Korean Buddhist sculpture - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

Korean Buddhist sculpture is one of the major areas of Korean art

Korean art

Korean art is art originating or practiced in Korea or by Korean artists, from ancient times to today. Korea is noted for its artistic traditions in pottery, music, calligraphy, and other genres, often marked by the use of bold color, natural forms, and surface decoration.-Introduction:The earliest...

. Some of the finest and most technically accomplished Buddhist sculpture in East Asia

East Asia

East Asia or Eastern Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms...

and World were produced in Korea.

Buddhism

Buddhism

Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...

, a religion originating in what is now India

India

India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...

, was transmitted to Korea

Korea

Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...

via China

China

Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...

in the late 4th century. Buddhism introduced major changes in Korean society. The complexity of the religious sutras sent to Korea required the aristocrats who adopted the religion to become literate and required the training and importation of literate scribes. Little evidence of religious art exists in Korea before the introduction of Buddhism. Subsequent to its introduction, the religion inspired the production of devotional art as well as the beginnings of sophisticated temple architecture.

Images of the Buddha were probably first imported by monks sent from China and the Buddhist sculpture of Korea is indebted to prototypes developed in India, Central Asia

Central Asia

Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...

, and China. From these influences, a distinctive Korean style formed. Korean Buddhas typically exhibit Korean facial characteristics, were made with native casting and carving techniques, and employed only some of the motifs that were developed earlier in Buddhist art. Additionally, Korean artisans fused together different styles from different regions with their own tastes to form a native art tradition. Korean art is too often incorrectly described in Western literature as merely a passive bridge transmitting Chinese art to Japan. One area of Korean art where this is decidedly not the case is in Korean Buddhist sculpture. Korean stylistic developments and forms were greatly influential in the Asuka, Hakuhō

Hakuhō period

The was an unofficial of Emperor Temmu after Hakuchi and before Suchō. The duration of this discrete non-nengō timespan lasted from 673 through 686.The Hakuhō period is more often used as a general term which describe a wider range of years....

, and Tenpyo periods of Japanese Buddhist sculpture

Japanese art

Japanese art covers a wide range of art styles and media, including ancient pottery, sculpture in wood and bronze, ink painting on silk and paper and more recently manga, cartoon, along with a myriad of other types of works of art...

when Korea transmitted Buddhism to Japan

Japan

Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...

in the 6th century.

Buddhist sculpture remains an important form of art in Korea today.

Background

Korean Buddhist sculpture are relatively rare. Many were lost or destroyed in various invasions, internecine fighting, temple fires, or were smuggled out to Japan during the colonial period. The relative scarcity of images makes it especially difficult for scholars to completely understand the development of the art in Korea. Images available for study are generally those that have been excavated, the lucky survivors of peninsular tumult, or those images preserved in Japan. Experts may, therefore, have differing opinions on the exact age or place of manufacture for any specific image based on available information.

Each individual Buddhist sculpture has various characteristics and attributes which art historians use as clues to determine when and where it was made. Sometimes a statue will have an inscription or contain a document which attests to when, where, and who made it. Reliable archaeological records which state where a statue was excavated are also valuable clues for the historian. However, when neither of these sources of information are available, scholars can still glean important information on an individual statue by its style, the particular iconography employed by the artist, physical characteristics such as the material used to make the statue, the percentage of metals used in an alloy, casting and carving techniques, and various other contextual clues.

Images in Korea are made from a variety of material: wood, lacquer

Lacquer

In a general sense, lacquer is a somewhat imprecise term for a clear or coloured varnish that dries by solvent evaporation and often a curing process as well that produces a hard, durable finish, in any sheen level from ultra matte to high gloss and that can be further polished as required...

, metal, clay, and stone. Those that survive today are typically small bronze votive images used for private worship and sculpture carved in granite, the most abundant sculpting material available in Korea. Monumental images made for state-sponsored monasteries and devotional objects the royal and aristocratic families, for the most part, have unfortunately not survived. Although wood and lacquer images were known to have been made in Korea based on historical records and can be assumed based on surviving images in China and Japan, the fragility of these materials mean very few have survived in Korea.

Three Kingdoms period (traditionally 57 BCE–668), fourth and fifth centuries

During the Three Kingdoms period

Three Kingdoms of Korea

The Three Kingdoms of Korea refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula and parts of Manchuria for much of the 1st millennium...

, Korea was divided into three competing states, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla, whose boundaries ran from Manchuria

Manchuria

Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...

to the tip of southern Korea. A fourth polity in the south, Gaya

Gaya confederacy

Gaya was a confederacy of territorial polities in the Nakdong River basin of southern Korea, growing out of the Byeonhan confederacy of the Samhan period.The traditional period used by historians for Gaya chronology is 42–532 CE...

also flourished during this period but no Buddhist image can be definitively attributed to this state. According to the Samguk sagi
Samguk Sagi
Samguk Sagi is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The Samguk Sagi is written in Classical Chinese and its compilation was ordered by Goryeo's King Injong Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of...

and Samguk yusa
Samguk Yusa
Samguk Yusa, or Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, is a collection of legends, folktales, and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea , as well as to other periods and states before, during, and after the Three Kingdoms period.The text was written in Classical Chinese, which was...

, the two oldest extant histories of Korea, Buddhism was officially introduced to Korea during the fourth century. In addition, the Haedong goseungjeon
Haedong Goseungjeon
The Haedong Goseungjeon was a compilation of mostly Korean Buddhist hagiographies, notably of famous monks from the Three Kingdoms period of Korean history....

states that monks from China were already in Korea prior to its official reception. Sundo, a monk from Former Qin

Former Qin

The Former Qin was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Founded by the Fu family of the Di ethnicity, it completed the unification of North China in 376. Its capital had been Xi'an up to the death of the ruler Fu Jiān. Despite its name, the Former Qin was much later and less powerful than...

, a northern Chinese state, was received by the king of Goguryeo in 372 and a Serindian monk, Malananda (Kr. Marananta), from southern China's Eastern Jin Dynasty was received by the Baekje king in 384. Archaeological discoveries have corroborated these assertions of the early introduction of Buddhism into Korea with the discovery of Goguryeo tomb murals

Complex of Goguryeo Tombs

The Complex of Goguryeo Tombs lie in North Korea. In July 2004, they became the first UNESCO World Heritage site in the country. The site consists of 30 individual tombs from the later Goguryeo kingdom, one of Three Kingdoms of Korea, located in the cities of P'yŏngyang and Namp'o...

with Buddhist motifs and the excavation of lotus shaped roof tiles dated to the 4th century. The rulers of both Korean kingdoms welcomed the foreign monks and immediately ordered monasteries be built for their use. The construction of Buddhist images soon followed.

The Ttukseom (McCune-Reischauer

McCune-Reischauer

McCune–Reischauer romanization is one of the two most widely used Korean language romanization systems, along with the Revised Romanization of Korean, which replaced McCune–Reischauer as the official romanization system in South Korea in 2000...

: Ttuksôm) Buddha ( image), named for the area of Seoul

Seoul

Seoul , officially the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea. A megacity with a population of over 10 million, it is the largest city proper in the OECD developed world...

in which it was discovered, is the earliest statue of Buddha in Korea. Scholars date it to the late 4th or early 5th century, around 400. The five centimeter tall gilt-bronze statuette follows certain stylistic conventions originating in Ghandara (present-day Pakistan

Pakistan

Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...

), which were later adopted by China.Pak and Whitfield, pg. 42 These include the rectangular platform upon which the Buddha sits which depicts two lions, a common symbol of Buddha. Additionally, it displays the dhyana mudra

Mudra

A mudrā is a symbolic or ritual gesture in Hinduism and Buddhism. While some mudrās involve the entire body, most are performed with the hands and fingers...

, a gesture of meditation, commonly found in early seated Buddhas of China and Korea, where the hands are interlocked and rest on the lap. A 5th century mural of Buddha found in a tomb just to the north of the modern border of North Korea shares several stylistic similarities with the Ttukseom Buddha including the depiction of the dhyana mudra, the fact that the robes cover both shoulders of the body, and the depiction of two lions around the rectangular base.

The stylistic similarities of this Buddha to those found in China lead most scholars to conclude that the image is an import. The possibility remains that the image is a Korean copy of a Chinese prototype. One reason to argue for a Korean provenance is the fact that the rectangular base of the Ttukseom Buddha is solid while Chinese examples are hollow, perhaps indicating a still developing sculpture casting tradition in early Korea. The discovery of the Ttukseom Buddha near the proposed site of Baekje's first capital

Wiryeseong

Wiryeseong was the name of two early capitals of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Both are believed to have been in the modern-day Seoul area...

and major citadel

Pungnap Toseong

Pungnaptoseong is a flat earthen wall built at the edge of the Han River, with a circumference of 3.5km. It is located in modern-day Pungnap-dong, Songpa-gu, Seoul, and previously was included in the neighboring city of Gwangju. It has a long oval shape, spreading to north and south, and leaning...

suggests the figure may be an example of Baekje sculpture. A very similar meditating Buddha discovered in the later Baekje capital of Sabi (now known as Buyeo

Buyeo County

Buyeo County is a county in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. Buyeo-eup, the county's capital, was the site of the capital of the Baekje kingdom from AD 538 to 660, when it was called Sabi....

) supports this theory, indicating these first images of Buddha were influential many years after their introduction or had been preserved to be transferred to a new capital. Other scholars suggest that the Ttukseom figure may be a Goguryeo piece because of the close stylistic similarities the figure has with the northern dynastic art, a typical feature of early Goguryeo sculpture.

Two Chinese examples shown below, one at the Asian Art Museum

Asian Art Museum of San Francisco

The Asian Art Museum of San Francisco is a museum in San Francisco, California, United States. It has one of the most comprehensive collections of Asian art in the world....

in San Francisco and the other at the National Palace Museum

National Palace Museum

The National Palace Museum is an art museum in Taipei. It is the national museum of the Republic of China, and has a permanent collection of over 677,687 pieces of ancient Chinese artifacts and artworks, making it one of the largest in the world. The collection encompasses over 8,000 years of...

in Taipei illustrate the similarities between early Korean and Chinese images. A Serindian example from the 5th century also displays the dhyana mudra and similar treatment of the robes in addition to also being example of the confluence of cultures along the Silk Road

Silk Road

The Silk Road or Silk Route refers to a historical network of interlinking trade routes across the Afro-Eurasian landmass that connected East, South, and Western Asia with the Mediterranean and European world, as well as parts of North and East Africa...

from India to Ghandara to China to Korea.
The only other examples of Korean Buddhist sculpture from the 4th or 5th century are some terra cotta

Terra cotta

Terracotta, Terra cotta or Terra-cotta is a clay-based unglazed ceramic, although the term can also be applied to glazed ceramics where the fired body is porous and red in color...

fragments from Goguryeo. Some scholars believe that the paucity of extant images from the earliest period of Korean Buddhism is due to the fact that the religion was practiced by a small number of aristocrats and did not become popular with the general population until the 6th century. Another reason for the lack of early images may be because the site of the earliest period of Baekje history is within the city of Seoul, an area so developed that it is difficult to excavate, while Goguryeo archaeological sites are generally off limits to South Korean scholars because they lie mostly in North Korea.

Buddha images

Seated Buddha images

Seated Buddha imagery remained popular during the 6th century in Korea. As mentioned above, an archaic seated Buddha resembling the Ttukseom Buddha was discovered in modern-day Buyeo, a city the Baekje king made his capital in 538. This old style was soon discarded for newer influences. By the second half of the 6th century while sculptors maintained the dhyana mudra they opted to displace the rectangular lion throne iconography for complicated drapery which were depicted cascading over the Buddha's seat. A seated Buddha at the National Museum of Korea while starkly different from its chronological counterpart, the Kunsu-ri seated Buddha from Baekje, in style shows that both kingdoms were adopting this new approach to seated figures. The Goguryeo seated Buddha displays typical Goguryeo traits, such as the rounded ushnisha and head and hands disproportionately larger relative to the body. The depiction of the folds of the robe over a now lost rectangular throne are exuberant with no sense of following a set scheme.

A Baekje soapstone seated Buddha discovered at the Kunsu-ri temple site in Buyeo displays the soft roundness and static nature of the early Baekje style during the second half of the 6th century. Unlike the Ttukseom seated Buddha, the Kunsu-ri Buddha features the robes of the Buddha draped over the rectangular platform and does away with the lions common in earlier images. The symmetrically stylized drapery folds is followed in later Japanese images, such as the Shakyamuni Triad in Hōryū-ji. Like the Ttukseom Buddha, the Kunsu-ri Buddha follows early Chinese and Korean conventions displaying the dhyana mudra. This particular mudra is notably absent in subsequent Japanese Buddhist sculpture which perhaps indicates that the iconography was out of style in Korea by the time Buddhist sculpture began arriving in Japan in the mid-sixth century. The seated Buddhas of the late 6th century begin to do away with the meditation gesture in favor of the wish-granting gesture and protection gesture. An example of this kind of seated Buddha is the Paekche triad now at the Tokyo National Museum and is followed by subsequent Japanese images, such as the aforementioned Shakyamuni Triad ( image) held at Hōryū-ji.
Standing Buddha images

One of the oldest surviving Korean Buddhas discovered so far is the Yŏn'ga (Revised Romanization: Yeon-ga) Buddha, an image that gives scholars a fair baseline for what images of the early 6th century looked like. The Buddha, the only one of a thousand commissioned to have survived, gets its name from the inscription on its back that mentions a previously unknown Goguryeo reign period. While it was excavated in Uiryong in Gyeongsangnam-do

Gyeongsangnam-do

Gyeongsangnam-do is a province in the southeast of South Korea. The provincial capital is located at Changwon. It contains the major metropolitan center and port of Busan. Located there is UNESCO World Heritage Site Haeinsa, a Buddhist temple that houses the Tripitaka Koreana and attracts many...

, former Silla

Silla

Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...

territory far from the borders of Goguryeo, the inscription clearly states the statue was cast in Nangnang (present-day Pyongyang

Pyongyang

Pyongyang is the capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, commonly known as North Korea, and the largest city in the country. Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River and, according to preliminary results from the 2008 population census, has a population of 3,255,388. The city was...

), Goguryeo. The statue is valuable because its inscription states a site of manufacture and date of manufacture, generally agreed to be 539. Additionally, the image is clear evidence that statues could move beyond national borders to neighboring states.

The rather crude carving on the mandorla of the Buddha exhibits the motion and dynamism typical of Goguryeo

Goguryeo

Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....

art. The figure exhibits the abhaya (no fear) mudra

Mudra

A mudrā is a symbolic or ritual gesture in Hinduism and Buddhism. While some mudrās involve the entire body, most are performed with the hands and fingers...

in its upraised proper right hand while the proper left hand displays the varada (wish-granting) mudra. Both mudras are typical of early Korean standing Buddhist sculpture and the folding of the last two fingers of the proper left hand to the palm is commonly found in early Korean sculpture. The Yon'ga Buddha also displays other attributes common to early Goguryeo Buddhas including the lean rectangular face, prominent protuberances on the head , large hands disproportionate to the body, an emphasis on the front of the figures, fishtail flaring of the robes on the sides, and the flame imagery on the mandorla. Korean Sculpture (Ancient, Goguryeo Period, Paekche Period, Paekche Period, Shilla Period, Unified Shilla Period, Metalwork, Pottery, Wood Crafts, Handicrafts)

The prototype of this Buddha derives from the non-Chinese Tuoba

Tuoba

Tuoba, or Tabgach, were a clan of Xianbei people of ancient China.-Xianbei Tuoba:Tuoba was a clan of the Xianbei people in the early centuries of the 1st millennium AD. They established the State of Dai from 310 to 376 AD, and the Northern Wei Dynasty from 386 to 536 AD...

clan of the Xianbei

Xianbei

The Xianbei were a significant Mongolic nomadic people residing in Manchuria, Inner Mongolia and eastern Mongolia. The title “Khan” was first used among the Xianbei.-Origins:...

people who established the Northern Wei

Northern Wei

The Northern Wei Dynasty , also known as the Tuoba Wei , Later Wei , or Yuan Wei , was a dynasty which ruled northern China from 386 to 534 . It has been described as "part of an era of political turbulence and intense social and cultural change"...

dynasty in northern geographic China. An example of a Northern Wei prototype, dated to 524, can be found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Metropolitan Museum of Art is a renowned art museum in New York City. Its permanent collection contains more than two million works, divided into nineteen curatorial departments. The main building, located on the eastern edge of Central Park along Manhattan's Museum Mile, is one of the...

, shown below. An Eastern Wei

Eastern Wei

The Eastern Wei Dynasty followed the disintegration of the Northern Wei, and ruled northern China from 534 to 550.In 534 Gao Huan, the potentate of the eastern half of what was Northern Wei territory following the disintegration of the Northern Wei dynasty installed Yuan Shanjian a descendant of...

Buddha ( image), dated to 536, is at the University of Pennsylvania Museum. Both images show the strong influence of the Northern Wei and its derivative dynasties on Korean art. Most images inscribed with a date during this period of history used the sexagenary cyle

Sexagenary cycle

The Chinese sexagenary cycle , also known as the Stems-and-Branches , is a cycle of sixty terms used for recording days or years. It appears, as a means of recording days, in the first Chinese written texts, the Shang dynasty oracle bones from the late second millennium BC. Its use to record years...

system; dates can be interpreted in more than one way by adding or subtracting sixty-year cycles to the inscribed year. Scholars must date images based on the context provided by other images. For example, the Yŏn'ga Buddha is generally accepted to date to 539 because of contemporaneous images from the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the University of Pennsylvania Museum, discussed above, which date to around that time, 524 and 536 respectively. 60 years before 539 would be a date too early for the Yon'ga Buddha while a date of 599 (adding sixty years) would make the image archaic and out of style.

Baekje sculpture of the 6th century reflect the influence of the native and foreign regimes ruling China during the period of Northern and Southern Dynasties. While Korean and Chinese records show direct diplomatic contacts between Baekje and the Northern Wei dynasty occurred during this time period, they pale in comparison to the numerous diplomatic missions between Baekje and the southern dynasties of China. Further complicating the understanding of the source of inspiration for Baekje Buddhist sculpture is the fact that the southern dynasties were influential in the development of northern sculpture and the fact that few images from the southern regimes have survived.

Another example of 6th-century sculpture is a triad now at the Gyeongju National Museum. Like contemporaneous examples from Goguryeo, the statue exhibits traits typical of the Northern Wei style, especially in the depiction of the robes. Some similarities with Goguryeo-specific traits include the fairly crude depiction of the flames in the mandorla, simplification being a common trait in extant early sculpture. The roundness of the face, the smile

Baekje smile

The Baekje smile is a term art historians use to refer to the common smile motif found in Baekje sculpture and bas-relief. Baekje figures express a unique smile that has been described as both enigmatic and subtle...

of the central Buddha as well as the harmonious proportions, static nature of the image, and a sense of warmth and humanity are features typically associated with the Southern Dynasties

Southern dynasties

The Southern dynasties comprise the Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang Dynasty and Chen Dynasty, whose capital were at Jiankang , and Emperor Yuan of Liang, as well as the later Western Liang emperors , also set their...

of China, and frequently occur in features of Baekje sculpture as well. The warm climate and fertile environment the kingdom was situated along with native sensibilities are credited as reasons for the Baekje style.

There are several other statues experts believe to be from the early sixth century exist. One ( standing buddha image), in the collection of the Asian Art Museum, is very similar to the Yŏn'ga Buddha in size (18.6 cm Vs. 16.3 cm in height) and style. Small differences between the two include the roundness of the face and the lack of plumpness of the lotus petals of the base of the Asian Art Museum image along with the more skillfully carved flame patterns and shape of the mandorla. No inscription was carved on the back of the mandorla but the consensus of Japanese experts dates the image to a time in the 6th century earlier than that of the Yŏn'ga Buddha. The lack of inscription and the subtle differences in styles means that the statue has not been attributed to a specific state in the Three Kingdoms period.

Single mandorla triads

The second early 6th-century image is a single mandorla triad, a Buddha image flanked by two bodhisattvas who are grouped standing in front of a single halo from the Korean Central History Museum in Pyongyang, North Korea. This image has an inscription on the back of the mandorla that scholars have interpreted to mean 539. Of the three images from the early 6th century mentioned, this North Korean image is the most sophisticated in its modeling of the Buddha and attendants. A famous triad from the Gansong Art Museum nearly identical to the North Korean triad is usually attributed to the Goguryeo Kingdom and is typically dated to 563, showing that styles from 539 were still popular more than two decades later. Finally, some scholars suggest that a mandorla excavated in North Chungcheong Province

Chungcheongbuk-do

Chungcheongbuk-do is a province in the centre of South Korea. It was formed in 1896 from the northeastern half of the former Chungcheong province...

should be dated to 536.

The single-mandorla triad was a very popular type of image in the sixth century, with several whole triads surviving as well as figures surviving without mandorla and mandorla surviving without figures. The Gansong Art Museum type was particularly popular with copies in Seoul, Pyongyang, and an independent central Buddha which was excavated in Buyeo whose current whereabouts are unknown.

One of the most frequent types of images that were made throughout the century are single-mandorla triads. The similarities between the triads found in the former Baekje and Goguryeo kingdoms suggest that the introduction of such images came from both Goguryeo itself as well as China. An example of the influence of the Northern Wei style is the statue now at the National Museum of Korea. This image, probably once a part of a single-mandorla triad, has robes draped in the same style as the Yong'a Buddha. However, the Baekje-specific modifications, such as the gentleness of the face, Omega-like folds in the under robe, and a sense of stability exhibited in the expansiveness of the robes as they flare out, clearly differentiate this image from those from Goguryeo.

Buddhism was officially accepted by the Silla court only in 527 or 528 although the religion was known to its people earlier due to the efforts of monks from Goguryeo in the fifth century. The late acceptance of the religion is often attributed to the geographic isolation of the kingdom, the lack of easy access to China, and the conservatism of the court. However, once Buddhism was accepted by the court, it received wholesale state sponsorship. One example of lavish state support is Hwangnyongsa

Hwangnyongsa

Hwangnyongsa, or Hwangnyong Temple, is the name of a former Buddhist temple in the city of Gyeongju, South Korea. Built in the 6th century, it was the center of state-sponsored Buddhism during the Silla and Unified Silla eras...

, a temple which housed an approximately five-meter-tall Buddha. The statue was revered as one of the kingdom's three great treasures and was destroyed by the Mongols after surviving for 600 years. Excavations have revealed several small pieces of the Buddha, and huge foundation stones remain to testify to the great size of the statue.

Bodhisattva images

Standing bodhisattva images

Bodhisattvas are beings in the Buddhist pantheon that have attained enlightenment but have opted to stay on the temporal world to help those who have not yet reached nirvana

Nirvana

Nirvāṇa ; ) is a central concept in Indian religions. In sramanic thought, it is the state of being free from suffering. In Hindu philosophy, it is the union with the Supreme being through moksha...

. One of the earliest depictions of a bodhisattva in Korean art is the mural painting in the Jangcheon-ri Tomb No. 1 which dates to the late 5th century. While most details are hard to see it is very clear that the figures stand atop lotus blossoms and a crucial detail that many early bodhisattva images have are the robes that sweep out from the sides of the figure like fishtails. Bodhisattva images of the sixth century are rarely independent figures. Most surviving images are those that were once attached as attendants to a Buddha in a single mandorla triad. Occasionally single mandorla triads were made with the bodhisattva as the main figure with two monks as attendants.

The stiffness of early Goguryeo sculpture is sometimes attributed to the harsh climate of the kingdom which was situated in northern Korea and Manchuria

Manchuria

. The replacement of the typically elongated and lean face of Goguryeo sculpture, exemplified by the Yŏn'ga Buddha and the Standing Bodhisattva with triple head ornament shown below, with images with plump faces and gently depicted robes, exemplified by the Wono-ri Bodhisattva, may reflect the conquering of the Han River

Han River (Korea)

The Han River is a major river in South Korea and the fourth longest river on the Korean peninsula after the Amnok, Duman, and Nakdong rivers. It is formed by the confluence of the Namhan River , which originates in Mount Daedeok, and the Bukhan River , which originates on the slopes of Mount...

valley from Baekje in 475 or the introduction of gentler climes. These changes probably reflect, directly or indirectly, the influence of Baekje style or from Goguryeo diplomatic contacts with the southern Chinese dynasties.

The provenance of the standing Bodhisattva with triple head ornament is unknown. Based on common stylistic similarities, such as the fishtail draperies, the large hands, and the two incised lines on the chest indicating an undergarment (a southern Chinese convention) with the Yŏn'ga Buddha, most scholars believe that it is originally from Goguryeo. The Bodhisattva is only modeled in the front, another Northern Wei characteristic, and the unfinished back has several pegs. These pegs have led some scholars to believe that this Bodhisattva was once a central figure in a single-mandorla triad.
A standing Bodhisattva ( image) now at the Buyeo National Museum was excavated from Kunsu-ri (Gunsu-ri) along with the seated Buddha. The influence of Southern Liang

Southern Liang

The Southern Liang was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms during the Jin Dynasty in China. The founding family Tufa was of Xianbei ethnicity and distant relative of the Tuoba imperial house of Northern Wei...

art is particularly obvious in this image especially because an analogous image survives in China. The standing Kunsu-ri Bodhisattva also exhibits attributes very different from its contemperaneous Eastern Wei prototypes, such as an emphasis on the headgear and broad face and different iconographic styles employed. The smile of the image is a typical example of the famous Baekje smile

Baekje smile

commonly found on images from Baekje in both the sixth and seventh century.

Pensive bodhisattva images

While in China the pensive iconography was typically a subordinate image in a triad or was often small in size. In Korea, particularly exemplified by examples from Silla, the pensive Maitreya became a central figure of worship with several heroic-sized figures surviving. Pensive images were popular in the other two kingdoms. In early Baekje pensive statues have a characteristic parabolic drapery, a fragment of such a statue ( image) is held at the Buyeo National Museum, and this style can be found in Baekje images now in Japan and Japanese images influenced by the Baekje style. A pensive image dated to the 6th century said to have been excavated in Pyongyang

Pyongyang

, now at the Ho-am Art Museum, is the only surviving example Goguryeo and is evidence that stylistic elements from the north were transmitted to Silla. Today, most surviving pensive images are from Silla.

The pensive pose involves a figure that has one leg crossed over a pendant leg, the ankle of the crossed leg rests on the knee of the pendant leg. The elbow of the figure's raised arm rests on the crossed leg's knee while the fingers rest or almost rest on the cheek of the head bent in introspection. As shown above, Prince Siddhārtha was typically depicted in a seated position in the dhyāna mudra when depicted as meditating in early Indian sculpture. A statue that can be dated to the 2nd or 3rd century in the pensive pose from Mathura, it is believed, is the prototypical example of the pensive pose. In China, bodhisattvas in the pensive pose are typically described via inscription to be the pensive prince, i.e. Prince Siddhārtha meditating. Pensive bodhisattvas in Chinese sculpture can also be seen as attendants to images in the cross-ankle seated position, a pose associated with Maitreya in China. This fact indicates that the pensive pose was not the iconography associated with Maitreya Bodhisattva.

Scholars still generally ascribe some Chinese pensive bodhisattvas to Maitreya (Kr. Mireuk) based on iconographical evidence but no inscription has ever been found to corroborate this hypothesis. Professor Junghee Lee believes a strong argument can be made for the first association of Maitreya to the pensive pose to have been formed in Korea. No pensive bodhisattva from Korea has an inscription identifying itself as Maitreya Bodhisattvaas well. However, the Maitreya cult was particularly influential in Korea during the 6th and 7th centuries. The backdrop of continuous war during the Three Kingdoms period created social conditions where the Korean people were eager to look for a savior to end the war. These ideas generated unique manifestations of Maitreya worship such as the one-of-a-kind floor plan of the Mireuk Temple

Mireuksa

Mireuksa was the largest Buddhist temple in the ancient Korean kingdom of Baekje. The temple was established in 602, by King Mu and is located 36.012083 N, 127.031028 E. This place depends nowadays from Iksan City . The site was excavated in 1980, disclosing many hitherto unknown facts about...

in Baekje and the belief that members of the elite warrior society of the Silla Kingdom's noble class were incarnations of Maitreya. Noticeably, pensive images become less popular during the early Unified Silla period and were no longer made soon thereafter. Other Korean bodhisattvas can generally identified on iconographic grounds so therefore images of the pensive pose are identified as Maitreya. The inscription of a triple mandorla triad dated to 571 also invokes the mercy of Matreya indicating a strong hold on Korean thought.

There are several examples of the pensive image made in Korea that survive. One example (image) which has come under debate as to its origins (either Goguryeo or Northern Wei) is believed to be one of two attendants to a central figure and closely follows the Northern Wei style. A stone fragment from Mt. Puso ( image) in former Baekje territory is indicative of the acceptance of depicting the body narrowly and is an early example of the depiction of frontal folds in concentric circles. This folding schematic can be seen in later pensive images as well. Another example of a pensive Maitreya from the 6th century is an item ( image) now held at the Tokyo National Museum which is generally accepted to be from 6th century Korea.

A major monument of Korean Buddhist sculpture, National Treasure no. 78, is usually dated to the late 6th century. The figure incorporates the style of the Eastern Wei. Although the style employed is archaic, X-ray studies of the statue, suggests that it is the younger of the two because of the sophistication of the casting, the bronze being no thicker than one centimeter, the rarity of air bubbles, and the high quality metal. Some scholars have used the evidence of the x-ray photos to suggest a later date for the treasure. Generally, scholars believe that the image was cast in Silla based on the fact that there were several anecdotal stories stating that the Japanese man who rediscovered the image had found them in the ruins of a temple in what was once Silla. Professor Woo-bang Kang has argued that the statue was made in Goguryeo, who he believes was the only state technologically capable of casting the image, and was at one point brought to the south. National Treasure no. 78 could also be a Baekje image because the Baekje kingdom probably had sufficient casting expertise by the late 6th century and several bodhisattva images associated with Baekje, particularly one in the collection of the Tokyo National Museum ( image), bear stylistic resemblances to the treasure.

Korean influence in early Japanese sculpture

The Baekje kingdom's style was particularly influential in the initial stages of Asuka sculpture. It was in 552 that King Seong of Baekje

Seong of Baekje

Seong of Baekje was the 26th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was a son of Muryeong of Baekje. He made Buddhism the state religion, moved the national capital, and succeeded in reclaiming the center of the Korean Peninsula, only to be betrayed by an ally.-Foreign relations...

sent a gilt bronze image of Sakyumuni to Yamato Japan

Yamato period

The is the period of Japanese history when the Japanese Imperial court ruled from modern-day Nara Prefecture, then known as Yamato Province.While conventionally assigned to the period 250–710 , the actual start of Yamato rule is disputed...

according to the Nihon shoki
Nihon Shoki
The , sometimes translated as The Chronicles of Japan, is the second oldest book of classical Japanese history. It is more elaborate and detailed than the Kojiki, the oldest, and has proven to be an important tool for historians and archaeologists as it includes the most complete extant historical...

. Most scholars, based on other Japanese records, consider a 538 date to be more accurate. While it is impossible to know what this first Buddha in Japan looked like, an image similar to the Yong'a Buddha, contemperaneous because it is dated to 539, leads some scholars to speculate that King Seong's proselytizing image looked similar to it. Another Japanese source, the Gangōji Garan Engi
Gangoji Garan Engi
, often abbreviated to Gangōji Garan Engi, is a Japanese Buddhist text. It is one volume in length and was compiled by an unnamed Buddhist monk in 747.-Contents:...

, however, identifies the image as the "prince." This suggests that the initial image was the prince Sidhartha in the pensive pose on the verge of enlightenment, an iconography popular in China. Images in the pensive pose are almost always associated with Maitreya in Korea. However, another iconography associated with the prince Sidhartha is the Buddha at birth. Since this source also lists items for a lustration ceremony some scholars believe that the image was of the infant Buddha. Although Buddhism was introduced into Yamato Japan at a relatively early period, it was not until the 7th century that the pro-Buddhist Soga clan

Soga clan

The was one of the most powerful clans in Yamato Japan and played a major role in the spread of Buddhism. For many generations, in the 5th and 7th centuries, the Soga monopolized the position of Great Royal Chieftain and was the first of many families to dominate the Imperial House of Japan by...

succeeded in eliminating its rivals to allow Buddhism enjoy the support of the central polity.

A passage in the Nihon Shoki states that in 577 King Wideok of Baekje

Wideok of Baekje

Wideok of Baekje was the 27th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was the eldest son of King Seong, and rose to the throne upon his father's death.-Background:...

sent to the Yamato polity another Buddhist image, a temple architect, and a maker of images. The passage clearly indicates that the Japanese still needed Korean artisans skilled in metal casting techniques and knowledgeable about specific iconography to construct images. In 584, a stone statue of Maitreya and another image simply identified as a Buddha by the Nihon Shoki were sent as part of a diplomatic exchange and are the last official, royally commissioned Baekje images recorded to be sent to Japan in the 6th century. Such exchanges, both official and unofficial, were integral in establishing early Japanese Buddhist sculpture.

Many extant Baekje sculpture survive in Japan today. Horyu-ji Treasure no. 151 ( image) is accepted by virtually all Japanese authorities to be of Korean origin and was brought to Japan in the middle 6th century. The four rectangular cavities in the back of the statue is a trait far more common in Korean than Japanese sculpture. The image was probably used as a private devotional icon brought by Korean settlers. Hōryū-ji Treasure no. 158 ( image), a pensive image is another image generally considered by Japanese scholars to be from Korea and is dated on stylistic grounds to the mid-6th century. The Funagatayamajinja Bodhisattva, probably once part of a triad, has a crown with three flowers which was common early Three Kingdoms sculpture but not extant in Asuka sculpture. The image is believed to have originated in Korea.

Hōryū-ji Treasure no. 196 ( image) is a mandorla for a triad that was made in Korea and can be arguably dated to the late 6th century, 594. The triad's inscription contains phrases very similar to two Paekche pieces, a Puyo triad ( image) and a mandorla once part of a triad dated to 596 ( image ). This mandorla incorporates the typical features found in older Korean-style triads, including the odd number of Buddhas of the Past, the floral scroll inside the inner halo, and the jewel found at the apex of the head halo.

Buddha images

Standing Buddha images

Standing Buddha images of the 7th century in Korea were influenced by the art of the Northern Qi

Northern Qi

The Northern Qi Dynasty was one of the Northern dynasties of Chinese history and ruled northern China from 550 to 577.-History:The Chinese state of Northern Qi was the successor state of the Chinese/Xianbei state of Eastern Wei and was founded by Emperor Wenxuan...

, Sui

Sui

Sui can refer to:* Sui or mizu, 水, meaning "Water" in Japanese, one of the elements in the Japanese system of five elements and representing the fluid, flowing, formless things in the world....

, and Tang

Tang Dynasty

The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...

polities in China. Additionally, there are Korean images from the 7th century with unique attributes not found else where suggesting local innovations in Buddhist iconography. Unfortunately, no Goguryeo sculpture from the 7th century has survived or has yet been discovered. Two pieces that have been attributed to the Korean and Mohe Balhae

Balhae

Balhae was a Manchurian kingdom established after the fall of Goguryeo. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla, Dae Jo-yeong, a Mohe general, whose father was Dae Jung-sang, established Jin , later called Balhae.Balhae occupied southern parts of Manchuria and...

state may actually be from Goguryeo.The frontal focused images give way to a more three dimensional rounded look.

An image type unique to the Silla Kingdom, and not found in Paekche, Goguryeo, China, or Japan, is a standing Buddha at the National Museum of Korea. The face is child-like and calm, the ushnisha is large and virtually indistinguishable from the head. Interestingly, the robe is worn on one shoulder, a style popular in India, and the image holds a jewel or lotus blossom in one out stretched hand. Another interesting type of image is the image of Buddha at birth. These images show Buddha naked except for a ceremonial cloth around the waist. A type of iconography found in China or Japan is the baby Buddha pointing one arm in the air and another to the earth which illustrates that nothing in the heaven or earth was like the Buddha. This iconography is believed to have originated in Korea and was influential in Japan were later images are plentiful. Sillan figures continue to show the influence of Northern Qi

Northern Qi

style in the 7th century. This can be seen in the tall columnar Buddha and a child-like Buddha which has many similarities to recently discovered Buddha sculptures from Longxingsi, Shandong

Shandong

' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...

in China. The child-like Buddha shows typical Sillan sculptural traits that are often found in stone work, namely the large head and youthful, innocent air of the Buddha. Additionally, the iconographic details of the statue, not found in Chinese sculpture, suggests that Silla had direct contact with artists from southern India and Sri Lanka. Ancient records also support this suggestion because several foreign monks were said to have resided in Hwangnyongsa translating Buddhist sutras and texts

Buddhist texts

Buddhist texts can be categorized in a number of ways. The Western terms "scripture" and "canonical" are applied to Buddhism in inconsistent ways by Western scholars: for example, one authority refers to "scriptures and other canonical texts", while another says that scriptures can be categorized...

. Pensive figures also continued to be popular.
Single mandorla triads

Bodhisattva images

Standing bodhisattva images

The 7th century can be said to be a time of maturity for Korean Buddhist sculptures because of the fine statuettes that have been discovered and preserved. As discussed above, standing bodhisattva images from the 6th century generally follow the Northern and Eastern Wei stylistic traditions such as the long crossed scarves and the swooping scalloped curves of the robes to the sides of images. During the second half of the 6th century, northern China was ruled by the Northern Qi

Northern Qi

and then the Northern Zhou

Northern Zhou

The Northern Zhou Dynasty followed the Western Wei, and ruled northern China from 557 to 581. It was overthrown by the Sui Dynasty.Northern Zhou's basis of power was established by Yuwen Tai, who was paramount general of Western Wei, following the split of Northern Wei into Western Wei and...

until the Sui Dynasty

Sui Dynasty

The Sui Dynasty was a powerful, but short-lived Imperial Chinese dynasty. Preceded by the Southern and Northern Dynasties, it ended nearly four centuries of division between rival regimes. It was followed by the Tang Dynasty....

successfully ended the Southern and Northern Dynasties

Southern and Northern Dynasties

The Southern and Northern Dynasties was a period in the history of China that lasted from 420 to 589 AD. Though an age of civil war and political chaos, it was also a time of flourishing arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spreading of Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism...

period in 581. The styles of these three regimes can be seen in contemporaneous Korean sculpture and were influential in Korean sculpture of the 7th century as well.

The style of the regimes that succeeded the Eastern Wei regime emphasized the human form more fully. Instead of focusing only on the frontal aspects of an image, Northern Qi sculptors emphasized the whole body creating images that had a cylindrical shape. Increased realism of Northern Qi statuary can also be seen in the details of robes, jewelry, and a new emphasis on movement with the tribanga or thrice-bent pose.

A Korean example of these trends can be seen in a bodhisattva in the collection of the Gyeongju National Museum. The bodhisattva is in the tribanga pose.
Pensive images

In Korea, the technically difficult pensive posture was adapted by all three kingdoms and transformed into a particularly Korean style.

The cult of Maitreya was particularly influential in sixth and seventh centuries of the Three Kingdoms period. Sillan kings styled themselves as rulers of a Buddha land, the King symbolizing the Buddha. This religious adaptation is also exemplified in the Hwarang

Hwarang

The Hwarang, or "Flower Boys"., were an elite group of male youth in Silla, an ancient Korean kingdom that lasted until the 10th century. There were educational institutions as well as social clubs where members gathered for all aspects of study, originally for arts and culture steeped mainly in...

corp, a group of aristocratic youth who were groomed for leadership in the endless wars on the peninsula. The leader of the Hwarang was believed to be the incarnation of Maitreya, a uniquely Korean adaptation of the religion. Maitreya, it was believed, would ascend to earth as the future Buddha in 56 million years and this believe was incorporated into Silla's desire to unite the peninsula. Japanese records also suggest that Sillan images given to the Sillan Hata Clan are the current Koryo-ji Miroku Bosatsu and the Naki Miroku. The Koryu-ji Miroku, dated to 620-640, is stylistically a Korean image, is made from red pine which is indigenous to Korea, and the technique of carving inward from a single log is a believed to be an ancient Korean wood-working technique. The Korean cult of Maitreya, and the major influence of Korean-style pensive images on Japan in the Asuka period. Korean influence on Japanese Buddhist art was very strong during 552-710.

National Treasure no. 83

Bangasayusang

The Bangasayusang, or Geumdong Mireuk Bosal Bangasayusang , is a gilt-bronze statue of what is believed to be the Maitreya, the future Buddha, in a semi-seated contemplative pose. It is commonly referred to as the Contemplative Bodhisattva or Gilt-Bronze Seated Maitreya in English...

is an example of the Korean style from the early 7th century. The figure is said to have been found in Silla territory and is dated to the late 6th or early seventh century. It was probably commissioned by the royal family.

National Treasure no. 83, exhibiting stylistic influence from Northern Qi, for a time, was believed to be from Baekje. However, recent research strongly suggests, based on numerous pieces of evidence, suggests that the statue was produced in Silla and scholarly consensus seems to agree on that point. A similar stone pensive statue found in Silla territory and a head with a similar crown excavated at Hwangnyongsa indicates an origin in Silla. National Treasure no. 83 is also important because it illustrates the close connection between Korea and Japan during this period. Koryu-ji's almost identical Miroku Bosatsu (Maitreya Bodhisattva) ( image), a national treasure of Japan

National treasures of Japan

National Treasures are the most precious of Japan's Tangible Cultural Properties, as determined and designated by the Agency for Cultural Affairs...

, is now believed to be of Silla manufacture because of the use of red pine, a wood used for Korean sculpture, ancient Japanese records, and the use of Korean carving techniques.
A later pensive image, now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art is a particularly fine example of Baekje sculpture dated to the seventh century. A chronologically contemporaneous figure from 7th century Japan shows the influence of the Baekje style specifically in the handling of the torso, the triple upright crown, and the locks of hair falling over the shoulder. The example at the Metropolitan Museum can be dated to the mid-seventh century based on the shape of the stool on which it sits (unseen here) and the removal of a stylized piece of cloth that most pensive images rest their crossed leg upon which is seen in earlier images. Another important Baekje pensive image: ( image).

While bronze statues from the Three Kingdoms period are rare, pensive bodhisattvas are relatively numerous. Most have been excavated in the southeastern portion of Korea so most scholars believe they were cast in Silla. Examples from the 7th century are usually well-proportioned and developed, artisans having mastered the complicated techniques to craft pensive images. The first example below shows a particularly beautiful example while the second example shows an image where the head of the bodhisattva lowered very deeply in thought. Although these examples follow National Treasure no. 83 or some unknown prototype by conveying a bare chested portrayal of Maitreya, no two Korean pensive image has been shown to be identical indicating that different masters creatively interpreted their portrayal of religious imagery. Since Maitreya was viewed as a messianic figure, the absence of Maitreya iconography absent from later Unified Silla art suggests the cult lost favor as Korea was mostly united under one government and peace returned.

Korean images in Japan

Korean artists and style were still heavily influential to the nascent Buddhist movement in Japan in the 7th century. While the official introduction of Buddhism in Japan did occur in the 6th century, the religion faced a hostile aristocracy and it was not until the seventh century that Buddhism became an important part of Japanese culture. The Buddha at Asuka-dera, the earliest dated Japanese image, was cast in 606 by Tori Busshi an immigrant from Korea or China. The temple where the image is housed states that Tori Busshi was from Korea. The image has been repaired numerous times so it is difficult to see if any of its 7th century stylings are preserved. Another significant work by Tori Busshi is the Sakyamuni Triad housed at the Hōryū-ji which dates to 623. Both images bear some stylistic resemblances to images from the Northern Wei ( image), popular approximately a hundred years before which suggests such Northern Wei styles were preserved in Korea for their reappearance in Japan. Although there are not many analogues to the so-called Tori style that survive in Korea a stone mandorla preserved in Iksan

Iksan

Iksan is a city and major railway junction in North Jeolla Province, South Korea.The city center and railway junction was formerly called "Iri" , but merged with Iksan County in 1995....

is one such example.

There are numerous other examples of Korean sculpture or images influenced by Korean style in Japan. The Kanshoin pensive bodhisattva ( image) has three traits that suggest it was an import from Korea or made by a Korean immigrant in Japan. The strong constriction of the upper body, the incised line chiseled into the eyebrow, and tassel on the front of the crown. Scholars currently debate whether Hōryū-ji Dedicated treasure no. 156 ( image) is Korean in origin or made in Japan, influenced by Korean styles. An inscription on its base can be plausibly attributed to either a 606 or 666 date. An early date would suggest a Korean origin because of the still developing nature of Japanese sculpture at the time. By 666, plenty of indigenous Japanese sculpture can be found. Some Korean traits include the emaciated body, three-tiered crown and head knot, and the extreme stylization of the drapery over the base. Either way, the image is an important example of Korean traits in early Japanese art. The image is interesting too because part of the inscription mentions Gaya, a group of statelets that were annexed by Paekche and Silla in the sixth century, which may suggest that the image preserves the style prevalent in the Nakdong River valley.

A single-mandorla triad, Hōryū-ji Dedicated Treasure no. 143 now in the possession of the Tokyo National Museum is a particularly fine example of Baekje sculpture in Japan from the sixth or 7th century. The Korean origins of the statue are based on the round and warm faces typical of Baekje style, the absence of an air of solemnity and austerity typical of the Tori style, the casting technique which used nails instead of spacers, and the intaglio effect on the bronze the artisan used to make the eyebrows, a typical Korean technique. The Dainichibo standing Buddha, Sekiyamajinja Bodhisattva, Hōryū-ji Treasure no. 165 may all be from Korea as well. Other possible examples of Baekje sculpture in Japan are the hidden image at Zenkoji ( image), the Kudara Kannon (literally Baekje Avalokiteshvara) at Hōryū-ji

Hōryū-ji

is a Buddhist temple in Ikaruga, Nara Prefecture, Japan. Its full name is Hōryū Gakumonji , or Learning Temple of the Flourishing Law, the complex serving as seminary and monastery both....

, and the Yumedono Kannon.

Unified Silla (668–935)

After centuries of warfare, the Silla Kingdom, with their Tang allies, managed to unify much of what is now North and South Korea under the dominion of a single government in a period historians usually refer to as Unified Silla. While Silla's Tang allies were useful in helping the Silla rulers destroy their rivals, the kingdoms of Baekje and Goguryeo, after their mutual enemies were defeated the allies found themselves at cross purposes. The Tang emperor, following the ambitions of his predecessors, wanted to incorporate Korea into his empire while the Silla rulers vowed to maintain an independent realm. By 676, people from all the Three Kingdoms had expelled the Chinese from Korea and the Unified Silla state enjoyed a period of great prosperity and relative peace that would last several centuries. Some of the greatest Buddhist statues in Korean art history were made during this time.

Statues by date

Images dated to the Unified Silla period are relatively more plentiful than their counterparts from the Three Kingdoms period. There are several dated images which serve as important markers that show the evolution of Korean sculpture during this era. The first set of important dated images are a group of Buddhist stele excavated from former Baekje territory with dated inscriptions. One of the most important examples, shown below, is a stele dated to 673, thirteen years after the defeat of the Baekje Kingdom. This image has an important inscription which states that the statue was carved by artisans from the former Baekje Kingdom and funded by former Baekje aristocrats. This image, and the others from group, suggest that Baekje nobility were incorporated into the Silla political system so that they could help their new overlords govern subjugated territory. The stele, reminiscent of a single mandorla triad, has a close analogue to the famous Sakyamuni Triad in the Horyu-ji cast by a Korean sculptor in 623. Not only does the stele provide a clue that suggests that the Sakyamuni Triad may have been based on styles from Baekje specifically, this suggests also that Silla art incorporated the styles and practices of their conquered subjects in subsequent art.

The next two images, both Korean national treasures and both made of almost pure gold, were probably royal commissions. The two were excavated from a stone pagoda and an accompanying relic contains dates describing the dates of internment for both statues. The first image, a standing Buddha which could have been made as late as 692, the date of its purported internment, shows that the style of the preceding Three Kingdoms period, especially in the modeling of the robe, persisted several decades after unification. The second image, dated to 706 is an exquisite and rare example of a seated Buddha from Korea during this time period and the contrast in style with its counterpart is quite striking. The seated Buddha incorporates the latest styles from Tang China and is a beautiful example of the so-called International Style practiced throughout East Asia. Interestingly, some small discrepancies between the height described by inscription and the actual height of the seated Buddha, along with the rough nature of the standing Buddha may suggest the attributed dates are not entirely accurate.

Two granite images from the early 8th century, almost entirely intact, depict Amitabha and Maitreya. Valuable inscriptions are carved on the backs of the mandorla.

Granite, a common medium in the repertoire of Sillan sculptors are seen throughout the Unified Silla period. At least one attempt at the kind of grotto art popular in India and China can be found in Gunwi that precedes the Seokguram Grotto. However, it is the central Buddha of the Seokguram Grotto that is considered by many scholars to be the epitome of Korean sculpture. Situated in the center of a complex, artificial cave, the Buddha is surrounded by artful depictions of the Buddhist pantheon. According to the Samguk yusa construction began in the middle of the 8th century and the sculpture of the grotto, based on this source, can be tentatively dated to that time. The style of central Buddha, including the covering of one shoulder and the fan of folds between the two crossed legs, would be followed by sculptors for the rest of the Unified Silla period and even by artisans of the early Koryo dynasty.

The final dated image shown is a seated Vairocana Buddha dated by inscription to 858. This Buddha is representative of the images of the 9th century, a time of political turbulence and the weakened power of the Silla rulers in the capital. During this time powerful land owners far away from the central government began to commission their own Buddhist images, as the inscription on the Borimsa (McR. Porimsa) Buddha states. These regional images began to reflect individual styles that differ starkly from the Kumseong tradition in the capital. The Borimsa image, for example, has a thick nose ridge, brow, and robes that differ from the Seokguram prototype. Additionally, while images in the capital were still produced in prestigious bronze, regional Buddhas begin to be made with iron, a material that was considerably cheaper. The production of iron images differ greatly from their bronze counterparts because iron images were cast piece by piece and assembled into a single image. This technique results in visible joints were plates were connected together and then probably hidden with thick layers of lacquer and gilding.

Statues by material

Wood

Metal

Stone
The Silla Kingdom, backed by the powerful Tang Empire, defeated the Baekje Kingdom in 660 and the Goguryeo Kingdom in 668 and ended centuries of internecine warfare in Korea. King Munmu

Munmu of Silla

Munmu of Silla was the thirtieth king of the Korean kingdom of Silla. He is usually considered to have been the first ruler of the Unified Silla period. Munmu was the son of King Muyeol and Munmyeong, who was the younger sister of Kim Yu-shin...

then defeated and drove out the Tang armies successfully unifying most of Korea under the Unified Silla dynasty. The unification of the three kingdoms is reflected in some early Unified Silla sculptures.

After a period of estrangement with Tang China, diplomatic relations resumed and the so-called international style of the Tang heavily influenced Korea as it did much of the rest of Asia. Buddhism was heavily sponsored and promoted by the royal court. The early century of the Unified Silla period is known as a golden age of Korean history where the kingdom enjoyed the peace and stability to produce fabulous works of art. The central Buddha of the Seokguram Grotto

Seokguram

The Seokguram Grotto is a hermitage and part of the Bulguksa temple complex. It lies four kilometers east of the temple on Mt. Tohamsan, in Gyeongju, South Korea. It is classified as National Treasure No. 24 by the South Korean government and is located at 994, Jinhyeon-dong, Gyeongju-si,...

, a UNESCO

UNESCO

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...

World Heritage site

World Heritage Site

A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the UNESCO as of special cultural or physical significance...

, is recognized as one of the finest examples of Buddhist sculpture in eastern Asia.

However, the political instability and weakened monarchy of the late 8th century seems to have had an effect on artisans as Buddhist sculpture began to become formulaic and lose vitality in the use of line and form. During the later days of Unified Silla, iron was substituted as a cheaper alternative to bronze and was used to cast many Buddhas and one can see regional characteristics creeping into the style of sculptures as local warlords and strongmen began to break away from the orbit of the royal family in Kumseong (now modern-day Gyeongju

Gyeongju

Gyeongju is a coastal city in the far southeastern corner of North Gyeongsang province in South Korea. It is the second largest city by area in the province after Andong, covering with a population of 269,343 people according to the 2008 census. Gyeongju is southeast of Seoul, and east of the...

).

After the destruction of the Baekje Kingdom, elements of Baekje style and early styles.
A strong Tang

Tang Dynasty

Chinese influence affected Unified Silla art. The Korean Buddhist sculpture of this period can be identified by the "undeniable sensuality" of the "round faces and dreamy expressions" and "fleshy and curvaceous bodies" of extant figures. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kobs/hd_kobs.htm.

Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392)

The Goryeo Dynasty succeeded Unified Silla as ruler of the Korean peninsula. Like their predecessors, the Goryeo court lavishly sponsored Buddhism and Buddhist arts. The early phase of Goryeo art is characterized by the waning but influential effect of Unified Silla prototypes, the discarding of High Tang style, and the incorporation of regionally distinctive styles which reflected the influence of local aristocrats who had grown powerful during the declining days of Unified Silla and also reflects the fact that the capital was moved from southeastern Korea to Kaegyong (now modern-day Kaesong

Kaesong

Kaesŏng is a city in North Hwanghae Province, southern North Korea , a former Directly Governed City, and the capital of Korea during the Koryo Dynasty. The city is near Kaesŏng Industrial Region and it contains the remains of the Manwoldae palace. It was formally named Songdo while it was the...

).

The bronze life-size image of King Taejo

Taejo of Goryeo

Taejo of Goryeo was the founder of the Goryeo Dynasty, which ruled Korea from the 10th to the 14th century. Taejo ruled from 918 to 943.-Background:...

, the founder of the Goryeo Dynasty is technically not a Buddhist sculpture. However, the similarities of the statue to earlier bronze images of the Buddha, such as the elongated ears, a physical attribute of the Buddha, is suggestive of the relationship the royalty had with the religion.

One example of the lingering influence of Unified Silla art is the Seated Sakyamuni Buddha at the National Museum of Korea which can be dated to the 10th century. This statue is stylistically indebted to the central figure at Seokguram and some scholars suggest that the statue is from the Great Silla period. Both Buddhas employ the same "earth-touching" mudra which was first popularized in Korea by the Seokguram image. The fan-shaped folding of cloth between the legs of the Buddha, the way the clothing on the image was depicted, and the "cross-legged seated posture" are all typical of Unified Silla sculpture. The Buddha is the largest iron Buddha surviving in Korea. It was cast in multiple pieces and today one can see the different seams where the statue was pieced together. In the past the statue would have been covered in lacquer or gilt to hide the joints. Interestingly, the bottom of the nose, the ends of the ears, and the hands are reproductions and not part of the original statue.

The Eunjin Mireuk is example of early Goryeo sculpture demonstrating the rise of regional styles and the abandoning of a strict interpretation of the standard iconography of Buddhist images. The statue is believed to be a representation of the Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, the Bodhisattva of Mercy, although it is popularly known as Maitreya. The statue is over 18 meters tall and took over 30 years to complete. The statue is valuable because it demonstrates developments unique to Chungcheong-do and Gyeonggi-do. Additionally, some scholars posit that these huge stones may have once been originally for Shamanistic practices and later subsumed into a Buddhist image.

Few reliably dated Buddhist sculptures from the 12th and 13th centuries have survived and so "it is difficult to assess the production of sculpture related to" the rising popularity of Seon Buddhism (Ch. Chan, Jp. Zen) and its association with the ruling military family of the mid-Goryeo period.

The seated Avalokiteshvara in "royal ease" pose from the 14th century at the National Museum of Korea shows the stylistic influence of Tibetan Lamaist Buddhism which was favored by the Yuan

Yuan Dynasty

The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...

Mongol court. However, some scholars have suggested this statue is an import.

Early Goryeo (918–1170)
Middle Goryeo (1170–1270)

Late Goryeo (1270–1392)

Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910)

The dynastic change from the Goryeo to the Joseon was a relatively peaceful one. However, for the first time since Buddhism was accepted by the courts of the Three Kingdoms, the religion fell out of favor with the king and his court. The decadent royal patronage by the Goryeo kings and the growing power of the temples and clergy led the Joseon kings to suppress the religion in favor of Neo-Confucianism

Neo-Confucianism

Neo-Confucianism is an ethical and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao in the Tang Dynasty....

. While some kings were Buddhists in their private life, the government funds for temples and the commissioning and quality of statues declined.

Like most Korean works of art, early Joseon sculpture fared poorly in the Japanese invasions of Korea from 1592–1598 and few survive today. The Japanese invasion is the dividing line between early Joseon and late Joseon. The bravery of the many monks who fought against the Japanese invaders was recognized after the war. While never the official religion of the court, Buddhism enjoyed a resurgence and many of the temples and statues that are seen in Koreatoday were built from the 17th century onward.

Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910)

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