Athura (
Old PersianThe Old Persian language is one of the two attested Old Iranian languages . Old Persian appears primarily in the inscriptions, clay tablets, seals of the Achaemenid era...
for
Assyria) was a geographical area within the Persian
Achaemenid EmpireThe Achaemenid Empire or Persian Empire was the successor state of the Median Empire, ruling over significant portions of what would become Greater Iran. The Persian and the Median Empire taken together are also known as the Medo-Persian Empire, succeeding the Neo-Assyrian Empire...
during the period of 539 BC to 330 BC. Although sometimes regarded as a
satrapSatrap was the name given to the governors of the provinces of ancient Median and Persian empires, including the Achaemenid Empire and in several of their heirs, such as the Sassanid Empire and the Hellenistic empires....
y, Achaemenid royal inscriptions list it as a
dahyu, a concept generally interpreted as meaning either a group of people or both a country and its people, without any administrative implication.
It mostly incorporated the original Assyrian homeland in the upper
TigrisThe Tigris is the eastern member of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates. The river flows from the mountains of southeastern Turkey through Iraq.-Geography:...
, the middle and upper
EuphratesThe Euphrates is the longest and historically one of the most important rivers of Southwest Asia. Together with the Tigris, the Euphrates is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia...
, modern-day Syria (
Eber-NariEber-Nari or Abar-Nahara was the name of a region of Western Asia and a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire, which roughly corresponded with the Levant. It means "Beyond the River" or "Across the River" in both Akkadian and Aramaic...
) and part of south-east Turkey. The
Neo-Assyrian EmpireThe Neo-Assyrian Empire was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 934 BC and ended in 609 BC. During this period, Assyria assumed a position as a great regional power, vying with Babylonia and other lesser powers for dominance of the region, though not until the reforms of Tiglath-Pileser...
collapsed under the invasion of
Iranian peoplesAncient Iranian peoples who settled Greater Iran in the 2nd millennium BC first appear in Assyrian records in the 9th century BC. They remain dominant throughout Classical Antiquity in Scythia and Persia.-Origins:...
in the late 7th century BC, culminating in the
Battle of NinevehThe Battle of Nineveh was fought in 612 BC. It witnessed the Assyrian capital of Nineveh being besieged, conquered, and sacked by allied forces of Medes, Scythians, Babylonians and Susianians. King Sin-shar-ishkun of Assyria was killed in the sack....
. Between 612 and 559 BC, Assyria was divided between the Median Empire to the east and the
Neo-Babylonian EmpireThe term Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean refers to Babylonia under the rule of the 11th dynasty, from the revolt of Nabopolassar in 626 BC until the invasion of Cyrus the Great in 539 BC, notably including the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II....
to the west. Both parts were subsumed into the
Achaemenid EmpireThe Achaemenid Empire or Persian Empire was the successor state of the Median Empire, ruling over significant portions of what would become Greater Iran. The Persian and the Median Empire taken together are also known as the Medo-Persian Empire, succeeding the Neo-Assyrian Empire...
in 539 BC, and it has been argued that they constituted the satrapies of Media and Athura, respectively. In
HerodotusHerodotus of Halicarnassus was a Greek historian who lived in the 5th century BC and is regarded as the "Father of History" in Western culture. He was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a...
' account the Ninth Tributary District comprised "Babylonia and the rest of Assyria", and excluded Eber-Nari.
Despite a few
rebellionRebellion is a refusal of obedience or order. It may, therefore, be seen as encompassing a range of behaviors from civil disobedience and mass nonviolent resistance, to violent and organized attempts to destroy an established authority such as the government. Those who participate in rebellions are...
s, Assyria functioned as an important part of the Achaemenid Empire. The Assyrian population was given the right to govern itself throughout Achaemenid rule, and the Assyrian (Aramaic) language was used diplomatically by the Persians. Known for their combat skills, Assyrian soldiers (along with the
LydiansLydians were the inhabitants of Lydia, a region in western Anatolia. Their capital was at Sardis. Their recorded history of statehood, which covers three dynasties,manyak,sharmoot,haywaan came to an abrubt end after a military defeat in the 6th century BC, while the account of their roots, mixed...
) constituted the main heavy infantry of the Achaemenid empire's military. Due to the major
destructionDestruction is the act of damaging something beyond use or repair. It may also refer to:* Destruction , a German thrash metal band* Destruction , one of the Endless in Neil Gaiman's comic book series The Sandman...
of Assyria during the fall of its empire, some scholars describe the area as an "uninhabited wasteland." Other Assyriologists, however, such as John Curtis, have strongly disputed this claim, citing how Assyria would eventually become one of the wealthiest regions among the Achaemenid Empire. This wealth was due to the land's great prosperity for
agricultureAgriculture is the production of food and goods through farming and forestry. Agriculture was the key development that led to the rise of human civilization, with the husbandry of domesticated animals and plants creating food surpluses that enabled the development of more densely populated and...
that the Persians used effectively for almost 200 years. In contrast to the policy of the Assyrian Empire, the Achaemenid Persians did not intervene in the internal affairs of their ruling satrapies as long as they continued the flow of tribute and taxes back to Persia.
Fall of the Assyrian Empire
Between the 9th and 7th centuries BC, the
Neo-Assyrian EmpireThe Neo-Assyrian Empire was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 934 BC and ended in 609 BC. During this period, Assyria assumed a position as a great regional power, vying with Babylonia and other lesser powers for dominance of the region, though not until the reforms of Tiglath-Pileser...
dominated the Middle East militarily and politically, and at one point, the Persians and their neighbors the
MedesThe Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. This area is known as Media...
were vassals of Assyria and paid tribute. In the late 7th century BC, however, the Assyrians suffered a number of calamities that led to the sacking of the old capital
AssurAssur , was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria...
by the Medes, who then combined forces with
BabylonBabylon was a city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad...
and sacked the new capital
NinevehNineveh , an "exceeding great city", as it is called in the Book of Jonah, lay on the eastern bank of the Tigris in ancient Assyria, across the river from the modern-day major city of Mosul, Iraq.-Geography:Ancient Nineveh's mound-ruins of Kouyunjik and Nabī Yūnus are located...
in 612 BC. The
Battle of NinevehThere were two battles named Battle of Nineveh:*Battle of Nineveh *Battle of Nineveh...
eventually left Assyria destroyed for years to come. The Assyrians continued to fight on, with the aid of
EgyptAncient Egypt was an ancient civilization of eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. The civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, and...
who feared the rise of the Babylonians. Harran, the new Assyrian capital, was eventually taken in 608 BC. Despite this, the Egyptians later sent another force to assist the Assyrians in 605 BC.
A costly but victorious
battle at MegiddoThis Battle of Megiddo is recorded as having taken place in 609 BC with Necho II of Egypt leading his army to Carchemish to fight with his allies the Assyrians against the Babylonians at Carchemish in northern Syria. This required passing through territory controlled by the Kingdom of Judah and...
against the forces of
JudahThe Kingdom of Judah existed at two periods in Jewish history. According to the Hebrew Bible, a kingdom emerged in Judah after the death of Saul, when the tribe of Judah elevated David, who came from the Tribe of Judah, to rule over it. After seven years David became king of a reunited Kingdom of...
allowed the Egyptians to advance to the rescue, only to be defeated by the Babylonian-Median alliance. Assyria was conquered by Babylonia. Babylonian rule was unpopular, but did not last long. When the Babylonian King
NabonidusNabonidus was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, reigning from 556-539 BCE.-Historiography on Nabonidus:...
made war with Persia, he was defeated by an outnumbered
Cyrus the GreatCyrus the Great , also known as Cyrus II of Persia and Cyrus the Elder, was the first Zoroastrian Persian Shāhanshāh...
at the Battle of Sardis in 546 BC. Cyrus's armies took Babylon and made it, along with Assyria, into provinces of the
Persian EmpireThe Achaemenid Empire or Persian Empire was the successor state of the Median Empire, ruling over significant portions of what would become Greater Iran. The Persian and the Median Empire taken together are also known as the Medo-Persian Empire, succeeding the Neo-Assyrian Empire...
.
Athura as part of the Achaemenid Empire
Inhabitance at the former major Assyrian capitals was sparse during the Achaemenid rule. Assyrian settlement were mostly in small villages at plain level or on mounds such as Tell ed-Darim. Despite most of the Assyrian land was left in ruins from the battles that led to the fall of its empire in the
previous centuryThe 7th century BC started the first day of 700 BC and ended the last day of 601 BC.The Assyrian Empire continued to dominate the near east during this century, exercising formidable power over neighbors like Babylon and Egypt. In the last two decades of the century, however, the empire began to...
, rural Assyria was prosperous according to the Greek scholar
XenophonXenophon , son of Gryllus, of the deme Erchia of Athens, also known as Xenophon of Athens and Xenophon of Thebes, was a soldier, mercenary, and a contemporary and admirer of Socrates...
. After passing Nimrud and Nineveh (which he described in ruins), Xenophon and the Greeks turned north-west, following the east bank of the Tigris River, he described rural Assyria as:
The testimony is an example of the rich agricultural resources of Athura's region and the existence of a satrap’s palace.
It is not known exactly where this palace was located, but Layard suggest it may have been near
ZakhoZakho is a district and a town in Iraqi Kurdistan located a few kilometers from the Iraqi-Turkish Ibrahim Khalil border....
.
An inscription found in Egypt written by
ArsamesArsames was a satrap of Egypt during the late Fifth Century BC. Among the most interesting documents he issued was one written in Aramaic on behalf of his estate manager, Nehtihor, in which he mentions a few cities in Assyria, showing that the region was economically active during the Achaemenid...
describes a few Assyrian cities whom obtained administrative centres within Achaemenid rule:
- Lair: Assyrian Lahiru (Eski Kifri), by the Diyala Valley
- Arzuhina: Tell Chemchemal, 40 kilometers east of Kirkuk
Kirkuk , , , Kurdish: Kerkûk/کهرکووک , Turkish: Kerkük is a city in Iraq and capital of Kirkuk Governorate....
- Arbela
Arbil is believed to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world and is the third-largest city in Iraq after Baghdad and Mosul. The city lies eighty kilometres east of Mosul...
- Halsu: Location unknown
- Matalubash: Assyrian Ubaše (Tell Huwaish), 20 kilometers north of ancient city of Assur
Assur , was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria...
Prior to the Persian rule of Assyria, The Achaemenids were greatly Assyrianized, and Aramaic continued as the
lingua francaA lingua franca is a language systematically used to communicate between persons not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both persons' mother tongues.Lingua franca is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic history or...
of the Empire in the region, with the
Assyrian scriptAssyrian script may refer to:*The traditional name for the Hebrew alphabet*The Eastern variant of the Syriac alphabet*Cuneiform, a writing system used for the extinct Akkadian language...
being the everyday writing system. Local religion within the empire were tolerated, and the judicial system, calendar and imperial standards imposed by the Assyrians remained in force everywhere.
The Assyrians, like all other tributary peoples of the Persian Empire, were obliged to pay taxes to the King of Persia and, whenever the King campaigned, supply troops as well. Reliefs of Assyrian tribute bearers carved on the east and north sides of the Apadana, consist of seven bearded men: one carrying
animal skinsLeather is a material created through the tanning of hides and skins of animals, primarily cattlehide. The tanning process converts the putrescible skin into a durable and versatile material....
, one carrying a length of cloth, two carrying bowls, and two leading Mouflons.
Rise of Aramaic
The Assyrian Empire resorted to a policy of deporting conquered peoples into the lands of
MesopotamiaMesopotamia "land between the rivers" is a name for the Tigris–Euphrates region in the eastern Mediterranean, largely corresponding to Iraq, as well as northeastern Syria, some parts of southeastern Turkey, and some parts of the Khūzestān Province of southwestern...
and, in turn, settling Assyrian colonists in newly conquered lands. In this way it was hoped that a multi-cultural society would form. While this allowed some integration, it may have also led to the various rebellions within the Empire in the 7th century. By the 6th century, the many peoples in Mesopotamia spoke many languages, most of which were a derivative of Aramaic. Consequently, during the Persian rule of Assyria, Aramaic gradually became the main language spoken by the Assyrians.
Even before the Empire fell, many could speak Aramaic, and the ruling elite of Assyria needed to have been bilingual, capable of speaking both
AkkadianAkkadian is an extinct Semitic language that was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia. The earliest attested Semitic language, it used the cuneiform writing system derived ultimately from ancient Sumerian, an unrelated language isolate...
and Aramaic. The conquest of Assyria and the violent destruction of the cities meant that these bilingual skilled individuals died with their language and the Aramaic script was incorporated into the Assyrian culture by around the late 6th century BC.
Following the Achaemenid conquest of Assyria under Darius I, the
Aramaic languageAramaic is a Semitic language with a 3,000-year history. It has been the language of administration of empires and the language of divine worship...
was adopted as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages." The use of a single
official languageAn official language is a language that is given a special legal status in a particular country, state, or other territory. Typically a nation's official language will be the one used in that nation's courts, parliament and administration. However, official status can also be used to give a...
, which modern scholarship has dubbed "Official Aramaic" or "Imperial Aramaic", and be assumed to have greatly contributed to the success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did. Imperial Aramaic was highly standardized; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of Persian gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language. Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the "
lingua francaA lingua franca is a language systematically used to communicate between persons not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both persons' mother tongues.Lingua franca is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic history or...
" of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought.
For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenids, Imperial Aramaic – or near enough for it to be recognizable – remained an influence on the various native
Iranian languagesThe Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily, Indo-Iranian. They are spoken by the Iranian peoples. Avestan is the oldest recorded Iranian language....
. Aramaic script and – as ideograms – Aramaic vocabulary survived as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi writing system.
One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the
PersepolisPersepolis was the ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire during the Achaemenid dynasty. Persepolis is situated northeast of the modern city of Shiraz in the Fars Province of modern Iran...
fortification tablets, which number about five hundred. Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from
EgyptEgypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Western Asia...
, and
ElephantineElephantine is an island in the River Nile, located just downstream of the First Cataract at at the southern border of Ancient Egypt. This region is referred to as Upper Egypt because the land is higher than that near the Mediterranean coast. It may have received its name because it was a...
in particular. Of them, the best known is the
Wisdom of Ahiqar, a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical
book of ProverbsThe Book of Proverbs is a book of the Hebrew Bible , included in the collected works known as the "Writings" or Ketuvim.-Title:...
. Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language.
A group of thirty Imperial Aramaic documents from
BactriaBactria was the ancient name of a historical region in Central Asia, located between the range of the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya...
were recently discovered, and an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BCE Achaemenid provinces of Bactria and
SogdianaSogdiana or Sogdia was the ancient civilization of an Iranian people and a province of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, the eighteenth in the list in the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great...
.
Revolt of Assyria, 520 BC
In 520 BC the two Assyrian Provinces of Mada and Athura revolted against the Persian Empire. Though the revolt was quickly suppressed, it illustrated that the two regions acted in unison, suggesting perhaps a cultural link. Having said this a rebellion could occur in several different parts of an Empire for geographical reasons and it may have been that the whole of the Mesopotamia region became swept with rebellion.
Campaigns
Although the effectiveness of the Assyrian army was shown to be poor in its collapse, the soldiers of Assyria continued to be brave and fierce warriors. Most soldiers at the time would not wear heavy armor, but rather than act as
meleeMelee generally refers to disorganized close combat involving a group of fighters. A melee ensues when groups become locked together in combat with no regard to group tactics or fighting as an organized unit; each participant fights as an individual.-Origin of the term:The French term is the...
troops, would serve as skirmishers. The Assyrian troops were different however, since they fought as archers, cavalry and heavy infantry and were useful as front line troops. The Assyrian infantry was specifically trained to engage in hand-to-hand. A massive army was assembled by Xerxes in the early 5th century BC. Contemporary estimates place the numbers between 100,000 to over a million. Whatever the number, it was enormous and the Persians summoned troops from all across their realm. Herodotus remarks that Assyrian soldiers were employed in Xerxes' expedition to Greece.
Influence of Assyrian art on Achaemenid sculpture
The Assyrians continued to serve the Persians under King
DariusDarius I or Darius the Great , was a Zoroastrian Persian Shahanshah of Persia...
who was at his time considered the greatest ruler, often styling himself as "King of Kings." He ruled as a king over many other powerful subordinates and, as such, it was believed that a great palace should be built at the Persian city of Susa. The Assyrians were employed in the construction of this building, albeit with many other tributary peoples as well as Persians themselves. The Western Assyrians of Athura were closer to Mount Lebanon, where fine trees could be found and timber processed for Darius' grand Palace. The Eastern Assyrians of Mada were charged with excavating gold.
Assyrian influence over Achaemenid art and sculpture can be seen in various areas of the empire. Examples include the doorway relief of the palaces in
PasargadaePasargadae , the capital of Cyrus the Great and also his last resting place, was a city in ancient Persia, and is today an archaeological site and one of Iran's five UNESCO World Heritage Sites....
, and in the
BukanBukan is a city south of Lake Urmia about 1,300 metres above sea level. It lies in the West Azarbaijan Province of Iran. According to the 2006 census, population of the city was 149,340 and the county of Boukan had a population of 204,308.The population of Bukan is Kurdish.-External links:* entry...
area (near
UrmiaUrmia or Orumieh , is a city in Northwestern Iran and the capital of West Azerbaijan Province. The city lies on an altitude of 1,330 m above sea level on the Shahar Chaye river...
) where various tiles are decorated with human-headed winged figures, lions, and
ibexAn ibex is an individual of any of several species of wild mountain goats , distinguished by the male's large recurved horns, which are transversely ridged in front. Ibex are found in Eurasia, North Africa, and East Africa...
es. The symbol of the Assyrian God,
AshurAššur was the head of the Assyrian pantheon. His origins are unknown but he is one of the Mesopotamian city gods, namely of the city Assur , once the capital of the Old Assyrian kingdom. It might therefore be that he was a personification of the city itself...
, was chosen as the
symbolFaravahar is one of the best-known symbols of Zoroastrianism, a state religion of the ancient Persian Empires. In Iran, the present-day successor state of the ancient Persian Dynasties, Zoroastrianism is no longer the official state religion; however, the Faravahar has now come to represent a...
of the
Zoroastrian faithZoroastrianism is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet Zoroaster , after whom the religion is named. The term Zoroastrianism is, in general usage, essentially synonymous with Mazdaism, i.e...
's God, Ahuramazda during the Achaemenid rule of Assyria.
But perhaps the best example of Assyrian influence can be observed in the "Gate of all Nations" in
PersepolisPersepolis was the ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire during the Achaemenid dynasty. Persepolis is situated northeast of the modern city of Shiraz in the Fars Province of modern Iran...
, with two Lamassus (human-headed winged bull) in the entrance. The Assyrian lamassu, however, was used to protect the palace from evil spirits, while those of Persepolis expressed meditative calm and humanity. Iranologists and Assyriologists have tried to answer the question of how was the influence transmitted. Possibilities include contacts between Athura and Persia were frequent and Achaemenid architects visited the Assyrian palaces. Other suggest Assyrian slaves were brought back to Persia to have them work on the new palaces.
Economy
As with many other countries, the primary occupation was farming. The large output of Mesopotamian farms resulted in highly populated civilizations. The chief crop that fueled the ever-growing civilizations in the region was the grain barley and enumer wheat though sesame seeds also provided a source of nourishment. Like much of the rest of the world at the time, the economy of Athura relied heavily upon the produce of the farms and the rivers, including fish and what fruit and meat could be raised in the Euphrates' fertile soils. The agricultural year began with sowing after summer. Flooding posed a serious risk to farmers, whilst rodents were supposedly driven off by prayers to the rodent god. To ensure that such prayers were answered, tall silos were built to house the grain and keep out the mice.
Trees were grown for their fruit. To prevent the hot winds of the region from destroying the crops, tall palm trees were planted around the smaller trees, thus breaking the wind and shading the plants from the heat of the sun, the intensity of which provided plenty for the plants, even when shaded. Following the Persian conquest, peaches were added to the original Assyrian mix of apples, cherries, figs, pears, plums and pomegranates. Tree growing was an art mastered with tree-cutting and even "artificial mating" in order to have the Palm trees yield fruit. In the north, rainfall in Athura met the demands of farming but in the more southernly parts (covering Mada) Shadufs were used to assist in irrigation.
Oxen, donkeys, cattle and sheep were raised, the latter for their milk (which could be turned into butter) and the former as draught animals. Pigs, ducks, geese and chickens were all raised for their meat. Hunting supplemented the food supply with birds and fish.
The down-time resulting from farming and the seasons allows men and women to master other skills in life such as the arts, philosophy and leisure. Without the fertile soils of the
EuphratesThe Euphrates is the longest and historically one of the most important rivers of Southwest Asia. Together with the Tigris, the Euphrates is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia...
river valley, civilization would not have come to be.
Nimrud
NimrudNimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located south of Nineveh on the river Tigris. In ancient times the city was called Kalḫu. The Arabs called the city Nimrud after Nimrod, a legendary hunting hero....
's buildings were dramatically destroyed during the sacking of 614–612 BC. However, evidence of reoccupation during the "post-Assyrian period" (612–539 BC) is noted in various areas, including the Palace of
Adad-nirari IIIAdad-nirari III was King of Assyria from 811 to 783 BC. He was the son and successor of Shamshi-Adad V, and was apparently quite young at the time of his accession, because for the first five years of his reign his mother Shammuramat acted as regent, which may have given rise to the legend of...
, the North-West Palace, the Burnt Palace and Nabu Temple complex, Fort Shalmaneser, and the Town-Wall Houses.
Xenephon passed by the Nimrud (which he called Larissa) in 401 BC along with 10,000 Greek soldiers and described the city as
Despite Xenephon’s description of the city as being abandoned, archaeological evidence seems to show that there was some Achaemenid-period occupation. Phase 3 or H in the Nabu Temple complex and Burnt Palace is described as Achaemenid occupation. They include traces of kilns on the south side of Room 47 in the Burnt Palace, together with red glass ingots and slag, which after a radiocarbon analysis yielded a date of 425 +/- 50 BC. In the Nabu Temple, a pipe lamp and a group of seven pottery vessels are considered to be "ascribed to the Achaemenid period." There was also some Achaemenid occupation in the South-East Palace: a deep footed bowl, a hemispherical bowl (which is compared with pottery from the Achaemenid village at Susa), and three pottery vessels. Also in the South-East Palace were two "eye of Horus" amulets, often regarded as hallmarks of Achaemenid period material culture. Another eye of Horus amulet has been found in the Town Hall Houses. In the palace of Adad-nirari III, three bronze kohl sticks with castellated heads having been identified as Achaemenid period.
Assur
Like other Assyrian capitals,
AssurAssur , was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria...
was greatly destroyed during the battles of the century before. The importance of the city thereafter is not clear, but much evidence indicate it was a flourishing city during the Achaemenid rule. After the Babylonian conquest by
Cyrus the GreatCyrus the Great , also known as Cyrus II of Persia and Cyrus the Elder, was the first Zoroastrian Persian Shāhanshāh...
, the "
Cyrus CylinderThe Cyrus cylinder, also known as the Cyrus the Great cylinder, is a document issued by the Persian ruler Cyrus the Great in the form of a clay cylinder inscribed in Akkadian cuneiform script...
" mentions Assur as one of the cities of which cult statues were returned.
In 401 BC, Xenephon describes the city as
At the Assur Temple, two shrines have been identified as being built during 5th to 3rd century BC. A few graves at the site also may have been belonged to the Achaemenid period. From the grave site, a pair of circular earrings with globules has clearly been identified as Achaemenid. These earrings are similar to the silver earring found at Khorsabad, near Nineveh. In another grave, Haller dates grave number 811 as Achaemenid period. The grave contained three bodies, a stamp-seal showing the goddess, Ishtar, standing on the back of a lion. This might indicate that Ashurism was still being practiced within the Assyrian population during the Achaemenid rule. Other objects from the grave 811 include a bronze fibula; another earring, but gold rather than the earlier described silver; different kinds of beads of silver, agate, frit and glass; an alabastron; a bowl made of copper; and two pottery bottles. It is not clear, however, if all the items are Achaemenid in date.
Tel ed-Daim
To the northeast of
KirkukKirkuk , , , Kurdish: Kerkûk/کهرکووک , Turkish: Kerkük is a city in Iraq and capital of Kirkuk Governorate....
, the site of Tel ed-Daim shows significant evidence of Achaemenid rule. A small fortified palace (most probably for a local governor) includes a bronze wall-plaques, a bronze snaffle-bit of a type well-known from Achaemenid contexts at Persepolis, kohl tubes with ribbed decoration tapering, and pottery. The pottery in the palace show similarities with the pottery from Nimrud that has been identified as Achaemenid.
Eski Mosul Dam Salvage Project
In Eski Mosul Dam Salvage Project, a few items have been identified as Achaemenid period. The project was located to the northwest of
MosulMosul is a city in northern Iraq and the capital of the Ninawa Governorate, some 400 km northwest of Baghdad...
, in the upper Tigirs valley, and within the Assyrian heartland. In the Kharabeh Shattani site, various amounts of pottery have been dated Achaemenid. These include, four bowls of which have similarities of Achaemenid bowls in Susa and Pasargadae. Other times include clay spindle whorls, two iron sickle blades, and a bronze plate optimistically identified as a horse’s forehead plaque. A bronze finger-ring with a crouching animal engraved on the bezel was also found in the site and is considered to be widespread in the Achaemenid empire. Also in the project, a grave site excavated found bodies that included a conical kohl pot and a bronze pin with a castellated top. These objects are considered to be distinctive Achaemenid type.
Assyria after the Achaemenid Period
In the late 4th century BC
Alexander the GreatAlexander III of Macedon, popularly known as Alexander the Great , was an Ancient Greek king of Macedon who created one of the largest empires in ancient history...
led his Greco-Macedonian army to conquer the Achaemenid Empire. The empire's vast territory and numerous tributary peoples ensured that rebellion would be a constant problem. This new Greek Empire relied upon the administrative system put in place by the Persians to govern these new lands; consequently, the Assyrian lands of Athura and Mada were administrated as such by their own Satraps. When Alexander the Great died, the Greek successor state of the Seleucid Empire, created in the
struggle over BabyloniaThe Babylonian War was a conflict fought between 311-309 BC between the Diadochi kings Antigonus Monophthalmus and Seleucus I Nicator, ending in a victory for the latter...
, retained control of much of the Persian Empire. The
Babylonian Chronicles of the Hellenistic PeriodThe Babylonian Chronicles are series of tablets recording major events in Babylonian history. They are thus one of the first steps in the development of ancient historiography...
now show the vitality of Greek culture in ancient cities like Babylon.
Whilst Greek rule beyond the Euphrates was subject to constant and eventually successful Iranian incursions, Assyria was forced to take the role of a frontier province, first defending the Seleucid Empire against the Parthians, later defending the Parthan Empire against the Romans. Greek rule in the East did not last long even though the cultural impacts did - by the mid-3rd century BC the Satraps, administrators of the various provinces in the Seleucid Empire began revolting against the Seleucid Empire in Persia and
BactriaBactria was the ancient name of a historical region in Central Asia, located between the range of the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya...
establishing their own domains. A temporary revival of Seleucid Power re-established Imperial authority in these regions in the late 3rd and early 2nd century BC but after which the Parthians soon came to incorporate the lands known as Assyria once again by the mid-2nd century BC.
Parthian rule aimed to emulate that of their Persian predecessors, the Achaemenids with a similar system of administration involving Satraps and smaller provinces. Indeed the main rebel behind the rise of Parthia from Seleucia was a Satrap himself. On top of this, the Parthian Empire was more decentralized and power was shared amongst clan leaders, hinting at the possibility of the retention of the provinces.
MesopotamiaMesopotamia "land between the rivers" is a name for the Tigris–Euphrates region in the eastern Mediterranean, largely corresponding to Iraq, as well as northeastern Syria, some parts of southeastern Turkey, and some parts of the Khūzestān Province of southwestern...
became the Heartland of the
Seleucid EmpireThe Seleucid Empire was a Hellenistic empire, i.e. a successor state of Alexander the Great's empire. The Seleucid Empire was centered in the near East and at the height of its power included central Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Persia, today's Turkmenistan, Pamir and parts of Pakistan...
with a new capital,
Seleucia on the TigrisSeleucia was one of the great cities of the world during Hellenistic and Roman times. It stood in Mesopotamia, on the west bank of the Tigris River, opposite the smaller town of Opis .-Seleucid empire:...
founded. As a result, much culture and knowledge was exchanged between the Greeks and the Assyrians. The invasions of Alexander the Great consisted not only of soldiers but scientists and Historians.
Beginning in the 1st century BC, the Romans began expanding their Empire at the cost of the Parthians. Initially the Nomadic military tactic of circling and shooting worked to deadly effect against the slow heavy moving infantry of the Romans. In time however, superior technology and strategy drove the Parthians out of the Mediterranean and most of Asia Minor. The Parthians continued to resist Roman rule, invading and in turn being invaded by the Romans many times, with their capital
CtesiphonCtesiphon, the imperial capital of the Arsacids and of the Sassanids, was one of the great cities of ancient Mesopotamia.The ruins of the city are located on the east bank of the Tigris, across the river from the Hellenistic city of Seleucia. Today, the remains of both cities lie in Iraq,...
being sacked three times. The consequence of these bloody and inconclusive wars meant that the Assyrian provinces bore the brunt of the fighting, with Assyrian troops fighting for one side and then, at the change of the governing of the lands of Mada and Athura, fighting for the other side. Naturally such events served to undermine the Assyrians.
By the 2nd century AD under the Emperor Trajan, the Romans began to achieve the upper hand against the Parthians and established the
Roman Province of AssyriaAssyria or Assyria Provincia was one of three provinces created by the Roman emperor Trajan in 116 C.E. following a successful military campaign against Parthia, in present-day Iraq. Despite Rome's military victory, Trajan's province was plagued with difficulties from the start...
along the Euphrates and Tigris.
See also
- Babylonia (Persian province)
- Media (Persian province)
- Assyria (Roman province)
Assyria or Assyria Provincia was one of three provinces created by the Roman emperor Trajan in 116 C.E. following a successful military campaign against Parthia, in present-day Iraq. Despite Rome's military victory, Trajan's province was plagued with difficulties from the start...
- Mesopotamia (Roman province)
Mesopotamia was one of three provinces created by the Roman emperor Trajan in AD 116 following a successful military campaign against Parthia. The acquisitions marked the peak of expansion of the Roman Empire and were evacuated by Hadrian only two years later, in AD 118. They did get to keep the...
- Asuristan
Asuristan was a province of the Sassanid Empire . The territory was taken during the fall of the Parthian Empire. The Sassanians renamed Babylon, to Asuristan. The region was previously known as Mesopotamia and is nowadays known as Iraq....
(Sassanid province)
- History of Mesopotamia