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Morse code
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Morse code is a type of character encoding that transmits telegraphic information using rhythm. Morse code uses a standardized sequence of short and long elements to represent the letters, numerals, punctuation and special characters of a given message. The short and long elements can be formed by sounds, marks, or pulses, in on off keying and are commonly known as "dots" and "dashes" or "dits" and "dahs". The speed of Morse code is measured in words per minute (WPM) or characters per minute, while fixed-length data forms of telecommunication transmission are usually measured in baud or bps.
Originally created for Samuel F. B. Morse's electric telegraph in the early 1840s, Morse code was also extensively used for early radio communication beginning in the 1890s.
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Encyclopedia
Morse code is a type of character encoding that transmits telegraphic information using rhythm. Morse code uses a standardized sequence of short and long elements to represent the letters, numerals, punctuation and special characters of a given message. The short and long elements can be formed by sounds, marks, or pulses, in on off keying and are commonly known as "dots" and "dashes" or "dits" and "dahs". The speed of Morse code is measured in words per minute (WPM) or characters per minute, while fixed-length data forms of telecommunication transmission are usually measured in baud or bps.
Originally created for Samuel F. B. Morse's electric telegraph in the early 1840s, Morse code was also extensively used for early radio communication beginning in the 1890s. For the first half of the twentieth century, the majority of high-speed international communication was conducted in Morse code, using telegraph lines, undersea cables, and radio circuits. However, the variable length of the Morse characters made it hard to adapt to automated circuits, so for most electronic communication it has been replaced by machine readable formats, such as Baudot code and ASCII.
The most popular current use of Morse code is by amateur radio operators, although it is no longer a requirement for amateur licensing in many countries. In the professional field, pilots and air traffic controllers are usually familiar with Morse code and require a basic understanding. Navigational aids in the field of aviation, such as VORs and NDBs, constantly transmit their identity in Morse code. Morse code is designed to be read by humans without a decoding device, making it useful for sending automated digital data in voice channels. For emergency signaling, Morse code can be sent by way of improvised sources that can be easily "keyed" on and off, making Morse code one of the most versatile methods of telecommunication in existence.
Development and history
Beginning in 1836, Samuel F. B. Morse and Alfred Vail developed an electric telegraph, which sent pulses of electrical current to control an electromagnet that was located at the receiving end of the telegraph wire. The technology available at the time made it impossible to print characters in a readable form, so the inventors had to devise an alternate means of communication. In 1837, William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone began operating electric telegraphs in England that also had electromagnets in the receivers; however, their systems used needle pointers that rotated to indicate the alphabetic characters being sent.
In contrast, Morse's and Vail's initial telegraph, which first went into operation in 1844, made indentations on a paper tape when an electrical current was transmitted. Morse's original telegraph receiver used a mechanical clockwork to move a paper tape. When an electrical current was received, an electromagnet engaged an armature that pushed a stylus onto the moving paper tape, making an indentation on the tape. When the current was interrupted, the electromagnet retracted the stylus, and that portion of the moving tape remained unmarked.
The Morse code was developed so that operators could translate the indentations marked on the paper tape into text messages. In his earliest code, Morse had planned to only transmit numerals, and use a dictionary to look up each word according to the number which had been sent. However, the code was soon expanded by Alfred Vail to include letters and special characters, so it could be used more generally. The shorter marks were called "dots", and the longer ones "dashes", and the letters most commonly used in the English language were assigned the shortest sequences.
In the original Morse telegraphs, the receiver's armature made a clicking noise as it moved into and out of position to mark the tape. Operators soon learned to translate the clicks directly into dots and dashes, making it unnecessary to use the paper tape. When Morse code was adapted to radio, the dots and dashes were sent as short and long pulses. It was later found that people become more proficient at receiving Morse code when it is taught as a language that is heard, instead of one read from a page. To reflect the sound of Morse code, practitioners began to vocalise a dot as "dit", and a dash as "dah".
Morse code was an integral part of international aviation. Commercial and military pilots were required to be familiar with it, both for use with early communications systems and identification of navigational beacons which transmitted continuous three letter ID's in Morse code. As late as the 1990s, aeronautical charts listed the three letter ID of each airport in Morse and sectional charts still show the Morse signals for Vortac and NDB used for in flight navigation.
Morse code was also used as an international standard for maritime communication until 1999, when it was replaced by the Global Maritime Distress Safety System. When the French navy ceased using Morse code in 1997, the final message transmitted was "Calling all. This is our last cry before our eternal silence." See also: 500 kHz
Modern International Morse Code
Morse code has been in use for more than 160 years — longer than any other electronic encoding system. What is called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse. The Modern International Morse code, or continental code, was created by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848 and initially used for telegraphy between Hamburg and Cuxhaven in Germany. After some minor changes, in 1865 it was standardised at the International Telegraphy congress in Paris (1865), and later made the norm by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as International Morse code. Morse's original code specification, largely limited to use in the United States, became known as American Morse code or "railroad code." American Morse is now very rarely used except in historical re-enactments.
Aviation
In aviation, instrument pilots use radio navigation aids. To ensure the stations they are using are servicable they all emit a short set of identification letters (usually a 2-5 letter version of the station name) in Morse code. Station identification letters are shown on air navigation charts. For example the Manchester VOR based at Manchester Airport is cut down to MCT, and so this MCT is broadcast out on the frequency. If a station is unservicable then it broadcasts TST. This means TEST and tells pilots that the station is unreliable.
Amateur radio
International Morse code today is most popular among amateur radio operators, where it is used as the pattern to key a transmitter on and off in the radio communications mode commonly referred to as "continuous wave" or "CW". The original amateur radio operators used Morse code exclusively, as voice-capable radio transmitters did not become commonly available until around 1920. Until 2003 the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) mandated Morse code proficiency as part of the amateur radio licensing procedure worldwide. However, the World Radiocommunication Conference of 2003 (WRC-03) made the Morse code requirement for amateur radio licensing optional. Many countries subsequently removed the Morse requirement from their licence requirements.
Until 1991, a demonstration of the ability to send and receive Morse code at 5 words per minute (WPM) was required to receive an amateur radio license for use in the United States from the Federal Communications Commission. Demonstration of this ability was still required for the privilege to use the HF bands. Until 2000, proficiency at the 20 WPM level was required to receive the highest level of amateur license (Extra Class); effective April 15, 2000, the FCC reduced the Extra Class requirement to 5 WPM. Finally, effective February 23, 2007, the FCC eliminated the Morse code proficiency requirements for all amateur licenses.
While voice and data transmissions are limited to specific amateur radio bands under U.S. rules, CW is permitted on all amateur bandsLF, MF, HF, UHF, and VHF, with one notable exception being the 60 meter band in the US. In some countries, certain portions of the amateur radio bands are reserved for transmission of Morse code signals only. Because Morse transmissions employ an on-off keyed radio signal, it requires less complex transmission equipment than other forms of radio communication. Morse code also requires less signal bandwidth than voice communication, typically 100150 Hz, compared to the roughly 2400 Hz used by single-sideband voice, although at a lower data rate. Morse code is received as a high-pitched audio tone, so transmissions are easier to copy than voice through the noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in very high noise / low signal environments. The fact that the transmitted energy is concentrated into a very limited bandwidth makes it possible to use narrow receiver filters, which suppress or eliminate interference on nearby frequencies. The narrow signal bandwidth also takes advantage of the natural aural selectivity of the human brain, further enhancing weak signal readability. This efficiency makes CW extremely useful for DX (distance) transmissions, as well as for low-power transmissions (commonly called "QRP operators", from the Q-code for "reduce power"). There are several amateur clubs that require solid high speed copy, the highest of these has a standard of 60 WPM. The American Radio Relay League offers a code proficiency certification program that starts at 10 WPM.
The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be sent led to the development of an extensive number of abbreviations to speed communication. These include prosigns and Q codes, plus a restricted standardized format for typical messages. This use of abbreviations also facilitates communication between operators who do not share a common language and thus would have great difficulty in communicating using voice modes.
Although the traditional telegraph key (straight key) is still used by many amateurs, the use of mechanical semi-automatic keyers (known as "bugs") and of fully-automatic electronic keyers is prevalent today. Computer software is also frequently employed to produce and decode Morse code radio signals.
Speed records
Operators skilled in Morse code can often understand ("copy") code in their heads at rates in excess of 40 WPM. International contests in code copying are still occasionally held. In July 1939 at a contest in Asheville in the United States Ted R. McElroy set a still-standing record for Morse copying, 75.2 WPM. In his online book on high speed sending, William Pierpont N0HFF notes some operators may have passed 100 WPM. By this time they are "hearing" phrases and sentences rather than words. The fastest speed ever sent by a straight key was achieved in 1942 by Harry Turner W9YZE (d. 1992) who reached 35 WPM in a demonstration at a U.S. Army base.
In speed contests between expert Morse code operators and expert cellphone SMS text messaging users, Morse code has consistently won.
Other uses
As of 2007 commercial radiotelegraph licenses are still being issued in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission. Designed for shipboard and coast station operators, they are awarded to applicants who pass written examinations on advanced radio theory and show 20 WPM code proficiency [this requirement is waived for "old" (20 WPM) Amateur Extra Class licensees]. However, since 1999 the use of satellite and very high frequency maritime communications systems (GMDSS) have essentially made them obsolete.
Radio navigation aids such as VORs and NDBs for aeronautical use broadcast identifying information in the form of Morse Code, though many VOR stations now also provide voice identification.
Military ships, including those of the U.S. Navy, have long used signal lamps to exchange messages in Morse code. Modern use continues, in part, as a way to communicate while maintaining radio silence.
Applications for the general public
An important application is signalling for help through SOS, "· · · · · ·". This can be sent many ways: keying a radio on and off, flashing a mirror, toggling a flashlight and similar methods.
Morse code as an assistive technology
Morse code has been employed as an assistive technology, helping people with a variety of disabilities to communicate. Morse can be sent by persons with severe motion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal motor control. In some cases this means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic tube ("puff and sip" interface). People with severe motion disabilities in addition to sensory disabilities (e.g. people who are also deaf or blind) can receive Morse through a skin buzzer.
In one case reported in the radio amateur magazine QST, an old shipboard radio operator who had a stroke and lost the ability to speak or write was able to communicate with his physician (a radio amateur) by blinking his eyes in Morse. Another example occurred in 1966 when prisoner of war Jeremiah Denton, brought on television by his North Vietnamese captors, Morse-blinked the word TORTURE.
Representation and timing
International Morse code is composed of five elements:
- short mark, dot or 'dit' (·) one unit long
- longer mark, dash or 'dah' () three units long
- intra-character gap (between the dots and dashes within a character) one unit long
- short gap (between letters) three units long
- medium gap (between words) seven units long
Morse code can be transmitted in a number of ways: originally as electrical pulses along a telegraph wire, but also as an audio tone, a radio signal with short and long tones, or as a mechanical or visual signal (e.g. a flashing light) using devices like an Aldis lamp or a heliograph.
Morse code is transmitted using just two states (on and off) so it was an early form of a digital code. Strictly speaking it is not binary, as there are five fundamental elements (see quinary). However, this does not mean Morse code cannot be represented as a binary code. In an abstract sense, this is the function that telegraph operators perform when transmitting messages. Working from the above definitions and further defining a 'unit' as a bit, we can visualize any Morse code sequence as a combination of the following five elements:
- short mark, dot or 'dit' (·) 1
- longer mark, dash or 'dah' () 111
- intra-character gap (between the dots and dashes within a character) 0
- short gap (between letters) 000
- medium gap (between words) 0000000
Note that this method works only under the assumption that dits and dahs are always separated by gaps, and that gaps are always separated by dits and dahs.
Morse messages are generally transmitted by a hand-operated device such as a telegraph key, so there are variations introduced by the skill of the sender and receiver more experienced operators can send and receive at faster speeds. In addition, individual operators differ slightly, for example using slightly longer or shorter dashes or gaps, perhaps only for particular characters. This is called their "fist", and receivers can recognize specific individuals by it alone.
The speed of Morse code is measured in wpm or cpm, according to the Paris standard which defines the speed of Morse transmission as the timing needed to send the word "Paris" a given number of times per minute. The word Paris is used because it is representative for a typical text in the English language, and the choice was influenced by the fact that the decision was taken at the International Telegraph Conference in Paris 1865.
Today the length of the reference word is 50 units (including 7 units of word spacing). At the Paris Conference the standard word spacing was specified to be only 5 units, making the total length of the reference word only 48 units, which may be seen in older literature.
The 40 % difference of the two word spacing lengths does have an impact on the evaluation of the results of receiving speed competitions performed at various occasions. X WPM at 5 units word spacing is more difficult to copy than the same text sent at the same nominal speed with 7 units word spacing.
Incidentally the word "Morse" is also 50 units.
The time for one unit can be computed by the formula:
- T = 1200 / W
or
- T = 6000 / C
Where: T is the unit time in milliseconds, W is the speed in wpm, and C is the speed in cpm.
Below is an illustration of timing conventions. The phrase "MORSE CODE", in Morse code format, would normally be written something like this, where - represents dahs and · represents dits:
-- --- ·-· ··· · -·-· --- -·· ·
M O R S E C O D E
Next is the exact conventional timing for this phrase, with = representing "signal on", and . representing "signal off", each for the time length of exactly one dit:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
12345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789
M------ O---------- R------ S---- E C---------- O---------- D------ E
....
..
...=..=...=.=.=...=.......
.=..=...
..
....=.=...=
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
| dah dit | |
symbol spaceletter space word space
Morse code is often spoken or written with "dah" for dashes, "dit" for dots located at the end of a character, and "di" for dots located at the beginning or internally within the character. Thus, the following Morse code sequence:
M O R S E C O D E
-- --- ·-· ··· · (space) -·-· --- -·· ·
is verbally:
Dah-dah dah-dah-dah di-dah-dit di-di-dit dit, Dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-dah dah-di-dit dit.
Note that there is little point in learning to read written Morse as above; rather, the sounds of all of the letters and symbols need to be learnt, for both sending and receiving.
Learning Morse Code
People learning Morse code using the Farnsworth method, named for Donald R. "Russ" Farnsworth, also known by his call sign, W6TTB, are taught to send and receive letters and other symbols at their full target speed, that is with normal relative timing of the dots, dashes and spaces within each symbol for that speed. However, initially exaggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give "thinking time" to make the sound "shape" of the letters and symbols easier to learn. The spacing can then be reduced with practice and familiarity. Another popular teaching method is the Koch method, named after German psychologist Ludwig Koch, which uses the full target speed from the outset, but begins with just two characters. Once strings containing those two characters can be copied with 90% accuracy, an additional character is added, and so on until the full character set is mastered.
Letters, numbers, punctuation
| Character | Code | Character | Code | Character | Code | Character | Code | Character | Code | Character | Code |
|---|
| | · | | · | | · · · | | · | Period [.] | · · · | Colon [:] | · · · | | | · · · | | · | | | | · · | Comma [,] | · · | Semicolon [;] | · · · | | | · · | | · · · | | · · | | · · · | Question mark [?] | · · · · | Double dash [=] | · · · | | | · · | | | | · · · | | · · · · | Apostrophe ['] | · · | Plus [+] | · · · | | | · | | · | | · | | · · · · · | Exclamation mark [!] | · · | Hyphen, Minus [-] | · · · · | | | · · · | | | | · · | | · · · · | Slash [/], Fraction bar | · · · | Underscore [_] | · · · | | | · | | · · | | · | | · · · | Parenthesis open [(] | · · | Quotation mark ["] | · · · · | | | · · · · | | · | | · · | | · · | Parenthesis closed [)] | · · | Dollar sign [$] | · · · · · | | | · · | | · · | | | | · | Ampersand [&], Wait | · · · · | At sign [@] | · · · |
There is no standard representation for the exclamation mark (!), although the KW digraph ( · · ) was proposed in the 1980s by the Heathkit Company (a vendor of assembly kits for amateur radio equipment). While Morse code translation software prefers this version, on-air use is not yet universal as some amateur radio operators in Canada and the USA continue to prefer the older MN digraph ( ·) carried over from American landline telegraphy code.
The &, $ and the _ signs are not defined inside the ITU recommendation on Morse code. The $ sign code was represented in the Phillips Code, a huge collection of abbreviations used on land line telegraphy, as SX. The representation of the &-sign given above is also the Morse prosign for wait.
On May 24, 2004the 160th anniversary of the first public Morse telegraph transmissionthe Radiocommunication Bureau of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) formally added the @ ("commercial at" or "commat") character to the official Morse character set, using the sequence denoted by the AC digraph (· · ·). This sequence was reportedly chosen to represent "A[T] C[OMMERCIAL]" or a letter "a" inside a swirl represented by a "C". The new character facilitates sending electronic mail addresses by Morse code and is notable since it is the first official addition to the Morse set of characters since World War I.
Prosigns
| Character(s) | Code | Character(s) | Code | Character(s) | Code |
|---|
| Wait | · - · · · | Error | · · · · · · · · | Understood | · · · - · | | Invitation to transmit | - · - | End of work | · · · - · - | Starting Signal | - · - · - |
Defined in the ITU recommendation.
Non-English extensions to the Morse code
| Char. | Code | Char. | Code | Char. | Code |
|---|
| δ (also ζ and a) | · · | θ (also l) | · · · | ρ (also n) | · | | ΰ (also ε) | · · | ι (also d and e) | · · · · | φ (also ψ and σ) | · | | η (also c and c) | · · · | g | · · | s | · · · · | | ch (also ) | | h | · · (Obsolete)
(New) | ώ ("Thorn") | · · · | | π ("Eth") | · · · | j | · · | ό (also u) | · · | | s | · · · · · · | z | · · · | z | · · |
Non-Latin extensions to Morse code
See Other alphabets in Morse code. For Chinese, Chinese telegraph code is used to map Chinese characters to four-digit codes and send these digits out using standard Morse code. For Korean, SKATS maps the hangul through to the same codes in Morse code and back to their equivalents in the Roman alphabet.
Alternative display of more common characters for the international code
Some methods of teaching or learning morse code use the dichotomic search table below.
See also
External links
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