Detailed interviews with users in Northern Ireland similarly, found that few purchased mephedrone online, with most interviewees citing concerns that their address would be traced or that family members could intercept the package.
On 30 March 2010, Alan Johnson
, the then Home Secretary
, announced that mephedrone would be made illegal "within weeks" after the ACMD sent him a report on the use of cathinones. The legislation would make all cathinones illegal which Johnson said would "stop unscrupulous manufacturers and others peddling different but similarly harmful drugs". The ACMD had run into problems with the UK Government in 2009 regarding drugs policy, after the government did not follow the advice of the ACMD to reclassify ecstasy
and cannabis, culminating in the dismissal of the ACMD chairman, David Nutt
after he reiterated the ACMD's findings in an academic lecture. Several members resigned after he was sacked and prior to the announcement that mephedrone was to be banned the trend continued when Dr Polly Taylor resigned, saying she "did not have trust" in the way the government would use the advice given by the ACMD. Eric Carlin, a member of the ACMD and former chairman of the English Drug Education Forum, also resigned after the announcement. He said that the decision by the Home Secretary was "unduly based on media and political pressure" and there was "little or no discussion about how our recommendation to classify this drug would be likely to impact on young people's behaviour." Some ex-members of the ACMD, and various charity groups expressed concern over the banning of the drug, arguing it would inevitably criminalise users, particularly young people. Others expressed concern that the drug would be left in the hands of black market dealers, who will only compound the problem. Carlin's resignation was specifically linked to the criminalisation of mephedrone, he stated: "We need to review our entire approach to drugs, dumping the idea that legally-sanctioned punishments for drug users should constitute a main part of the armoury in helping to solve our country’s drug problems. We need to stop harming people who need help and support".
The parliamentary debate was held on 8 April, one day after the 2010 general election had been announced, meaning it was during the so-called "wash-up period
" when legislation is passed with little scrutiny. Only one hour was spent debating the ban and all three parties agreed, meaning that no vote was required. In an interview conducted in July 2010, when he was no longer a minister, Johnson admitted that the decision to ban mephedrone was sped up after widespread reporting of deaths caused by the drug and that because the government wished to pass the law, before parliament was dissolved prior to the upcoming general election. In January 2011 however, Johnson told the Scunthorpe Telegraph that the decision was based only on information from the ACMD. An editorial in the April 2010 edition of The Lancet
questioned the decision to ban mephedrone, saying that the ACMD did not have enough evidence to judge the potential harms caused by mephedrone and arguing that policy makers should have sought to understand why young people took it and how they could be influenced to not take it. Evan Harris
, then the Liberal Democrat
science spokesman, stated that the ACMD "was not 'legally constituted'" as required by the Misuse of Drugs Act
, when the report on cathinones was published, since after Taylor resigned it lacked a veterinary surgeon. In the rush to make mephedrone illegal, the act that was passed specified the inactive enantiomer of mephedrone, leaving the active form legal until the loophole was closed in February 2011 by another act of parliament. In Chemistry World
, John Mann professor of chemistry at Queen's University Belfast, suggested that the UK create a law similar to the Federal Analog Act
of the United States, which would have made mephedrone illegal as an analog of cathinone. In August 2010, James Brokenshire
, the Home Office drugs minister, announced plans to create a new category in the Misuse of Drugs Act, through the Police Reform and Social Responsibility Bill, that would allow new legal highs to be made temporarily illegal, without the need for a vote in parliament or advice from the ACMD, as was required to categorise mephedrone.
According to the Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs
, since mephedrone was made illegal a street trade in the drug has emerged, with prices around double those prior to the ban, at £20-£25 per gram. In September 2010, Druglink reported that the ban had had a mixed effect on mephedrone use, with it decreasing in some areas, remaining similar in others and becoming more prevalent in some areas. An online survey of 150 users after the ban, 63% said that they were continuing to use mephedrone, half of those used the same amount and half said they used less. Compared to previous surveys, more users purchased it off dealers, rather than the internet. The average price per gram was £16, compared to around £10 before the ban. The 2010 Mixmag survey of 2500 nightclubbers found that one quarter had used mephedrone in the previous month, that the price had roughly doubled since it was made illegal and that it was more likely to be cut
with other substances. Of those who had already used mephedrone prior to the ban, 75% had continued to use it after the ban. Of the various drugs used by the survey participants, it was the most likely for users to have concerns about.
Interviews with users in Northern Ireland also found that the price had roughly doubled since it was made illegal, to around £30 a gram. Rather than the price rising due to increased scarcity of the drug, it is thought to have risen for two other reasons. Firstly dealers know that there is still demand for mephedrone, but are aware that supplies of mephedrone may be exhausted in the future. Secondly, the dealers perceive that customers are likely to be willing to pay more, for an illegal substance. Professor Shiela Bird, a statistician at the Medical Research Council
, has suggested that the ban of mephedrone may lead to more cocaine related deaths. In the first six months of 2009, the number of cocaine related deaths fell for the first time in four years, and fewer soldiers tested positive for cocaine in 2009 than in 2008. She suggested that this may have been due to users switching to mephedrone from cocaine, but cautioned that before full figures are available for 2009 and 2010, it will be difficult to determine whether mephedrone saved lives, rather than cost them. Other supposedly legal drugs have filled the gap in the market since mephedrone was made illegal, including naphyrone (NRG-1) (since made illegal) and Ivory Wave
, which has been found to contain MDPV
, a compound made illegal at the same time as mephedrone. However it is possible that some products branded as Ivory Wave do not contain MDPV. When tested, some products sold six weeks after mephedrone was banned, advertised as NRG-1, NRG-2 and MDAI were found to be mephedrone.
were to conduct research into the effects of mephedrone on up to 50 students already using the drug, when it was still legal in the UK. At the time the study was proposed, Les Iversen, the chair of the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs
called the experiments "pretty unethical". The study was discontinued in August 2010, following the change in the legal status of the drug.
, stimulation
, an enhanced appreciation for music
, an elevated mood
, decreased hostility
, improved mental function
and mild sexual stimulation
; these effects are similar to the effects of cocaine, amphetamines and MDMA. These effects last different amounts of time, depending on the way the drug is taken. When taken orally, users report they can feel the effects within 15–45 minutes, when snorted the effects are felt within minutes and peak within half an hour. The effects last for between two and three hours when taken orally or nasally, but only half an hour if taken intravenously. Out of 70 Dutch users of mephedrone, 58 described it as an overall pleasant experience and 12 described it as an unpleasant experience. A survey of UK users, who had previously taken cocaine, found that most users found it produced a better quality and longer lasting high, was less addictive and carried the same risk as using cocaine.
including: poor concentration
, teeth grinding
, problems focusing visually, poor short-term memory
, hallucinations, delusions, erratic behaviour and dilated pupils
. They noted that the most severe effects appear anecdotally to be linked with high doses or prolonged usage and that the effects may be due to users taking other intoxicants at the same time. Other effects that users in internet forums have noted include changes in body temperature, increased heart rate
, breathing difficulties, loss of appetite, increased sweating
, discolouration of extremeties, anxiety
, paranoia
and depression
. When snorted it can also cause nose bleeds, and nose burns. A survey conducted by the National Addiction Centre, UK found that 67% of mephedrone users experienced sweating, 51% suffered from headaches, 43% from heart palpitations, 27% from nausea and 15% from cold or blue fingers, indicative of vasoconstriction
occurring. Doctors at Guy's Hospital
, London reported that of 15 patients they treated after taking mephedrone in 2009, 53% were agitated, 40% had increased heart rates, 20% had systolic hypertension and 20% had seizures; three required treatment with benzodiazepines, predominantly to control their agitation. They reported that none of their patients suffered from cold or blue peripheries, contrary to other reports. Nine out of the 15 of patients had a Glasgow Coma Scale
(GCS) of 15 indicating that they were in a normal mental state, 4 had a GCS below 8, but these patients all reported using a central nervous system
depressant, most commonly GHB
, with mephedrone. The patients also reported polydrug use of a variety of compounds.
reported that one person who used the drug for 18 months became dependent
on the drug, in the end using it twice a week, had to be admitted to a psychiatric unit after he started experiencing hallucinations, agitation, excitability and mania. Because of its similarity to cathinone
, John Mann has posited that mephedrone may cause impotence with long-term use.
, butylone, fluoromethcathinone
and methedrone. The Guardian
reported that some users compulsively redose, consuming their whole supply when they are only meant to use a small dose and there have been other similar reports of users craving mephedrone, suggesting that it may be addictive. A survey conducted in late 2009 by the National Addiction Centre (UK) found 41.3% of readers of Mixmag
had used mephedrone in the last month, making it the fourth most popular drug amongst clubbers. Of those, two thirds snorted the drug and the average dosage per session was 0.9 g; the length of sessions increased as the dosage increased. Users who snorted the drug reported using more per session than those who took it orally (0.97 g compared to 0.74 g) and also reported using it more often (5 days per month compared to 3 days per month). An Irish study of people on a methadone
treatment program for heroin addicts found that 29 out of 209 patients tested positive for mephedrone usage. A study of users in Northern Ireland, found that they did not equate the fact that mephedrone was legal with it being safe to use. This was contrary to another study in New Zealand where users of benzylpiperazine thought that because it was legal it was safe.
, psychiatrists stated that given its chemical structure, "mephedrone is likely to stimulate the release of, and then inhibit the reuptake of monoamine neurotransmitters". The cathinone derivatives methcathinone and methylone, act in a similar way to amphetamine
s mainly acting on catecholamine
transporters so it is expected that mephedrone also acts in this way. The actions of amphetamines and cathinones are determined by the differences in how they bind to noradrenalin, dopamine
and serotonin
transporters. Molecular modelling of mephedrone suggests it is more hydrophilic than methyl-amphetamines which may account for the higher doses required to achieve a similar effect, because mephedrone is less able to cross the blood-brain barrier
. Mephedrone has a chiral centre and therefore exists in two forms, called enantiomer
s, it is thought that the S form is more potent than the R form, based on the fact that this applies to cathinone. Professor David Nutt
, former chair of the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs
(ACMD) in the UK has said "people are better off taking ecstasy or amphetamines than those [drugs] we know nothing about" and "Who knows what's in [mephedrone] when you buy it? We don't have a testing system. It could be very dangerous, we just don't know. These chemicals have never been put into animals, let alone humans." Les King, a former member of the ACMD, has stated that mephedrone appears to be less potent than amphetamine and ecstasy but that any benefit associated with this could be negated by users taking larger amounts. He also told the BBC "all we can say is [mephedrone] is probably as harmful as ecstasy and amphetamines and wait until we have some better scientific evidence to support that."
An article published in a 2011 edition of British Journal of Pharmacology examined the effects of mephedrone, MDMA, and amphetamine
in the nucleus accumbens
of rats. Dopamine
and serotonin
were collected using microdialysis, and increases in dopamine and serotonin were measured using HPLC. Reward and drug seeking are linked to increases in dopamine concentrations in the nucleus accumbens, and drug half-life plays a role in drug seeking as well. Based on histological examination, most of the author's probes were in the nucleus accumbens shell. Mephedrone administration caused a ~500% increase in dopamine, and a ~950% increase in serotonin. They reached their peak concentrations at 40 minutes and 20 minutes, respectively, and returned to baseline by 120 minutes post injection. In comparison, MDMA caused a ~900% increase in serotonin at 40 minutes, with a non-significant increase in dopamine. Amphetamine administration resulted in a ~400% increase in dopamine peaking at 40 minutes, with a non-significant increase in serotonin. Analysis of the ratio of the AUC for dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT) indicated that mephedrone was preferentially a serotonin releaser, with a ratio of 1.22:1 (serotonin vs. dopamine). Additionally, half-lives for the decrease in DA and 5-HT were calculated for each drug. Mephedrone had decay rates of 24.5 minutes and 25.5 minutes, respectively. MDMA had decay values of 302.5 minutes and 47.9 minutes, respectively, while amphetamine values were 51 minutes and 84.1 minutes, respectively. Taken together, these findings show that mephedrone induces a massive increase in both DA and 5-HT, combined with rapid clearance. The rapid rise and subsequent fall of DA levels could explain some of the addictive properties that mephedrone displays in some users.
, mephedrone is thought to be metabolised
by three phase I pathways. It can be demethylated
to the primary amine
(producing compounds 2, 3 and 5) the ketone
group can be reduced
(producing 3) or the tolyl group can be oxidised (producing 6). It is thought that 5 and 6 are further metabolised by conjugation to the glucuronide
and sulfate
derivatives. Knowledge of the primary routes of metabolism should allow the intake of mephedrone to be confirmed by drug test
s, as well as more accurate determination of the cause of side effects and potential for toxicity.
of mephedrone nor is the median lethal dose known. In 2009, one case of sympathomimetic toxicity was reported in the UK after a person took 0.2 g of mephedrone orally and then after this did not achieve the desired effect subcutaneously injected
3.8 g mixed with water into his thighs. Shortly afterwards they "developed palpitations,
'blurred tunnel vision,' chest pressure and sweating". The patient was treated with 1 mg of lorazepam
and the sympathomimetic features decreased and they were discharged within 6 hours of arrival. The Swedish medical journal Läkartidningen
reported that mephedrone could theoretically cause the cardiovascular problems associated with the use of cocaine and amphetamines and serotonin syndrome
associated with the use of ecstasy and LSD. One case of serotonin syndrome has been reported, where the patient was already prescribed fluoxetine
and olanzapine
and then took 40 tablets containing mephedrone in one night. He was treated with lorazepam and discharged 15 hours after admission. Both enantiomer
s of methcathinone
, which differs only in the lack of the methyl group on the aryl
ring when compared to mephedrone, have been shown to be toxic to rat dopamine
neurons, and the S-enantiomer was also toxic against serotonin
neurons. Simon Gibbons and Mire Zloh of The School of Pharmacy, University of London
stated that based on the chemical similarities between methcathinone and mephedrone, "it is highly likely that mephedrone will display neurotoxicity". However, Brunt and colleagues stated that "extreme caution" should be used when inferring the toxicity of mephedrone from methcathinone, noting that some of the toxicity associated with methcathinone is due to manganese impurities related to its synthesis, rather than the compound itself. They concluded that experimental research is needed to investigate the toxicity of mephedrone. Doctors who treated a 15 year old female suffering from mephedrone intoxication suggested in The Lancet that like MDMA, mephedrone may promote serotonin-mediated release of antidiuretic hormone resulting in hyponatraemia and an altered mental state. In another case, a 19 year old male was admitted to hospital suffering from inflammation of the heart
, 20 hours after taking one gram of mephedrone. The doctors treating the patient stated it was caused by either a direct toxic effect of mephedrone on the heart muscle, or by an immune response. One case of acquired methaemoglobinaemia, where a patient had "bluish lips and fingers", has also been reported, after they snorted one gram of mephedrone. The patient started to recover after arriving at the hospital and it was not necessary to administer any medication.
In 2008, an 18-year-old Swedish woman died in Stockholm
after taking mephedrone. The tabloid newspaper Svenska Dagbladet
reported that the woman went into convulsions and turned blue in the face. Doctors reported that she was comatose and suffering from hyponatremia
and severe hypokalemia; the woman died one and a half days after the onset of symptoms. An autopsy showed severe brain swelling. Mephedrone was scheduled to be classified as a "dangerous substance" in Sweden even before the girl's death at Karolinska University Hospital
on Sunday, 14 December, but the death brought more media attention to the drug. The possession of mephedrone became classified as a criminal offence in Sweden on 15 December 2008.
In 2010, there were unconfirmed reports speculating about the role mephedrone has played in the deaths of several young people in the UK. By July 2010, mephedrone had been alleged to be involved in 52 fatalities in the UK, but detected in only 38 of these cases. Of the nine that coroners had finished investigating, two were caused directly by mephedrone. The first death reported to be caused by mephedrone use was that of 46 year old, Stirling Smith, who had underlying health problems and repeatedly injected the drug. A report in Forensic Science International in August 2010 stated that mephedrone intoxication has been recorded as the cause of death in two cases in Scotland. Post mortem samples showed the concentration of mephedrone in their blood was 22 mg/L in one case and 3.3 mg/L in the other. The death of a teenager in the UK in November 2009 was widely reported as being caused by mephedrone, but a report by the coroner concluded that she died from natural causes. In March 2010 the deaths of two teenagers in Scunthorpe
were widely reported by the media to be caused by mephedrone. Toxicology reports showed that the teenagers had in fact not taken any mephedrone and that they in fact died as a result of consuming alcohol and the heroin substitute methadone
. According to Fiona Measham, a criminologist who is a member of the ACMD, the reporting of the unconfirmed deaths by newspapers followed "the usual cycle of ‘exaggeration, distortion, inaccuracy and sensationalism'" associated with the reporting of recreational drug use.
Mephedrone has been implicated in the death of a 22 year old male, who had also injected black tar heroin
. Mephedrone was found in his blood at a concentration of 0.50 mg/L and in his urine at a concentration of 198 mg/L. The blood concentration of morphine, a metabolite of heroin, was 0.06 mg/L. For comparison, the average blood morphine concentration resulting from deadly overdoses involving only heroin is around 0.34 mg/L.
y smell to the smell of vanilla
and bleach
, stale urine
, electric circuit boards.
, creating an oil fraction of 4'-methyl-2-bromopropiophenone. The oil fraction can then be dissolved in dichloromethane
(CH2Cl2) and drops of the solution added to another solution of CH2Cl2 containing methylamine hydrochloride and triethylamine
. Hydrochloric acid
(HCl) is then added and the aqueous layer is removed and turned alkaline using sodium hydroxide before the amine is extracted using CH2Cl2. The CH2Cl2 is then evaporated using a vacuum, creating an oil which is then dissolved in a non-aqueous ether
. HCl gas is then bubbled through the mixture to produce 4-methylmethcathinone hydrochloride. This method produces a mixture of both enantiomer
s and requires similar knowledge to that required to synthesise amphetamines and MDMA.
It can also be produced by oxidising the ephedrine analogue (4-methylephedrine) using potassium permanganate
dissolved in sulfuric acid
. Because 4-methylephedrine can be
obtained in a specific enantiomeric form it is possible to produce mephedrone consisting of only one enantiomer. There is a danger associated with this method as it may cause manganese poisoning if the product is not correctly purified.
A stereospecific form of (S)-mephedrone could be prepared via Friedel–Crafts acylation. The first step in the synthesis would react toluene
and (S)-N-trifluoroacetylalanoyl chloride in the presence of aluminium chloride
, then deprotect the intermediate with hydrochloric acid-propyl alcohol . This would produce (S)-4-methylcathinone, which could then be methylated to produce mephedrone.
and caffeine
.
, where it had been found in products such as Neodoves pills, in January 2008. After the death of a young woman in Sweden
in December 2008 was linked to the use of mephedrone, it was classified as a hazardous substance a few days later, making it illegal to sell in Sweden. In June 2009, it was classified as a narcotic with the possession of 15 grams or more resulting in a minimum of two years in prison - a longer sentence, gram for gram than given for the possession of cocaine or heroin. In December 2008, Denmark
also made it illegal and through the Medicines Act of Finland
it was made illegal to possess without a prescription. In November 2009, it was classified as a "narcotic or psychotropic" substance and added to the list of controlled substances in Estonia
and made illegal to import into Guernsey
along with other legal highs, before being classified as a Class B drug in April 2010. It was classified as a Class C drug in Jersey in December 2009.
In 2010, as its use became more prevalent, many countries passed legislation prohibiting mephedrone. It became illegal in Croatia and Germany in January, followed by Romania and the Isle of Man
in February. In March 2010, it was classified as an unregulated medicine in the Netherlands
, making the sale and distribution of it illegal. The importation of mephedrone into the UK was banned on 29 March 2010. The next day, the ACMD in the UK published a report on the cathinones, including mephedrone, and recommended that they be classifed as Class B drugs. On 7 April 2010 the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (Amendment) Order 2010 was passed by parliament, making mephedrone and other substituted cathinone
s, Class B drugs from 16 April 2010. Prior to the ban taking effect, mephedrone was not covered by the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971
. It was however an offence under the Medicines Act
to sell it for human consumption, so it was often sold as "plant food" or "bath salts
" although, as it has no use as these products, this too was possibly illegal under the Trade Descriptions Act 1968
. In the USA similar descriptions have been used to describe mephedrone as well as methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). In May 2010 the Republic of Ireland
made mephedrone illegal, followed by Belgium
, Italy
, Lithuania
, France
and Norway
in June and Russia
in July. In August 2010, Austria
and Poland
made it illegal and China
announced that it would be illegal as of 1 September 2010. Mephedrone had been reported to be used in Singapore in February 2010, but it was made illegal in November 2010. In December 2010, following the advice of the EMCDDA, mephedrone was made illegal throughout the EU, a move that Switzerland
also made shortly afterwards. In countries, which have not already banned it, such as the Netherlands, Greece and Portugal, they will need to change legislation to comply with the EU ruling. In Hungary
, a government advisory body recommended that mephedrone should be made illegal in August 2010, which was followed, making it illegal in January 2011.
In some countries, mephedrone is not specifically listed as illegal but is controlled under legislation that makes compounds illegal if they are analogs of drugs already listed. In Australia
during 2010 it was not specifically listed as prohibited, but the Australian Federal Police state that it is an analogue to methcathinone
and therefore illegal. In February 2010, 22 men were arrested in conjunction with importing mephedrone. By January 2011, every state in Australia, other than Victoria
had listed it as a controlled drug. In New Zealand
it is not included in the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, but is illegal as it is similar to controlled substances. In Canada
, mephedrone is not explicitly listed in any Schedule of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act
, "amphetamines, their salts, derivatives, isomers and analogues and salts of derivatives, isomers and analogues" are included in Section I of Schedule III of the act. Cathinone
and methcathinone
are listed in separate sections of Schedule III while diethylpropion and pyrovalerone
(also cathinones), are listed in separate sections of Schedule IV, each without language to capture analogues, isomers, etc. According to The Globe and Mail
, mephedrone is considered a controlled substance by Health Canada
. According to the Canadian Medical Association
, mephedrone is grouped with other amphetamines as Schedule III controlled substances. There have been several media reports of the Canadian police seizing mephedrone. Mephedrone is also currently unscheduled in the United States
. The Drug Enforcement Administration
state that as an analogue of methcathinone
, possession of mephedrone can be controlled by the Federal Analog Act
, but according to the Los Angeles Times this only applies if it is sold for human consumption. Several cities and states, such as New York, have passed legislation to specifically list mephedrone as illegal, but in most areas it is legal, so long as it is not sold for human consumption and therefore retailers describe it as 'bath salts'.
Mephedrone is also illegal in Spain since the February 9 of 2011.
As of September 7, 2011, The United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is using its emergency scheduling authority to temporarily control mephedrone. This action was claimed to be necessary to protect the public from the supposed hazard posed by the drug. Except as authorized by law, this action will make possessing and selling Mephedrone or the products that contain it illegal in the U.S. for at least one year while the DEA and the United States Department of Health and Human Services conduct further study.
Stimulant
Stimulants are psychoactive drugs which induce temporary improvements in either mental or physical function or both. Examples of these kinds of effects may include enhanced alertness, wakefulness, and locomotion, among others...
and entactogen
Empathogen-entactogen
The terms empathogen and entactogen are used to describe a class of psychoactive drugs that produce distinctive emotional and social effects similar to those of MDMA. Putative members of this class include 2C-B, 2C-I, MDMA, MDA, MDEA, MBDB, 2C-T-7, and 2C-T-2, among others...
drug
Drug
A drug, broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism, alters normal bodily function. There is no single, precise definition, as there are different meanings in drug control law, government regulations, medicine, and colloquial usage.In pharmacology, a...
of the amphetamine
Substituted amphetamine
Substituted amphetamines are a chemical class of stimulants, entactogens, hallucinogens, and other drugs. They feature a phenethylamine core with a methyl group attached to the alpha carbon resulting in amphetamine, along with additional substitutions...
and cathinone
Substituted cathinone
Substituted cathinones, which include some stimulants and entactogens, are derivatives of cathinone. They feature a phenethylamine core with an alkyl group attached to the alpha carbon, and a ketone group attached to the beta carbon, along with additional substitutions...
classes. Slang names include meph, drone, and MCAT. It is reportedly manufactured in China and is chemically similar to the cathinone compounds found in the khat
Khat
Khat, qat, gat or Waquish Spoken from true Yemeni, is a flowering plant native to tropical East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula....
plant of eastern Africa. It comes in the form of tablets or a powder, which users can swallow, snort or inject, producing similar effects to MDMA, amphetamine
Amphetamine
Amphetamine or amfetamine is a psychostimulant drug of the phenethylamine class which produces increased wakefulness and focus in association with decreased fatigue and appetite.Brand names of medications that contain, or metabolize into, amphetamine include Adderall, Dexedrine, Dextrostat,...
s, and cocaine
Cocaine
Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. The name comes from "coca" in addition to the alkaloid suffix -ine, forming cocaine. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system, an appetite suppressant, and a topical anesthetic...
.
As well as producing the intended stimulant effects, negative side effects
Side Effects
Side Effects is an anthology of 17 comical short stories written by Woody Allen between 1975 and 1980, all but one of which were previously published in, variously, The New Republic, The New York Times, The New Yorker, and The Kenyon Review. It includes Allen's 1978 O...
occur when mephedrone is used, with teeth grinding
Bruxism
Bruxism is characterized by the grinding of the teeth and typically includes the clenching of the jaw. It is an oral parafunctional activity that occurs in most humans at some time in their lives. In most people, bruxism is mild enough not to be a health problem...
the most common. The metabolism
Drug metabolism
Drug metabolism is the biochemical modification of pharmaceutical substances by living organisms, usually through specialized enzymatic systems. This is a form of xenobiotic metabolism. Drug metabolism often converts lipophilic chemical compounds into more readily excreted polar products...
of mephedrone has been studied in rats and humans, and the metabolites can be detected in urine after usage. Nothing is known about the potential neurotoxicity
Neurotoxicity
Neurotoxicity occurs when the exposure to natural or artificial toxic substances, which are called neurotoxins, alters the normal activity of the nervous system in such a way as to cause damage to nervous tissue. This can eventually disrupt or even kill neurons, key cells that transmit and process...
of mephedrone, but scientists have suggested possible dangers associated with its use based on its similarity to other drugs. Several people have died after consuming mephedrone, but some deaths that the media attributed to the drug were later determined to have been caused by other factors.
Mephedrone was first synthesised in 1929 but did not become widely known until it was rediscovered in 2003. By 2007 mephedrone was reported to be available for sale on the internet, by 2008 law enforcement agencies had become aware of the compound and by 2010 it had been reported in most of Europe, becoming particularly prevalent in the United Kingdom. Mephedrone was first made illegal in Israel in 2008, followed by Sweden later that year. In 2010 it was made illegal in many European countries and in December 2010, the EU ruled it illegal. In Australia, New Zealand, and the USA it is considered an analog of other illegal drugs and can be controlled by laws similar to the Federal Analog Act
Federal Analog Act
The Federal Analog Act, , is a controversial section of the United States Controlled Substances Act which allowed any chemical "substantially similar" to a controlled substance listed in Schedule I or II to be treated as if it were also listed in those schedules, but only if intended for human...
. In September 2011 the USA temporarily classified mephedrone as illegal, with effect from October 2011.
History
Mephedrone is one of hundreds of designer drugDesigner drug
Designer drug is a term used to describe drugs that are created to get around existing drug laws, usually by preparing analogs or derivatives of existing drugs by modifying their chemical structure to varying degrees, or less commonly by finding drugs with entirely different chemical structures...
s or legal highs that have been reported in recent years, including artificial chemicals such as synthetic cannabis and semi-synthetic substances such as methylhexaneamine. These drugs are primarily developed to avoid being controlled by laws against illegal drugs, thus giving them the label of designer drugs. According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction
The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction is an agency of the European Union. Established in 1993, the EMCDDA is located in Lisbon, Portugal.-Mission and role:...
, the synthesis of mephedrone was first reported in 1929 by Saem de Burnaga Sanchez in the Bulletin de la Société Chimique de France
Bulletin de la Société Chimique de France
The Bulletin de la Société Chimique de France was a French peer-reviewed scientific journal on chemistry published by the Société Chimique de France...
, under the name "toluyl-alpha-monomethylaminoethylcetone", but the compound remained an obscure product of academia until 2003, when it was "re-discovered" and publicised by an underground chemist
Clandestine chemistry
Clandestine chemistry is chemistry carried out in secret, and particularly in illegal drug laboratories. Larger labs are usually run by gangs or organized crime intending to produce for distribution on the black market...
on The Hive
The Hive (website)
The Hive was a website that served as an information-sharing forum for individuals and groups interested in the practical synthesis, chemistry, biology, politics, and legal aspects of mind-altering drugs...
website, working under the pseudonym "Kinetic." Kinetic posted on the site, "I’ve been bored over the last couple of days and had a few fun reagents lying around, so I thought I’d try and make some 1-(4-methylphenyl)-2-methylaminopropanone hydrochloride, or 4-methylmethcathinone." before going on to describe that after taking it they had a "fantastic sense of well-being that I haven’t got from any drug before except my beloved Ecstasy."
A drug similar to mephedrone, containing cathinone
Cathinone
Cathinone, or Benzoylethanamine, is a monoamine alkaloid found in the shrub Catha edulis and is chemically similar to ephedrine, cathine and other amphetamines. Cathinone induces the release of dopamine from striatal preparations that are prelabelled either with dopamine or its precursors. It is...
, was sold legally in Israel from around 2004, under the name hagigat. When this was made illegal, the cathinone was modified and the new products were sold by the Israeli company, Neorganics. The products had names such as Neodoves pills, but the range was discontinued in January 2008 after the Israeli government made mephedrone illegal. The Psychonaut Research Project, an EU organisation that searches the internet for information regarding new drugs, first identified mephedrone in 2008. Their research suggests that the drug first became available to purchase on the internet in 2007, when it was also discussed on internet forums. Mephedrone was first seized in France in May 2007 after police sent a tablet that they assumed to be ecstasy to be analysed, with the discovery published in a paper titled "Is 4-methylephedrone, an “Ecstasy” of the twenty first century?" Mephedrone was reported as having been sold as ecstasy in the Australian city of Cairns, along with ethylcathinone in 2008. An annual survey of regular ecstasy users in Australia in 2010 found that 21% of those surveyed had used mephedrone, with 17% having done so in the previous six months. The price they paid per gram varied from A$
Australian dollar
The Australian dollar is the currency of the Commonwealth of Australia, including Christmas Island, Cocos Islands, and Norfolk Island, as well as the independent Pacific Island states of Kiribati, Nauru and Tuvalu...
16 to $320.
Europol
Europol
Europol is the European Union's criminal intelligence agency. It became fully operational on 1 July 1999....
noted that they became aware of it in 2008, after it was found in Denmark, Finland and the UK. The Drug Enforcement Agency noted it was present in the United States in July 2009. By May 2010, mephedrone had been detected in every one of the 22 EU member states that reported to Europol, as well as in Croatia and Norway. The Daily Telegraph reported in April 2009 that it was manufactured in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, but it has since been made illegal there. In March 2009, Druglink magazine reported that it only cost a "couple hundred pounds" to synthesise a kilogram of mephedrone, the same month, The Daily Telegraph reported that manufacturers were making "huge amounts of money" from selling it. In January 2010 Druglink magazine reported that dealers in Britain spent £2,500 to ship one kilogram from China but could sell it for £10 a gram making a profit of £7,500. A later report, in March 2010, stated that the wholesale price of mephedrone was £4000 per kilogram.
In the United Kingdom
Between the summer of 2009 and March 2010 the use of mephedrone grew rapidly in the UK, with it becoming readily available at music festivalMusic festival
A music festival is a festival oriented towards music that is sometimes presented with a theme such as musical genre, nationality or locality of musicians, or holiday. They are commonly held outdoors, and are often inclusive of other attractions such as food and merchandise vending machines,...
s, head shop
Head shop
A head shop is a retail outlet specializing in drug paraphernalia used for consumption of cannabis, other recreational drugs, legal highs, legal party powders and New Age herbs, as well as counterculture art, magazines, music, clothing, and home decor; some head shops also sell oddities, such as...
s and on the internet. A survey of Mixmag
Mixmag
Mixmag is a British dance music and clubbing magazine. It styles itself as "the world's biggest selling dance music magazine", with an Audit Bureau of Circulations audited circulation of approximately 21,250...
readers in 2009, found that it was the fourth most popular street drug in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, behind cannabis
Cannabis (drug)
Cannabis, also known as marijuana among many other names, refers to any number of preparations of the Cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug or for medicinal purposes. The English term marijuana comes from the Mexican Spanish word marihuana...
, cocaine
Cocaine
Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. The name comes from "coca" in addition to the alkaloid suffix -ine, forming cocaine. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system, an appetite suppressant, and a topical anesthetic...
, and ecstasy. The drug is used by a diverse range of social groups. Whilst the evidence is anecdotal, researchers, charity workers, teachers and users have reported widespread and increasing use of the drug. The drug's rapid growth in popularity was believed to be related to both its availability and legality. Fiona Measham, a criminologist at The University of Lancaster, believes that the emergence of mephedrone was also related to the decreasing purity of ecstasy and cocaine on sale in the UK, a view reinforced in a report by the National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse
National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse
The National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse is part of the National Health Service in England. Established in 2001 to improve the availability, capacity and effectiveness of drug treatment, it is currently delivering the ambitions of the across the treatment sector, pending the creation of a...
. The average cocaine
Cocaine
Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. The name comes from "coca" in addition to the alkaloid suffix -ine, forming cocaine. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system, an appetite suppressant, and a topical anesthetic...
purity fell from 60% in 1999 to 22% in 2009 and about half of ecstasy pills seized in 2009 contained no MDMA, and by June 2010, almost all pills seized in the UK, contained no MDMA.
A similar pattern was observed in the Netherlands, with the number of ecstasy tablets containing no MDMA rising from 10% in mid 2008 to 60% by mid 2009 and mephedrone being detected in 20% of ecstasy tablets by mid 2009. The decrease of MDMA was thought in part, to be due to the seizure of 33 tonnes of sassafras oil, the precursor to MDMA, in Cambodia
Cambodia
Cambodia , officially known as the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia...
in June 2008, which could have been used to make 245 million doses of MDMA. According to John Ramsey, a toxicologist at St George's, University of London
St George's, University of London
St George's, University of London is a medical school located in London, United Kingdom and a constituent college of the federal University of London...
, the emergence of mephedrone was also related to the UK government banning the benzylpiperazine
Benzylpiperazine
Benzylpiperazine is a recreational drug with euphoric, stimulant properties. The effects produced by BZP are comparable to those produced by amphetamine. Adverse effects have been reported following its use including acute psychosis, renal toxicity, and seizures...
class of drugs in December 2009. gamma-Butyrolactone
Gamma-Butyrolactone
gamma-Butyrolactone is a hygroscopic colorless oily liquid with a weak characteristic odor and is soluble in water. GBL is a common solvent and reagent in chemistry and is used as an aroma compound, as a stain remover, as a superglue remover, as a paint stripper, and as a solvent in some wet...
(GBL), another previously "legal high" was also banned in August 2009, despite concerns that it would be replaced by other drugs. By December 2009, mephedrone was available on at least 31 websites based in the UK and by March 2010 there were at least 78 online shops; half of which sold amounts of less than 200 grams and half that also sold bulk quantities. The price per gram varied from £9.50 to £14. Between July 2009 and February 2010, UK health professionals accessed the National Poisons Information Services (NPIS) entry on mephedrone 1664 times and made 157 telephone inquiries; the requests increased month on month over this period. In comparison over a similar time period, the entries for cocaine and MDMA were accessed approximately 2400 times. After mephedrone was made illegal, the number of inquiries to the NPIS fell substantially, to only 19 in June 2010.
Media organisations including the BBC
BBC
The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. Its headquarters is at Broadcasting House in the City of Westminster, London. It is the largest broadcaster in the world, with about 23,000 staff...
and The Guardian
The Guardian
The Guardian, formerly known as The Manchester Guardian , is a British national daily newspaper in the Berliner format...
, as well as a news section in the Annals of Botany
Annals of Botany
Annals of Botany is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal, founded in 1887, that publishes research articles, brief communications, and reviews in all areas of botany. The journal is supported and managed by Annals of Botany Company, a non-profit educational charity, and published through...
(later corrected), incorrectly reported that mephedrone was commonly used as a plant fertiliser. In fact sellers of the drug described it as "plant food" because it was illegal to sell the compound for human consumption. In late 2009, UK newspapers began referring to the drug as meow or miaow (sometimes doubled as meow meow or miaow miaow), a name that was almost unknown on the street at the time. In November 2009, the tabloid newspaper, The Sun published a story stating that a man had ripped off his own scrotum
Scrotum
In some male mammals the scrotum is a dual-chambered protuberance of skin and muscle containing the testicles and divided by a septum. It is an extension of the perineum, and is located between the penis and anus. In humans and some other mammals, the base of the scrotum becomes covered with curly...
whilst using mephedrone, but this story was later shown to be an online hoax
Hoax
A hoax is a deliberately fabricated falsehood made to masquerade as truth. It is distinguishable from errors in observation or judgment, or rumors, urban legends, pseudosciences or April Fools' Day events that are passed along in good faith by believers or as jokes.-Definition:The British...
. Other myths that the media often repeated during 2010 were that mephedrone had led to the deaths of over 20 people, that teachers were unable to confiscate the drug off pupils and that the government was too slow to ban the drug. Parallels were drawn between the media coverage of mephedrone and a piece of satire by Chris Morris
Chris Morris (satirist)
Christopher Morris is an English satirist, writer, director and actor. A former radio DJ, he is best known for anchoring the spoof news and current affairs television programmes The Day Today and Brass Eye, as well as his frequent engagement with controversial subject matter.In 2010 Morris...
in 1997 on Brass Eye
Brass Eye
Brass Eye is a UK television series of satirical spoof documentaries. A series of six aired on Channel 4 in 1997, and a further episode in 2001....
, when he tricked public figures into talking of the dangers of taking the fictional legal drug "cake". The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs
Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs
The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs is a statutory and non-executive non-departmental British public body, which was established under the UK's Misuse of Drugs Act 1971.-Mandate:Its terms of reference, according to the Act, are as follows:...
(ACMD) have suggested that the media coverage of the drug led to increased usage of it. Jon Silverman, a former BBC Home Affairs Correspondent, has written two articles discussing how the media had a strong influence over the governments drugs policy, particularly in that the government wished to demonstrate that they were being “tough” on drugs.
A survey of 1000 secondary school pupils and university students in Tayside
Tayside
Tayside Region was a local government region of Scotland from 15 May 1975 to 31 March 1996. It was created by the 1973 Act following recommendations made by the 1969 Wheatley Report which attempted to replace the mishmash of counties, cities, burghs and districts, with a uniform two-tier system...
, conducted in February 2010, found that 20% of them had previously taken mephedrone. Although at the time it was available legally over the internet, only 10% of users reported purchasing it online, with most purchasing it from street dealers. Of those who had used mephedrone, 97% said that it was easy or very easy to obtain. Around 50% of users reported at least one negative effect associated with the use of mephedrone, of which teeth grinding
Bruxism
Bruxism is characterized by the grinding of the teeth and typically includes the clenching of the jaw. It is an oral parafunctional activity that occurs in most humans at some time in their lives. In most people, bruxism is mild enough not to be a health problem...
is the most common. Detailed interviews with users in Northern Ireland similarly, found that few purchased mephedrone online, with most interviewees citing concerns that their address would be traced or that family members could intercept the package.
On 30 March 2010, Alan Johnson
Alan Johnson
Alan Arthur Johnson is a British Labour Party politician who served as Home Secretary from June 2009 to May 2010. Before that, he filled a wide variety of cabinet positions in both the Blair and Brown governments, including Health Secretary and Education Secretary. Until 20 January 2011 he was...
, the then Home Secretary
Home Secretary
The Secretary of State for the Home Department, commonly known as the Home Secretary, is the minister in charge of the Home Office of the United Kingdom, and one of the country's four Great Offices of State...
, announced that mephedrone would be made illegal "within weeks" after the ACMD sent him a report on the use of cathinones. The legislation would make all cathinones illegal which Johnson said would "stop unscrupulous manufacturers and others peddling different but similarly harmful drugs". The ACMD had run into problems with the UK Government in 2009 regarding drugs policy, after the government did not follow the advice of the ACMD to reclassify ecstasy
Ecstasy
Ecstasy may refer to:* Ecstasy , a trance or trance-like state in which an individual transcends normal consciousness* Religious ecstasy, a state of consciousness characterized by expanded spiritual awareness, visions or absolute euphoria...
and cannabis, culminating in the dismissal of the ACMD chairman, David Nutt
David Nutt
David John Nutt is a British psychiatrist and neuropsychopharmacologist specialising in the research of drugs that affect the brain and conditions such as addiction, anxiety and sleep. He was until 2009 a professor at the University of Bristol heading their Psychopharmacology Unit...
after he reiterated the ACMD's findings in an academic lecture. Several members resigned after he was sacked and prior to the announcement that mephedrone was to be banned the trend continued when Dr Polly Taylor resigned, saying she "did not have trust" in the way the government would use the advice given by the ACMD. Eric Carlin, a member of the ACMD and former chairman of the English Drug Education Forum, also resigned after the announcement. He said that the decision by the Home Secretary was "unduly based on media and political pressure" and there was "little or no discussion about how our recommendation to classify this drug would be likely to impact on young people's behaviour." Some ex-members of the ACMD, and various charity groups expressed concern over the banning of the drug, arguing it would inevitably criminalise users, particularly young people. Others expressed concern that the drug would be left in the hands of black market dealers, who will only compound the problem. Carlin's resignation was specifically linked to the criminalisation of mephedrone, he stated: "We need to review our entire approach to drugs, dumping the idea that legally-sanctioned punishments for drug users should constitute a main part of the armoury in helping to solve our country’s drug problems. We need to stop harming people who need help and support".
The parliamentary debate was held on 8 April, one day after the 2010 general election had been announced, meaning it was during the so-called "wash-up period
Wash-up period
The wash-up period is the last few days while a Parliament of the United Kingdom continues to sit after the Prime Minister has announced the date when Parliament will be dissolved so a general election can be held but before Parliament has been formally adjourned, prorogued or...
" when legislation is passed with little scrutiny. Only one hour was spent debating the ban and all three parties agreed, meaning that no vote was required. In an interview conducted in July 2010, when he was no longer a minister, Johnson admitted that the decision to ban mephedrone was sped up after widespread reporting of deaths caused by the drug and that because the government wished to pass the law, before parliament was dissolved prior to the upcoming general election. In January 2011 however, Johnson told the Scunthorpe Telegraph that the decision was based only on information from the ACMD. An editorial in the April 2010 edition of The Lancet
The Lancet
The Lancet is a weekly peer-reviewed general medical journal. It is one of the world's best known, oldest, and most respected general medical journals...
questioned the decision to ban mephedrone, saying that the ACMD did not have enough evidence to judge the potential harms caused by mephedrone and arguing that policy makers should have sought to understand why young people took it and how they could be influenced to not take it. Evan Harris
Evan Harris
Evan Leslie Harris is a British Liberal Democrat politician. He was the Member of Parliament for Oxford West and Abingdon from 1997 to 2010, losing his seat in the 2010 general election by 176 votes to Conservative Nicola Blackwood....
, then the Liberal Democrat
Liberal Democrats
The Liberal Democrats are a social liberal political party in the United Kingdom which supports constitutional and electoral reform, progressive taxation, wealth taxation, human rights laws, cultural liberalism, banking reform and civil liberties .The party was formed in 1988 by a merger of the...
science spokesman, stated that the ACMD "was not 'legally constituted'" as required by the Misuse of Drugs Act
Misuse of Drugs Act 1971
The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 is an Act of Parliament which represents UK action in line with treaty commitments under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic...
, when the report on cathinones was published, since after Taylor resigned it lacked a veterinary surgeon. In the rush to make mephedrone illegal, the act that was passed specified the inactive enantiomer of mephedrone, leaving the active form legal until the loophole was closed in February 2011 by another act of parliament. In Chemistry World
Chemistry World
Chemistry World is a monthly chemistry news magazine published by the Royal Society of Chemistry. The magazine addresses current events in world of chemistry including research, international business news and government policy as it affects the chemical science community, plus the best product...
, John Mann professor of chemistry at Queen's University Belfast, suggested that the UK create a law similar to the Federal Analog Act
Federal Analog Act
The Federal Analog Act, , is a controversial section of the United States Controlled Substances Act which allowed any chemical "substantially similar" to a controlled substance listed in Schedule I or II to be treated as if it were also listed in those schedules, but only if intended for human...
of the United States, which would have made mephedrone illegal as an analog of cathinone. In August 2010, James Brokenshire
James Brokenshire
James Peter Brokenshire is a British Conservative Party politician. He is the Member of Parliament for Old Bexley and Sidcup and Minister for Security at the Home Office that grants him a seat on the National Security Council.-Early life:He was educated at Davenant Foundation Grammar School, the...
, the Home Office drugs minister, announced plans to create a new category in the Misuse of Drugs Act, through the Police Reform and Social Responsibility Bill, that would allow new legal highs to be made temporarily illegal, without the need for a vote in parliament or advice from the ACMD, as was required to categorise mephedrone.
According to the Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs
Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs
The Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs is a UK-based independent drugs advisory committee set up and chaired by Professor David Nutt. It was officially launched on 15 January 2010 with the help of the Centre for Crime and Justice Studies...
, since mephedrone was made illegal a street trade in the drug has emerged, with prices around double those prior to the ban, at £20-£25 per gram. In September 2010, Druglink reported that the ban had had a mixed effect on mephedrone use, with it decreasing in some areas, remaining similar in others and becoming more prevalent in some areas. An online survey of 150 users after the ban, 63% said that they were continuing to use mephedrone, half of those used the same amount and half said they used less. Compared to previous surveys, more users purchased it off dealers, rather than the internet. The average price per gram was £16, compared to around £10 before the ban. The 2010 Mixmag survey of 2500 nightclubbers found that one quarter had used mephedrone in the previous month, that the price had roughly doubled since it was made illegal and that it was more likely to be cut
Lacing (drugs)
Lacing is the act of secretly adding one or more substances to another. Some street drugs are commonly laced with other chemicals for various reasons, but it is most commonly done so as to bulk up the original product or to sell other, cheaper drugs in the place of something more expensive.-Reasons...
with other substances. Of those who had already used mephedrone prior to the ban, 75% had continued to use it after the ban. Of the various drugs used by the survey participants, it was the most likely for users to have concerns about.
Interviews with users in Northern Ireland also found that the price had roughly doubled since it was made illegal, to around £30 a gram. Rather than the price rising due to increased scarcity of the drug, it is thought to have risen for two other reasons. Firstly dealers know that there is still demand for mephedrone, but are aware that supplies of mephedrone may be exhausted in the future. Secondly, the dealers perceive that customers are likely to be willing to pay more, for an illegal substance. Professor Shiela Bird, a statistician at the Medical Research Council
Medical Research Council
Medical Research Council may refer to:* Medical Research Council , a UK organisation* National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia's peak funding body for medical research...
, has suggested that the ban of mephedrone may lead to more cocaine related deaths. In the first six months of 2009, the number of cocaine related deaths fell for the first time in four years, and fewer soldiers tested positive for cocaine in 2009 than in 2008. She suggested that this may have been due to users switching to mephedrone from cocaine, but cautioned that before full figures are available for 2009 and 2010, it will be difficult to determine whether mephedrone saved lives, rather than cost them. Other supposedly legal drugs have filled the gap in the market since mephedrone was made illegal, including naphyrone (NRG-1) (since made illegal) and Ivory Wave
Ivory Wave
Ivory Wave, also known as Ivory Coast, Ivory Snow, Red Dove, Purple Wave and Vanilla Sky, is a name applied to a recreational drug reported to be used in the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States of America...
, which has been found to contain MDPV
MDPV
Methylenedioxypyrovalerone is a psychoactive drug with stimulant properties which acts as a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor . Reportedly, it has been sold since around 2004 as a designer drug. It is also known as MDPK, MTV, Magic, Maddie, Black Rob, Super Coke and PV...
, a compound made illegal at the same time as mephedrone. However it is possible that some products branded as Ivory Wave do not contain MDPV. When tested, some products sold six weeks after mephedrone was banned, advertised as NRG-1, NRG-2 and MDAI were found to be mephedrone.
Effects
There have been no formal published studies into the effects of mephedrone psychological and behavioural effects of mephedrone on humans nor on animals from which the potential effects could be extrapolated. As a result, the only information available comes from users themselves and clinical reports of acute mephedrone toxicity. Psychologists at Liverpool John Moores UniversityLiverpool John Moores University
Liverpool John Moores University is a British 'modern' university located in the city of Liverpool, England. The university is named after John Moores and was previously called Liverpool Mechanics' School of Arts and later Liverpool Polytechnic before gaining university status in 1992, thus...
were to conduct research into the effects of mephedrone on up to 50 students already using the drug, when it was still legal in the UK. At the time the study was proposed, Les Iversen, the chair of the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs
Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs
The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs is a statutory and non-executive non-departmental British public body, which was established under the UK's Misuse of Drugs Act 1971.-Mandate:Its terms of reference, according to the Act, are as follows:...
called the experiments "pretty unethical". The study was discontinued in August 2010, following the change in the legal status of the drug.
Intended effects
Users have reported that mephedrone causes euphoriaEuphoria
Euphoria is an emotional and mental state defined as a sense of great elation and well being.Euphoria may also refer to:* Euphoria , a genus of scarab beetles* Euphoria, a genus name previously used for the longan and other trees...
, stimulation
Stimulation
Stimulation is the action of various agents on nerves, muscles, or a sensory end organ, by which activity is evoked; especially, the nervous impulse produced by various agents on nerves, or a sensory end organ, by which the part connected with the nerve is thrown into a state of activity.The word...
, an enhanced appreciation for music
Music
Music is an art form whose medium is sound and silence. Its common elements are pitch , rhythm , dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture...
, an elevated mood
Mood (psychology)
A mood is a relatively long lasting emotional state. Moods differ from emotions in that they are less specific, less intense, and less likely to be triggered by a particular stimulus or event....
, decreased hostility
Hostility
Hostility is a form of angry internal rejection or denial in psychology. It is a part of personal construct psychology, developed by George Kelly...
, improved mental function
Mental function
Mental processes, mental functions and cognitive processes are terms often used interchangeably to mean such functions or processes as perception, introspection, memory, creativity, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning, volition, and emotion—in...
and mild sexual stimulation
Sexual stimulation
Sexual stimulation is any stimulus that leads to, enhances and maintains sexual arousal, and may lead to ejaculation and/or orgasm...
; these effects are similar to the effects of cocaine, amphetamines and MDMA. These effects last different amounts of time, depending on the way the drug is taken. When taken orally, users report they can feel the effects within 15–45 minutes, when snorted the effects are felt within minutes and peak within half an hour. The effects last for between two and three hours when taken orally or nasally, but only half an hour if taken intravenously. Out of 70 Dutch users of mephedrone, 58 described it as an overall pleasant experience and 12 described it as an unpleasant experience. A survey of UK users, who had previously taken cocaine, found that most users found it produced a better quality and longer lasting high, was less addictive and carried the same risk as using cocaine.
Side effects
The ECMDDA reported that mephedrone can cause various unintended side effectsAcute (medicine)
In medicine, an acute disease is a disease with either or both of:# a rapid onset, as in acute infection# a short course ....
including: poor concentration
Concentration
In chemistry, concentration is defined as the abundance of a constituent divided by the total volume of a mixture. Four types can be distinguished: mass concentration, molar concentration, number concentration, and volume concentration...
, teeth grinding
Bruxism
Bruxism is characterized by the grinding of the teeth and typically includes the clenching of the jaw. It is an oral parafunctional activity that occurs in most humans at some time in their lives. In most people, bruxism is mild enough not to be a health problem...
, problems focusing visually, poor short-term memory
Short-term memory
Short-term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time. The duration of short-term memory is believed to be in the order of seconds. A commonly cited capacity is 7 ± 2 elements...
, hallucinations, delusions, erratic behaviour and dilated pupils
Mydriasis
Mydriasis is a dilation of the pupil due to disease, trauma or the use of drugs. Normally, the pupil dilates in the dark and constricts in the light to respectively improve vividity at night and to protect the retina from sunlight damage during the day...
. They noted that the most severe effects appear anecdotally to be linked with high doses or prolonged usage and that the effects may be due to users taking other intoxicants at the same time. Other effects that users in internet forums have noted include changes in body temperature, increased heart rate
Tachycardia
Tachycardia comes from the Greek words tachys and kardia . Tachycardia typically refers to a heart rate that exceeds the normal range for a resting heart rate...
, breathing difficulties, loss of appetite, increased sweating
Hyperhidrosis
Hyperhidrosis is the condition characterized by abnormally increased perspiration, in excess of that required for regulation of body temperature.-Classification:Hyperhidrosis can either be generalized or localized to specific parts of the body...
, discolouration of extremeties, anxiety
Anxiety
Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components. The root meaning of the word anxiety is 'to vex or trouble'; in either presence or absence of psychological stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness,...
, paranoia
Paranoia
Paranoia [] is a thought process believed to be heavily influenced by anxiety or fear, often to the point of irrationality and delusion. Paranoid thinking typically includes persecutory beliefs, or beliefs of conspiracy concerning a perceived threat towards oneself...
and depression
Depression (mood)
Depression is a state of low mood and aversion to activity that can affect a person's thoughts, behaviour, feelings and physical well-being. Depressed people may feel sad, anxious, empty, hopeless, helpless, worthless, guilty, irritable, or restless...
. When snorted it can also cause nose bleeds, and nose burns. A survey conducted by the National Addiction Centre, UK found that 67% of mephedrone users experienced sweating, 51% suffered from headaches, 43% from heart palpitations, 27% from nausea and 15% from cold or blue fingers, indicative of vasoconstriction
Vasoconstriction
Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels, particularly the large arteries, small arterioles and veins. The process is the opposite of vasodilation, the widening of blood vessels. The process is particularly important in...
occurring. Doctors at Guy's Hospital
Guy's Hospital
Guy's Hospital is a large NHS hospital in the borough of Southwark in south east London, England. It is administratively a part of Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust. It is a large teaching hospital and is home to the King's College London School of Medicine...
, London reported that of 15 patients they treated after taking mephedrone in 2009, 53% were agitated, 40% had increased heart rates, 20% had systolic hypertension and 20% had seizures; three required treatment with benzodiazepines, predominantly to control their agitation. They reported that none of their patients suffered from cold or blue peripheries, contrary to other reports. Nine out of the 15 of patients had a Glasgow Coma Scale
Glasgow Coma Scale
Glasgow Coma Scale or GCS is a neurological scale that aims to give a reliable, objective way of recording the conscious state of a person for initial as well as subsequent assessment...
(GCS) of 15 indicating that they were in a normal mental state, 4 had a GCS below 8, but these patients all reported using a central nervous system
Central nervous system
The central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that integrates the information that it receives from, and coordinates the activity of, all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish...
depressant, most commonly GHB
Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid
γ-Hydroxybutyric acid , also known as 4-hydroxybutanoic acid and sodium oxybate when used for medicinal purposes, is a naturally occurring substance found in the central nervous system, wine, beef, small citrus fruits, and almost all animals in small amounts. It is also categorized as an illegal...
, with mephedrone. The patients also reported polydrug use of a variety of compounds.
Long-term effects
Almost nothing is known about the long-term effects of the drug due to the short history of its use. BBC NewsBBC News
BBC News is the department of the British Broadcasting Corporation responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs. The department is the world's largest broadcast news organisation and generates about 120 hours of radio and television output each day, as well as online...
reported that one person who used the drug for 18 months became dependent
Substance dependence
The section about substance dependence in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders does not use the word addiction at all. It explains:...
on the drug, in the end using it twice a week, had to be admitted to a psychiatric unit after he started experiencing hallucinations, agitation, excitability and mania. Because of its similarity to cathinone
Cathinone
Cathinone, or Benzoylethanamine, is a monoamine alkaloid found in the shrub Catha edulis and is chemically similar to ephedrine, cathine and other amphetamines. Cathinone induces the release of dopamine from striatal preparations that are prelabelled either with dopamine or its precursors. It is...
, John Mann has posited that mephedrone may cause impotence with long-term use.
Typical use and consumption
Mephedrone can come in the form of capsules, tablets or white powder that users may swallow, snort, inject, smoke or use rectally. It is sometimes sold mixed with methylone in a product called bubbles in the UK and also mixed with other cathinones including ethcathinoneEthcathinone
Ethcathinone, also known as ethylpropion, is a stimulant drug of the phenethylamine, amphetamine, and cathinone chemical classes. It is an active metabolite of the prodrug diethylcathinone and is fully responsible for its effects...
, butylone, fluoromethcathinone
Fluoromethcathinone
Fluoromethcathinone can refer to several substituted cathinone compounds:*3-Fluoromethcathinone*4-Fluoromethcathinone...
and methedrone. The Guardian
The Guardian
The Guardian, formerly known as The Manchester Guardian , is a British national daily newspaper in the Berliner format...
reported that some users compulsively redose, consuming their whole supply when they are only meant to use a small dose and there have been other similar reports of users craving mephedrone, suggesting that it may be addictive. A survey conducted in late 2009 by the National Addiction Centre (UK) found 41.3% of readers of Mixmag
Mixmag
Mixmag is a British dance music and clubbing magazine. It styles itself as "the world's biggest selling dance music magazine", with an Audit Bureau of Circulations audited circulation of approximately 21,250...
had used mephedrone in the last month, making it the fourth most popular drug amongst clubbers. Of those, two thirds snorted the drug and the average dosage per session was 0.9 g; the length of sessions increased as the dosage increased. Users who snorted the drug reported using more per session than those who took it orally (0.97 g compared to 0.74 g) and also reported using it more often (5 days per month compared to 3 days per month). An Irish study of people on a methadone
Methadone
Methadone is a synthetic opioid, used medically as an analgesic and a maintenance anti-addictive for use in patients with opioid dependency. It was developed in Germany in 1937...
treatment program for heroin addicts found that 29 out of 209 patients tested positive for mephedrone usage. A study of users in Northern Ireland, found that they did not equate the fact that mephedrone was legal with it being safe to use. This was contrary to another study in New Zealand where users of benzylpiperazine thought that because it was legal it was safe.
Harm reduction
The drugs advice charity Lifeline recommends that to reduce the potential harm caused by using mephedrone, users should only use mephedrone occasionally (less than weekly), use less than 0.5 g per session, dose orally rather than snorting the drug, and avoid mixing it with alcohol and other drugs. Users should also drink plenty of water whilst taking the drug as it causes dehydration.Pharmacology
Very little is known about the pharmacology of mephedrone. Writing in the British Medical JournalBritish Medical Journal
BMJ is a partially open-access peer-reviewed medical journal. Originally called the British Medical Journal, the title was officially shortened to BMJ in 1988. The journal is published by the BMJ Group, a wholly owned subsidiary of the British Medical Association...
, psychiatrists stated that given its chemical structure, "mephedrone is likely to stimulate the release of, and then inhibit the reuptake of monoamine neurotransmitters". The cathinone derivatives methcathinone and methylone, act in a similar way to amphetamine
Amphetamine
Amphetamine or amfetamine is a psychostimulant drug of the phenethylamine class which produces increased wakefulness and focus in association with decreased fatigue and appetite.Brand names of medications that contain, or metabolize into, amphetamine include Adderall, Dexedrine, Dextrostat,...
s mainly acting on catecholamine
Catecholamine
Catecholamines are molecules that have a catechol nucleus consisting of benzene with two hydroxyl side groups and a side-chain amine. They include dopamine, as well as the "fight-or-flight" hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline released by the adrenal medulla of the adrenal glands in response to...
transporters so it is expected that mephedrone also acts in this way. The actions of amphetamines and cathinones are determined by the differences in how they bind to noradrenalin, dopamine
Dopamine
Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter present in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this substituted phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five known types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5—and their...
and serotonin
Serotonin
Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Biochemically derived from tryptophan, serotonin is primarily found in the gastrointestinal tract, platelets, and in the central nervous system of animals including humans...
transporters. Molecular modelling of mephedrone suggests it is more hydrophilic than methyl-amphetamines which may account for the higher doses required to achieve a similar effect, because mephedrone is less able to cross the blood-brain barrier
Blood-brain barrier
The blood–brain barrier is a separation of circulating blood and the brain extracellular fluid in the central nervous system . It occurs along all capillaries and consists of tight junctions around the capillaries that do not exist in normal circulation. Endothelial cells restrict the diffusion...
. Mephedrone has a chiral centre and therefore exists in two forms, called enantiomer
Enantiomer
In chemistry, an enantiomer is one of two stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other that are non-superposable , much as one's left and right hands are the same except for opposite orientation. It can be clearly understood if you try to place your hands one over the other without...
s, it is thought that the S form is more potent than the R form, based on the fact that this applies to cathinone. Professor David Nutt
David Nutt
David John Nutt is a British psychiatrist and neuropsychopharmacologist specialising in the research of drugs that affect the brain and conditions such as addiction, anxiety and sleep. He was until 2009 a professor at the University of Bristol heading their Psychopharmacology Unit...
, former chair of the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs
Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs
The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs is a statutory and non-executive non-departmental British public body, which was established under the UK's Misuse of Drugs Act 1971.-Mandate:Its terms of reference, according to the Act, are as follows:...
(ACMD) in the UK has said "people are better off taking ecstasy or amphetamines than those [drugs] we know nothing about" and "Who knows what's in [mephedrone] when you buy it? We don't have a testing system. It could be very dangerous, we just don't know. These chemicals have never been put into animals, let alone humans." Les King, a former member of the ACMD, has stated that mephedrone appears to be less potent than amphetamine and ecstasy but that any benefit associated with this could be negated by users taking larger amounts. He also told the BBC "all we can say is [mephedrone] is probably as harmful as ecstasy and amphetamines and wait until we have some better scientific evidence to support that."
An article published in a 2011 edition of British Journal of Pharmacology examined the effects of mephedrone, MDMA, and amphetamine
Amphetamine
Amphetamine or amfetamine is a psychostimulant drug of the phenethylamine class which produces increased wakefulness and focus in association with decreased fatigue and appetite.Brand names of medications that contain, or metabolize into, amphetamine include Adderall, Dexedrine, Dextrostat,...
in the nucleus accumbens
Nucleus accumbens
The nucleus accumbens , also known as the accumbens nucleus or as the nucleus accumbens septi , is a collection of neurons and forms the main part of the ventral striatum...
of rats. Dopamine
Dopamine
Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter present in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this substituted phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five known types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5—and their...
and serotonin
Serotonin
Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Biochemically derived from tryptophan, serotonin is primarily found in the gastrointestinal tract, platelets, and in the central nervous system of animals including humans...
were collected using microdialysis, and increases in dopamine and serotonin were measured using HPLC. Reward and drug seeking are linked to increases in dopamine concentrations in the nucleus accumbens, and drug half-life plays a role in drug seeking as well. Based on histological examination, most of the author's probes were in the nucleus accumbens shell. Mephedrone administration caused a ~500% increase in dopamine, and a ~950% increase in serotonin. They reached their peak concentrations at 40 minutes and 20 minutes, respectively, and returned to baseline by 120 minutes post injection. In comparison, MDMA caused a ~900% increase in serotonin at 40 minutes, with a non-significant increase in dopamine. Amphetamine administration resulted in a ~400% increase in dopamine peaking at 40 minutes, with a non-significant increase in serotonin. Analysis of the ratio of the AUC for dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT) indicated that mephedrone was preferentially a serotonin releaser, with a ratio of 1.22:1 (serotonin vs. dopamine). Additionally, half-lives for the decrease in DA and 5-HT were calculated for each drug. Mephedrone had decay rates of 24.5 minutes and 25.5 minutes, respectively. MDMA had decay values of 302.5 minutes and 47.9 minutes, respectively, while amphetamine values were 51 minutes and 84.1 minutes, respectively. Taken together, these findings show that mephedrone induces a massive increase in both DA and 5-HT, combined with rapid clearance. The rapid rise and subsequent fall of DA levels could explain some of the addictive properties that mephedrone displays in some users.
Metabolism
Based on the analysis of rat and human urine by gas chromatography and mass spectrometryMass spectrometry
Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles.It is used for determining masses of particles, for determining the elemental composition of a sample or molecule, and for elucidating the chemical structures of molecules, such as peptides and...
, mephedrone is thought to be metabolised
Drug metabolism
Drug metabolism is the biochemical modification of pharmaceutical substances by living organisms, usually through specialized enzymatic systems. This is a form of xenobiotic metabolism. Drug metabolism often converts lipophilic chemical compounds into more readily excreted polar products...
by three phase I pathways. It can be demethylated
Demethylation
Demethylation is the chemical process resulting in the removal a of methyl group from a molecule.A common way of demethylation is the replacement of a methyl group by a hydrogen atom, resulting in a net loss of one carbon and two hydrogen atoms....
to the primary amine
Amine
Amines are organic compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are derivatives of ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group. Important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines,...
(producing compounds 2, 3 and 5) the ketone
Ketone
In organic chemistry, a ketone is an organic compound with the structure RCR', where R and R' can be a variety of atoms and groups of atoms. It features a carbonyl group bonded to two other carbon atoms. Many ketones are known and many are of great importance in industry and in biology...
group can be reduced
Redox
Redox reactions describe all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed....
(producing 3) or the tolyl group can be oxidised (producing 6). It is thought that 5 and 6 are further metabolised by conjugation to the glucuronide
Glucuronide
A glucuronide, also known as glucuronoside, is any substance produced by linking glucuronic acid to another substance via a glycosidic bond...
and sulfate
Sulfate
In inorganic chemistry, a sulfate is a salt of sulfuric acid.-Chemical properties:...
derivatives. Knowledge of the primary routes of metabolism should allow the intake of mephedrone to be confirmed by drug test
Drug test
A drug test is a technical analysis of a biological specimen – for example urine, hair, blood, sweat, or oral fluid / saliva – to determine the presence or absence of specified parent drugs or their metabolites...
s, as well as more accurate determination of the cause of side effects and potential for toxicity.
Toxicity
As of March 2010, there have been no reported studies on the potential neurotoxicityNeurotoxicity
Neurotoxicity occurs when the exposure to natural or artificial toxic substances, which are called neurotoxins, alters the normal activity of the nervous system in such a way as to cause damage to nervous tissue. This can eventually disrupt or even kill neurons, key cells that transmit and process...
of mephedrone nor is the median lethal dose known. In 2009, one case of sympathomimetic toxicity was reported in the UK after a person took 0.2 g of mephedrone orally and then after this did not achieve the desired effect subcutaneously injected
Subcutaneous injection
A subcutaneous injection is administered as a bolus into the subcutis, the layer of skin directly below the dermis and epidermis, collectively referred to as the...
3.8 g mixed with water into his thighs. Shortly afterwards they "developed palpitations,
'blurred tunnel vision,' chest pressure and sweating". The patient was treated with 1 mg of lorazepam
Lorazepam
Lorazepam is a high-potency short-to-intermediate-acting 3-hydroxy benzodiazepine drug that has all five intrinsic benzodiazepine effects: anxiolytic, amnesic, sedative/hypnotic, anticonvulsant, antiemetic and muscle relaxant...
and the sympathomimetic features decreased and they were discharged within 6 hours of arrival. The Swedish medical journal Läkartidningen
Läkartidningen
Läkartidningen is a Swedish medical journal which was first published in 1965 by the Sveriges Läkarförbund , an organisation founded in 1904.-External links: *...
reported that mephedrone could theoretically cause the cardiovascular problems associated with the use of cocaine and amphetamines and serotonin syndrome
Serotonin syndrome
Serotonin syndrome is a potentially life-threatening adverse drug reaction that may occur following therapeutic drug use, inadvertent interactions between drugs, overdose of particular drugs, or the recreational use of certain drugs...
associated with the use of ecstasy and LSD. One case of serotonin syndrome has been reported, where the patient was already prescribed fluoxetine
Fluoxetine
Fluoxetine is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor class. It is manufactured and marketed by Eli Lilly and Company...
and olanzapine
Olanzapine
Olanzapine is an atypical antipsychotic, approved by the FDA for the treatment of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder...
and then took 40 tablets containing mephedrone in one night. He was treated with lorazepam and discharged 15 hours after admission. Both enantiomer
Enantiomer
In chemistry, an enantiomer is one of two stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other that are non-superposable , much as one's left and right hands are the same except for opposite orientation. It can be clearly understood if you try to place your hands one over the other without...
s of methcathinone
Methcathinone
Methcathinone , is a psychoactive stimulant, sometimes used as a recreational drug and considered addictive. It is usually snorted, but can be smoked, injected, or taken orally...
, which differs only in the lack of the methyl group on the aryl
Aryl
In the context of organic molecules, aryl refers to any functional group or substituent derived from an aromatic ring, be it phenyl, naphthyl, thienyl, indolyl, etc....
ring when compared to mephedrone, have been shown to be toxic to rat dopamine
Dopamine
Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter present in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this substituted phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five known types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5—and their...
neurons, and the S-enantiomer was also toxic against serotonin
Serotonin
Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Biochemically derived from tryptophan, serotonin is primarily found in the gastrointestinal tract, platelets, and in the central nervous system of animals including humans...
neurons. Simon Gibbons and Mire Zloh of The School of Pharmacy, University of London
University of London
-20th century:Shortly after 6 Burlington Gardens was vacated, the University went through a period of rapid expansion. Bedford College, Royal Holloway and the London School of Economics all joined in 1900, Regent's Park College, which had affiliated in 1841 became an official divinity school of the...
stated that based on the chemical similarities between methcathinone and mephedrone, "it is highly likely that mephedrone will display neurotoxicity". However, Brunt and colleagues stated that "extreme caution" should be used when inferring the toxicity of mephedrone from methcathinone, noting that some of the toxicity associated with methcathinone is due to manganese impurities related to its synthesis, rather than the compound itself. They concluded that experimental research is needed to investigate the toxicity of mephedrone. Doctors who treated a 15 year old female suffering from mephedrone intoxication suggested in The Lancet that like MDMA, mephedrone may promote serotonin-mediated release of antidiuretic hormone resulting in hyponatraemia and an altered mental state. In another case, a 19 year old male was admitted to hospital suffering from inflammation of the heart
Myocarditis
Myocarditis is inflammation of heart muscle . It resembles a heart attack but coronary arteries are not blocked.Myocarditis is most often due to infection by common viruses, such as parvovirus B19, less commonly non-viral pathogens such as Borrelia burgdorferi or Trypanosoma cruzi, or as a...
, 20 hours after taking one gram of mephedrone. The doctors treating the patient stated it was caused by either a direct toxic effect of mephedrone on the heart muscle, or by an immune response. One case of acquired methaemoglobinaemia, where a patient had "bluish lips and fingers", has also been reported, after they snorted one gram of mephedrone. The patient started to recover after arriving at the hospital and it was not necessary to administer any medication.
Detection in biological specimens
Mephedrone may be quantitated in blood, plasma or urine by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients or to provide evidence in a medicolegal death investigation. Blood or plasma mephedrone concentrations are expected to be in a range of 50–100 μg/L in persons using the drug recreationally, >100 μg/L in intoxicated patients and >500 μg/L in victims of acute overdosage.Sweden
In 2008, an 18-year-old Swedish woman died in Stockholm
Stockholm
Stockholm is the capital and the largest city of Sweden and constitutes the most populated urban area in Scandinavia. Stockholm is the most populous city in Sweden, with a population of 851,155 in the municipality , 1.37 million in the urban area , and around 2.1 million in the metropolitan area...
after taking mephedrone. The tabloid newspaper Svenska Dagbladet
Svenska Dagbladet
Svenska Dagbladet is a daily newspaper in Sweden. The first issue appeared on 18 December 1884. Svenska Dagbladet is published in Stockholm and provides coverage of national and international news as well as local coverage of the Greater Stockholm region...
reported that the woman went into convulsions and turned blue in the face. Doctors reported that she was comatose and suffering from hyponatremia
Hyponatremia
Hyponatremia is an electrolyte disturbance in which the sodium concentration in the serum is lower than normal. In the vast majority of cases, hyponatremia occurs as a result of excess body water diluting the serum sodium and is not due to sodium deficiency. Sodium is the dominant extracellular...
and severe hypokalemia; the woman died one and a half days after the onset of symptoms. An autopsy showed severe brain swelling. Mephedrone was scheduled to be classified as a "dangerous substance" in Sweden even before the girl's death at Karolinska University Hospital
Karolinska University Hospital
The Karolinska University Hospital is a university hospital in Stockholm, Sweden, with two major sites in the municipalities of Huddinge and Solna....
on Sunday, 14 December, but the death brought more media attention to the drug. The possession of mephedrone became classified as a criminal offence in Sweden on 15 December 2008.
UK
In 2010, there were unconfirmed reports speculating about the role mephedrone has played in the deaths of several young people in the UK. By July 2010, mephedrone had been alleged to be involved in 52 fatalities in the UK, but detected in only 38 of these cases. Of the nine that coroners had finished investigating, two were caused directly by mephedrone. The first death reported to be caused by mephedrone use was that of 46 year old, Stirling Smith, who had underlying health problems and repeatedly injected the drug. A report in Forensic Science International in August 2010 stated that mephedrone intoxication has been recorded as the cause of death in two cases in Scotland. Post mortem samples showed the concentration of mephedrone in their blood was 22 mg/L in one case and 3.3 mg/L in the other. The death of a teenager in the UK in November 2009 was widely reported as being caused by mephedrone, but a report by the coroner concluded that she died from natural causes. In March 2010 the deaths of two teenagers in Scunthorpe
Scunthorpe
Scunthorpe is a town within North Lincolnshire, England. It is the administrative centre of the North Lincolnshire unitary authority, and had an estimated total resident population of 72,514 in 2010. A predominantly industrial town, Scunthorpe, the United Kingdom's largest steel processing centre,...
were widely reported by the media to be caused by mephedrone. Toxicology reports showed that the teenagers had in fact not taken any mephedrone and that they in fact died as a result of consuming alcohol and the heroin substitute methadone
Methadone
Methadone is a synthetic opioid, used medically as an analgesic and a maintenance anti-addictive for use in patients with opioid dependency. It was developed in Germany in 1937...
. According to Fiona Measham, a criminologist who is a member of the ACMD, the reporting of the unconfirmed deaths by newspapers followed "the usual cycle of ‘exaggeration, distortion, inaccuracy and sensationalism'" associated with the reporting of recreational drug use.
USA
Mephedrone has been implicated in the death of a 22 year old male, who had also injected black tar heroin
Black tar heroin
Black tar heroin is a type of illicit opiate narcotic drug formed from the incomplete acetylation of morphine. It is also called brown.Black tar can contain a variable percentage of heroin, but despite the name, what makes Black Tar specific as a type is not actually its heroin content, but rather...
. Mephedrone was found in his blood at a concentration of 0.50 mg/L and in his urine at a concentration of 198 mg/L. The blood concentration of morphine, a metabolite of heroin, was 0.06 mg/L. For comparison, the average blood morphine concentration resulting from deadly overdoses involving only heroin is around 0.34 mg/L.
Appearance
Mephedrone is a white substance. It is sold most commonly as crystals or a powder, but also in the form of capsules or pills. It can have a distinctive odour, reported to range from a synthetic fishFish
Fish are a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as various extinct related groups...
y smell to the smell of vanilla
Vanilla
Vanilla is a flavoring derived from orchids of the genus Vanilla, primarily from the Mexican species, Flat-leaved Vanilla . The word vanilla derives from the Spanish word "", little pod...
and bleach
Bleach
Bleach refers to a number of chemicals that remove color, whiten, or disinfect, often via oxidation. Common chemical bleaches include household chlorine bleach , lye, oxygen bleach , and bleaching powder...
, stale urine
Urine
Urine is a typically sterile liquid by-product of the body that is secreted by the kidneys through a process called urination and excreted through the urethra. Cellular metabolism generates numerous by-products, many rich in nitrogen, that require elimination from the bloodstream...
, electric circuit boards.
Synthesis
Mephedrone can be synthesised in several ways. The simplest method, due to the availability of the compounds, is to add 4-methylpropiophenone dissolved in glacial acetic acid to bromineBromine
Bromine ") is a chemical element with the symbol Br, an atomic number of 35, and an atomic mass of 79.904. It is in the halogen element group. The element was isolated independently by two chemists, Carl Jacob Löwig and Antoine Jerome Balard, in 1825–1826...
, creating an oil fraction of 4'-methyl-2-bromopropiophenone. The oil fraction can then be dissolved in dichloromethane
Dichloromethane
Dichloromethane is an organic compound with the formula CH2Cl2. This colorless, volatile liquid with a moderately sweet aroma is widely used as a solvent. Although it is not miscible with water, it is miscible with many organic solvents...
(CH2Cl2) and drops of the solution added to another solution of CH2Cl2 containing methylamine hydrochloride and triethylamine
Triethylamine
Triethylamine is the chemical compound with the formula N3, commonly abbreviated Et3N. It is also abbreviated TEA, yet this abbreviation must be used carefully to avoid confusion with triethanolamine, for which TEA is also a common abbreviation....
. Hydrochloric acid
Hydrochloric acid
Hydrochloric acid is a solution of hydrogen chloride in water, that is a highly corrosive, strong mineral acid with many industrial uses. It is found naturally in gastric acid....
(HCl) is then added and the aqueous layer is removed and turned alkaline using sodium hydroxide before the amine is extracted using CH2Cl2. The CH2Cl2 is then evaporated using a vacuum, creating an oil which is then dissolved in a non-aqueous ether
Ether
Ethers are a class of organic compounds that contain an ether group — an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups — of general formula R–O–R'. A typical example is the solvent and anesthetic diethyl ether, commonly referred to simply as "ether"...
. HCl gas is then bubbled through the mixture to produce 4-methylmethcathinone hydrochloride. This method produces a mixture of both enantiomer
Enantiomer
In chemistry, an enantiomer is one of two stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other that are non-superposable , much as one's left and right hands are the same except for opposite orientation. It can be clearly understood if you try to place your hands one over the other without...
s and requires similar knowledge to that required to synthesise amphetamines and MDMA.
It can also be produced by oxidising the ephedrine analogue (4-methylephedrine) using potassium permanganate
Potassium permanganate
Potassium permanganate is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula KMnO4. It is a salt consisting of K+ and MnO4− ions. Formerly known as permanganate of potash or Condy's crystals, it is a strong oxidizing agent. It dissolves in water to give intensely purple solutions, the...
dissolved in sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid is a strong mineral acid with the molecular formula . Its historical name is oil of vitriol. Pure sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive, colorless, viscous liquid. The salts of sulfuric acid are called sulfates...
. Because 4-methylephedrine can be
obtained in a specific enantiomeric form it is possible to produce mephedrone consisting of only one enantiomer. There is a danger associated with this method as it may cause manganese poisoning if the product is not correctly purified.
A stereospecific form of (S)-mephedrone could be prepared via Friedel–Crafts acylation. The first step in the synthesis would react toluene
Toluene
Toluene, formerly known as toluol, is a clear, water-insoluble liquid with the typical smell of paint thinners. It is a mono-substituted benzene derivative, i.e., one in which a single hydrogen atom from the benzene molecule has been replaced by a univalent group, in this case CH3.It is an aromatic...
and (S)-N-trifluoroacetylalanoyl chloride in the presence of aluminium chloride
Aluminium chloride
Aluminium chloride is the main compound of aluminium and chlorine. It is white, but samples are often contaminated with iron trichloride, giving it a yellow colour. The solid has a low melting and boiling point. It is mainly produced and consumed in the production of aluminium metal, but large...
, then deprotect the intermediate with hydrochloric acid-propyl alcohol . This would produce (S)-4-methylcathinone, which could then be methylated to produce mephedrone.
Purity
One published study that analysed samples of mephedrone bought off the internet in the UK in 2010 found that it was racemic (a mixture of both stereoisomers) and of high purity. An unpublished study of six samples also ordered off the internet in the UK in 2010 found that they contained very few organic impurities. Four products sold in Irish head shops that were tested in 2010 were found to contain between 82% and 14% mephedrone, with some products containing benzocaineBenzocaine
Benzocaine is a local anesthetic commonly used as a topical pain reliever, or in cough drops. It is the active ingredient in many over-the-counter anesthetic ointments...
and caffeine
Caffeine
Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that acts as a stimulant drug. Caffeine is found in varying quantities in the seeds, leaves, and fruit of some plants, where it acts as a natural pesticide that paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding on the plants...
.
Legal status
When mephedrone was rediscovered in 2003, it was not specifically illegal to possess in any country. As its use has increased many countries have passed legislation making the possession, sale and manufacturing of mephedrone illegal. It was first made illegal in IsraelIsrael
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
, where it had been found in products such as Neodoves pills, in January 2008. After the death of a young woman in Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
in December 2008 was linked to the use of mephedrone, it was classified as a hazardous substance a few days later, making it illegal to sell in Sweden. In June 2009, it was classified as a narcotic with the possession of 15 grams or more resulting in a minimum of two years in prison - a longer sentence, gram for gram than given for the possession of cocaine or heroin. In December 2008, Denmark
Denmark
Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark...
also made it illegal and through the Medicines Act of Finland
Finland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...
it was made illegal to possess without a prescription. In November 2009, it was classified as a "narcotic or psychotropic" substance and added to the list of controlled substances in Estonia
Estonia
Estonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipsi and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea lies...
and made illegal to import into Guernsey
Guernsey
Guernsey, officially the Bailiwick of Guernsey is a British Crown dependency in the English Channel off the coast of Normandy.The Bailiwick, as a governing entity, embraces not only all 10 parishes on the Island of Guernsey, but also the islands of Herm, Jethou, Burhou, and Lihou and their islet...
along with other legal highs, before being classified as a Class B drug in April 2010. It was classified as a Class C drug in Jersey in December 2009.
In 2010, as its use became more prevalent, many countries passed legislation prohibiting mephedrone. It became illegal in Croatia and Germany in January, followed by Romania and the Isle of Man
Isle of Man
The Isle of Man , otherwise known simply as Mann , is a self-governing British Crown Dependency, located in the Irish Sea between the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, within the British Isles. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann. The Lord of Mann is...
in February. In March 2010, it was classified as an unregulated medicine in the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
, making the sale and distribution of it illegal. The importation of mephedrone into the UK was banned on 29 March 2010. The next day, the ACMD in the UK published a report on the cathinones, including mephedrone, and recommended that they be classifed as Class B drugs. On 7 April 2010 the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (Amendment) Order 2010 was passed by parliament, making mephedrone and other substituted cathinone
Substituted cathinone
Substituted cathinones, which include some stimulants and entactogens, are derivatives of cathinone. They feature a phenethylamine core with an alkyl group attached to the alpha carbon, and a ketone group attached to the beta carbon, along with additional substitutions...
s, Class B drugs from 16 April 2010. Prior to the ban taking effect, mephedrone was not covered by the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971
Misuse of Drugs Act 1971
The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 is an Act of Parliament which represents UK action in line with treaty commitments under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic...
. It was however an offence under the Medicines Act
Medicines Act 1968
The Medicines Act 1968 is an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom. It governs the manufacture and supply of medicine.The act defines three categories of medicine: prescription only medicines , which are available only from a pharmacist if prescribed by an appropriate practitioner; pharmacy...
to sell it for human consumption, so it was often sold as "plant food" or "bath salts
Bath salts
The term bath salts refers to a range of water-soluble, usually inorganic solid products designed to be added to a bath. They are said to improve cleaning, improve the experience of bathing, and serve as a vehicle for cosmetic agents...
" although, as it has no use as these products, this too was possibly illegal under the Trade Descriptions Act 1968
Trade Descriptions Act 1968
The Trade Descriptions 1968 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which prevents manufacturers, retailers or service industry providers from misleading consumers as to what they are spending their money on....
. In the USA similar descriptions have been used to describe mephedrone as well as methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). In May 2010 the Republic of Ireland
Republic of Ireland
Ireland , described as the Republic of Ireland , is a sovereign state in Europe occupying approximately five-sixths of the island of the same name. Its capital is Dublin. Ireland, which had a population of 4.58 million in 2011, is a constitutional republic governed as a parliamentary democracy,...
made mephedrone illegal, followed by Belgium
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
, Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
and Norway
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
in June and Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
in July. In August 2010, Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
and Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
made it illegal and China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
announced that it would be illegal as of 1 September 2010. Mephedrone had been reported to be used in Singapore in February 2010, but it was made illegal in November 2010. In December 2010, following the advice of the EMCDDA, mephedrone was made illegal throughout the EU, a move that Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
also made shortly afterwards. In countries, which have not already banned it, such as the Netherlands, Greece and Portugal, they will need to change legislation to comply with the EU ruling. In Hungary
Hungary
Hungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...
, a government advisory body recommended that mephedrone should be made illegal in August 2010, which was followed, making it illegal in January 2011.
In some countries, mephedrone is not specifically listed as illegal but is controlled under legislation that makes compounds illegal if they are analogs of drugs already listed. In Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
during 2010 it was not specifically listed as prohibited, but the Australian Federal Police state that it is an analogue to methcathinone
Methcathinone
Methcathinone , is a psychoactive stimulant, sometimes used as a recreational drug and considered addictive. It is usually snorted, but can be smoked, injected, or taken orally...
and therefore illegal. In February 2010, 22 men were arrested in conjunction with importing mephedrone. By January 2011, every state in Australia, other than Victoria
Victoria (Australia)
Victoria is the second most populous state in Australia. Geographically the smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania on Boundary Islet to the north, west and south respectively....
had listed it as a controlled drug. In New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
it is not included in the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, but is illegal as it is similar to controlled substances. In Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, mephedrone is not explicitly listed in any Schedule of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act
Controlled Drugs and Substances Act
The Controlled Drugs and Substances Act is Canada's federal drug control statute. Passed in 1996 by the Chrétien government, it repeals the Narcotic Control Act and Parts III and IV of the Food and Drug Act and establishes eight Schedules of controlled substances and two Classes of precursors...
, "amphetamines, their salts, derivatives, isomers and analogues and salts of derivatives, isomers and analogues" are included in Section I of Schedule III of the act. Cathinone
Cathinone
Cathinone, or Benzoylethanamine, is a monoamine alkaloid found in the shrub Catha edulis and is chemically similar to ephedrine, cathine and other amphetamines. Cathinone induces the release of dopamine from striatal preparations that are prelabelled either with dopamine or its precursors. It is...
and methcathinone
Methcathinone
Methcathinone , is a psychoactive stimulant, sometimes used as a recreational drug and considered addictive. It is usually snorted, but can be smoked, injected, or taken orally...
are listed in separate sections of Schedule III while diethylpropion and pyrovalerone
Pyrovalerone
Pyrovalerone is a psychoactive drug with stimulant effects via acting as a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor , and is used for the clinical treatment of chronic fatigue or lethargy and as an anorectic or appetite suppressant for weight loss purposes...
(also cathinones), are listed in separate sections of Schedule IV, each without language to capture analogues, isomers, etc. According to The Globe and Mail
The Globe and Mail
The Globe and Mail is a nationally distributed Canadian newspaper, based in Toronto and printed in six cities across the country. With a weekly readership of approximately 1 million, it is Canada's largest-circulation national newspaper and second-largest daily newspaper after the Toronto Star...
, mephedrone is considered a controlled substance by Health Canada
Health Canada
Health Canada is the department of the government of Canada with responsibility for national public health.The current Minister of Health is Leona Aglukkaq, a Conservative Member of Parliament appointed to the position by Prime Minister Stephen Harper.-Branches, regions and agencies:Health Canada...
. According to the Canadian Medical Association
Canadian Medical Association
The Canadian Medical Association , with more than 70,000 members, is the largest association of doctors in Canada and works to represent their interests nationally. It formed in 1867, three months after Confederation...
, mephedrone is grouped with other amphetamines as Schedule III controlled substances. There have been several media reports of the Canadian police seizing mephedrone. Mephedrone is also currently unscheduled in the United States
Controlled Substances Act
The Controlled Substances Act was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. The CSA is the federal U.S. drug policy under which the manufacture, importation, possession, use and distribution of certain...
. The Drug Enforcement Administration
Drug Enforcement Administration
The Drug Enforcement Administration is a federal law enforcement agency under the United States Department of Justice, tasked with combating drug smuggling and use within the United States...
state that as an analogue of methcathinone
Methcathinone
Methcathinone , is a psychoactive stimulant, sometimes used as a recreational drug and considered addictive. It is usually snorted, but can be smoked, injected, or taken orally...
, possession of mephedrone can be controlled by the Federal Analog Act
Federal Analog Act
The Federal Analog Act, , is a controversial section of the United States Controlled Substances Act which allowed any chemical "substantially similar" to a controlled substance listed in Schedule I or II to be treated as if it were also listed in those schedules, but only if intended for human...
, but according to the Los Angeles Times this only applies if it is sold for human consumption. Several cities and states, such as New York, have passed legislation to specifically list mephedrone as illegal, but in most areas it is legal, so long as it is not sold for human consumption and therefore retailers describe it as 'bath salts'.
Mephedrone is also illegal in Spain since the February 9 of 2011.
As of September 7, 2011, The United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is using its emergency scheduling authority to temporarily control mephedrone. This action was claimed to be necessary to protect the public from the supposed hazard posed by the drug. Except as authorized by law, this action will make possessing and selling Mephedrone or the products that contain it illegal in the U.S. for at least one year while the DEA and the United States Department of Health and Human Services conduct further study.
See also
- 4-Methylamphetamine4-Methylamphetamine4-Methylamphetamine is a stimulant and anorectic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes....
- 4-Methylthioamphetamine
- MethamphetamineMethamphetamineMethamphetamine is a psychostimulant of the phenethylamine and amphetamine class of psychoactive drugs...
- para-Methoxyamphetamine