The
General Motors EV1 was an
electric carAn electric car is an alternative fuel automobile that uses electric motors and motor controllers for propulsion, in place of more common propulsion methods such as the internal combustion engine . Electric cars are a specifically a variety of electric vehicle intended for use as a road-going...
produced and leased by the General Motors Corporation from 1996 to 1999. It was the first mass-produced and purpose-designed electric vehicle of the modern era from a major
automakerThe automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world's motor vehicles. In 2008, more than 70 million motor vehicles, including cars and commercial vehicles were produced worldwide....
, and the first GM car designed to be an
electric vehicleAn electric vehicle , also referred to as an electric drive vehicle, is a vehicle which uses one or more electric motors for propulsion. Depending on the type of vehicle, motion may be provided by wheels or propellers driven by rotary motors, or in the case of tracked vehicles, by linear motors...
from the outset. The decision to mass-produce an electric car came after GM received a favorable reception for its 1990 Impact electric concept car, upon which the design of the EV1 drew heavily. Inspired partly by the Impact's perceived potential for success, the
California Air Resources BoardThe California Air Resources Board, also known as is the "clean air agency" in the government of California. Established in 1967 in the Mulford-Carrell Act, combining the Bureau of Air Sanitation and the Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board, the ARB is a department within the cabinet-level...
subsequently passed a mandate that made the production and sale of zero-emission vehicles a requirement for the seven major automakers selling cars in the United States to continue to market their vehicles in
CaliforniaCalifornia is the most populous state in the United States, and the third largest by area. California is the second most populous sub-national entity in the Americas, behind only São Paulo, Brazil...
. The EV1 was made available through limited
leaseA lease is a contract conferring a right on one person to possess property belonging to another person to the exclusion of the owner landlord, and all others except with the invitation of the tenant. It is a rental agreement between landlord and tenant...
-only agreements, initially to residents of the cities of
Los AngelesLos Ángeles is the capital of the province of Biobío, in the municipality of the same name, in Region VIII , in the center-south of Chile. It is located between the Laja and Biobío rivers. The population is 123.445 inhabitants...
, California and
PhoenixPhoenix is the capital and largest city of the U.S. state of Arizona, as well as the fifth most populous city in the United States...
and Tucson,
ArizonaThe State of Arizona is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. The capital and largest city is Phoenix. The second largest city is Tucson, followed in size by the four Phoenix metropolitan area cities of Mesa, Glendale, Chandler, and Scottsdale.Arizona was the 48th and...
. EV1 lessees were officially participants in a "real-world engineering evaluation" and market study into the feasibility of producing and marketing a commuter electric vehicle in select U.S. markets undertaken by GM's Advanced Technology Vehicles group. The cars were not available for purchase, and could be serviced only at designated Saturn dealerships. Within a year of the EV1's release, leasing programs were also launched in San Francisco and
SacramentoSacramento, an Italian-, Spanish- and Portuguese-language word meaning sacrament, is a common toponym in parts of the world where those tongues were or are spoken....
, California, along with a limited program in the state of
GeorgiaGeorgia is a state in the United States. One of the original Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution, it had been the last of the Thirteen Colonies to be established, in 1733. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January...
.
While customer reaction to the EV1 was positive, GM viewed the program as evidence that electric cars occupied an unprofitable niche of the automobile market, evidenced by their ability to lease only 800 units in face of production costs of US$1 billion over four years. An alliance of the major automakers fought the CARB regulation in court, resulting in a slackening of the ZEV stipulation, permitting the companies to produce super-low-emissions vehicles, natural gas vehicles, and hybrid cars in place of pure electrics. The EV1 program was subsequently discontinued in 2002, and all cars on the road were repossessed. Lessees were not given the option to purchase their cars from GM, which cited parts, service, and liability regulations. The majority of the repossessed EV1s were
crushedA car crusher is an industrial device used to reduce the dimensions of derelict automobiles prior to transport for recycling.Car crushers are compactors and can be of two types: "pancake", where a scrap automobile is flattened by a huge descending hydraulically-powered plate, or the baling press...
, and the rest delivered to museums and educational institutes with their electric
powertrainIn a motor vehicle, the term powertrain or powerplant refers to the group of components that generate power and deliver it to the road surface, water, or air. This includes the engine, transmission, driveshafts, differentials, and the final drive...
s deactivated, under the agreement that the cars were not to be reactivated and driven on the road.
The EV1's discontinuation remains controversial, with electric car enthusiasts and environmental interest groups accusing GM of self-
sabotagingSabotage is a deliberate action aimed at weakening another entity through subversion, obstruction, disruption, or destruction. In a workplace setting, sabotage is the conscious withdrawal of efficiency generally directed at causing some change in workplace conditions...
its electric car program due to its negative profitability, while also blaming the oil industry for conspiring to keep electric cars off the road.
Origins
In January 1990, GM chairman
Roger SmithRoger Smith may refer to:*Roger Smith , American television and film actor and screenwriter*Roger Smith , English soccer player*Roger Smith , Bahamian tour tennis player...
demonstrated the Impact, an electric concept car, at the 1990 Los Angeles Auto Show. The car had been developed by electric vehicle company
AeroVironmentAeroVironment Inc is a technology company in Monrovia, California and Simi Valley, California that is primarily involved in energy systems, electric vehicle systems, and unmanned aerial vehicles . Paul B. MacCready, Jr., a famous designer of human powered aircraft, founded the company in 1971...
, using design knowledge gained from GM's participation in the 1987
World Solar ChallengeThe World Solar Challenge is a solar-powered car race which covers 3021 km through the Australian Outback, from Darwin to Adelaide....
, a trans-
AustraliaAustralia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the continental mainland , the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans...
race for solar vehicles, with the
SunraycerThe Sunraycer was a solar powered race car designed to compete in the world's first race featuring solar-powered cars. This race is now called the World Solar Challenge. The Sunraycer, a joint collaboration between General Motors, AeroVironment, and Hughes Aircraft, won the first race in 1987 by...
, which went on to win the competition. Alan Cocconi of
AC PropulsionAC Propulsion is a San Dimas, California, USA company founded in 1992 by Alan Cocconi. Tom Gage is currently the company's CEO. They produce goods such as electric vehicle drive systems and their top of the line electric sports car, the AC Propulsion tzero...
designed and built the original drive controller electronics for the Impact, and the design was later refined by Hughes Electronics. On April 18, 1990, Smith announced that the Impact would become a production vehicle.
Impressed by the viability of the Impact, and motivated by GM's promise to produce the Impact, the
California Air Resources BoardThe California Air Resources Board, also known as is the "clean air agency" in the government of California. Established in 1967 in the Mulford-Carrell Act, combining the Bureau of Air Sanitation and the Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board, the ARB is a department within the cabinet-level...
(CARB) moved on a large environmental initiative, ruled that each of the U.S.'s seven largest carmakers—the largest of which was GM—would be required to make 2% of its fleet emission-free by 1998, 5% by 2001, and 10% by 2003, in accordance with consumer demand, in order to continue to sell cars in California. The mandate was instated to combat California's poor air quality, which at the time was worse than the other 49 states combined. Other members of what was then the
American Automobile Manufacturers AssociationThe Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers is a trade group of automobile manufacturers which operate in the United States. Their mission is to "represent the common interests of its members and provide a forum to enable them to advance public policies that meet consumer and societal needs for clean,...
, along with
ToyotaThe RAV4 EV is an all-electric version of the popular RAV4 SUV produced by Toyota. It was sold from 1997 to 2003.The first fleet version of the RAV4 EV became available on a limited basis in 1997. In 2001 it was possible for businesses, cities or utilities to lease one or two of these cars...
, Nissan and
HondaThe Honda EV Plus was the first battery electric vehicle from a major automaker with non-lead acid batteries. Roughly 340 EV Plus models were produced and released. The EV Plus was taken out of production in 1999 when Honda announced the release of its first hybrid electric vehicle, the Honda Insight...
, each also developed a prototype
zero-emissions vehicleA zero-emissions vehicle, or ZEV a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power. Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates , hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. Although not considered emission...
in response to the new mandate.
In 1994, GM debuted 50 hand-built Impacts to use in a consumer study. The cars would be lent to drivers for periods of one to two weeks, under the agreement that their experiences would be logged; the program was known as PrEView, and organized by GM's
Sean McNamaraDr. Sean McNamara is a fictional character on FX Networks' drama series Nip/Tuck, portrayed by Dylan Walsh. His character opens the show with the trademark catchphrase, "Tell me what you don't like about yourself." His partner, Christian Troy, has been his best friend since attending college...
. Volunteers had to own a garage where a high-current charging unit could be installed by an electric company. McNamara expected at most eighty volunteers in the Los Angeles area, but was forced to close the phone lines after 10,000 people called in. In metropolitan
New YorkNew York is the most populous city in the United States, and the center of the New York metropolitan area, which is among the most populous urban areas in the world. A leading global city, New York exerts a powerful influence over worldwide commerce, finance, culture, fashion and entertainment...
, 14,000 callers responded before the lines were closed. Driver response to the cars was favorable, as were reviews by car magazines. According to
Motor TrendMotor Trend is an automobile magazine. It first appeared in September 1949, issued by Petersen Publishing Company in Los Angeles, and bearing the tag line The Magazine for a Motoring World. Petersen Publishing was sold to British publisher EMAP in 1998, who sold the former Petersen magazines to...
, "The Impact is precisely one of those occasions where GM proves beyond any doubt that it knows how to build fantastic automobiles. This is the world's only electric vehicle that drives like a real car." That year, a modified Impact set a
land speed recordThe land speed record is the fastest speed achieved by any wheeled vehicle on land. There is no single body for validation and regulation; what is used in practice is the Category C flying start regulations, officiated by regional or national organizations under the auspices of the Fédération...
for production electric vehicles of .
AutomobileAn automobile, motor car or car is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers, which also carries its own engine or motor...
called the car's ride and handling "amazing," praising its "smooth delivery of power". The Impact was a hit with consumers; but according to some, GM was less than pleased with the prospect of a successful electric car. According to Matthew L. Wald, in a front-page story in
The New York TimesThe New York Times is an American daily newspaper founded in 1851 and published in New York City. The largest metropolitan newspaper in the United States, "The Gray Lady"—named for its staid appearance and style—is regarded as a national newspaper of record...
:
By Wald's claims, GM was preparing for and simultaneously fighting against the CARB regulations; the company had done its best, but found that the mass-market electric car was not currently feasible. According to Dennis Minano, then-GM Vice President for Energy and Environment, "Is it what our customer wants?" GM was not alone in its denunciation of electric vehicles as a viable alternative to the gasoline car; according to Robert J. Eaton, then-chairman of
ChryslerChrysler Group, LLC is an American automobile manufacturer headquartered in the Detroit suburb of Auburn Hills, Michigan. Chrysler was first organized as the Chrysler Corporation in 1925. From 1998 to 2007, Chrysler and its subsidiaries were part of the German based DaimlerChrysler AG...
, "The question is whether the market is ready for the product... if the law is there, we'll meet it... at this point of time, nobody can forecast that we can make [an electric car]." In the words of Thomas C. Jorling, then
Commissioner of Environmental ConservationThe New York State Department of Environmental Conservation is responsible for the conservation, improvement, and protection of natural resources within the U.S. state of New York. It was founded in 1970, replacing the previous Conservation Department...
for New York State, which had adopted the California emission program, consumers had demonstrated tremendous interest in electric cars, but automakers did not want to render obsolete their multi-billion dollar investments in
internal combustion engineThe internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to a movable...
technology. After PrEView ended, GM destroyed all 50 of the cars.
Release of Gen I and initial reaction
GM continued work on its electric car program. By 1996, the Impact concept had evolved into the GM EV1; it was to be the first GM car in history to wear a "General Motors" nameplate, instead of one of GM's
marqueA marque is a brand name, especially in the automobile industry. For example, Chevrolet and Buick are marques of their maker, General Motors . A company may have many marques: GM has used more than a dozen in the North American market alone.-Differentiation:There are huge economies of scale in...
s. The first-generation, or "Gen I" car, which would be powered by
lead-acid batteriesLead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having the second lowest energy-to-weight ratio and a correspondingly low energy-to-volume ratio, their ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells maintain...
, had a stated range of 70 to 100 miles; 660 examples in dark
greenGreen is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 520–570 nanometres. In the subtractive color system, it is not a primary color, but is created out of a mixture of yellow and blue, or yellow and cyan; it is considered...
,
redRed is any of a number of similar colors evoked by light consisting predominantly of the longest wavelengths of light discernible by the human eye, in the wavelength range of roughly 630–740 nm. Longer wavelengths than this are called infrared , and cannot be seen by the naked human eye...
, and
silverSilver is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal...
were produced. On December 5, 1996, GM began delivering the EV1s to its selection of carefully-screened lessees; in similar fashion to the Impact's PrEView program, only residents of Southern California and Arizona could participate in the leasing program, and there was no option to purchase the cars. A contractual clause specifically disallowed re-purchase of the vehicle at the conclusion of the leasing period. Domestic television networks, as well as crews from the BBC, Japan's
NHKNHK is Japan's national public broadcasting organization...
were on hand for the launch. Actors Ed Begley Jr. and
Alexandra PaulAlexandra Elizabeth Paul is an American actress. She is probably best known for her role as Lt. Stephanie Holden in the television series Baywatch from 1992–97. She has starred in over 60 movies and television programs....
were among the first to sign their GMAC leases. Other lessees included a
Los AngelesLos Ángeles is the capital of the province of Biobío, in the municipality of the same name, in Region VIII , in the center-south of Chile. It is located between the Laja and Biobío rivers. The population is 123.445 inhabitants...
city councilman, a
SkylabSkylab was the United States' first space station, and the second space station visited by a human crew. It was also the only space station NASA launched alone...
solar-panel engineer, and Jordan Harris, the president of Sony Music. The car's release was accompanied by an $8 million promotional campaign, which included prime-time TV advertising, billboards, a web site, and an appearance at the premiere of the
Sylvester StalloneSylvester Gardenzio Stallone , nicknamed Sly Stallone, is an American actor, director, producer and screenwriter. One of the biggest box office draws in the world from the 1970s to the 1990s, Stallone is an icon of machismo and Hollywood action heroism...
film
DaylightDaylight is a 1996 disaster film, starring Sylvester Stallone, Amy Brenneman, Viggo Mortensen, Dan Hedaya, and Danielle Harris. It was directed by Rob Cohen and released in theaters on December 6, 1996.-Plot:...
. By the time the release event wrapped up, 40 EV1s had been leased through 24 Saturn dealers; GM estimated that 100 EV1s would be leased by the end of the year, and went on to lease 300 more in 1997. The car's limited launch sparked concern that GM had made a deal with CARB to delay the implementation of the first phase of the ZEV program, which had been scheduled to go into effect in 1998.
Although the car could not be purchased outright, its
MSRPMSRP may refer to:* Manufacturer's suggested retail price, in business* Message Session Relay Protocol, an IP network protocol...
was quoted at $34,000. Joe Kennedy, vice president of marketing for Saturn, accepted concerns regarding the vehicle's cost, the outdated lead-acid battery technology, and the EV1's limited range, and said "Let us not forget that technology starts small and grows slowly before technology improves and costs go down." Concerns were also voiced by anti-taxation groups, who alleged that the exemptions and tax credits that EV1 lessees received constituted government-subsidized motoring for affluent professionals. Some of these groups, such as consumer organization Californians Against Utility Company Abuse which mounted opposition to the use of taxpayer dollars to build public EV charging stations, were accused of receiving their funding from and being mouthpieces for the oil industry.
In 1999, the brand manager for the EV1 program, Ken Stewart, described the response of the car's drivers as "wonderfully-manical loyalty." Points in the car's favor included its styling, ride, handling, and performance. The lessees had integrated the EV1 into their lifestyle, making their electric car less a novelty item and more a primary source of transportation.
Tom HanksThomas Jeffrey "Tom" Hanks is an American actor, producer, writer and director. Hanks worked in television and family-friendly comedies before achieving success as a dramatic actor in several notable roles, including Andrew Beckett in Philadelphia, the title role in Forrest Gump, Commander James...
praised the car on late-night talk shows, saying "Believe it or not, that sucker goes!"
Despite the enthusiasm of the first group of drivers, GM demonstrated ambivalence towards promoting the electric car after its initial release. One of its initial TV spots was nominated for an
Emmy awardThe Emmy Award, often referred to simply as the Emmy, is a television production award, similar in nature to the Peabody Awards but more focused on entertainment, and is considered the television equivalent to the Academy Awards , Grammy Awards and Tony Awards .They are presented in various...
; but later advertising was less visible, limited to direct mail and print and TV ads in niche channels. Officially, GM remained committed to the electric vehicle, but drivers were concerned that low public interest would result in the program being scrapped. One driver, Marvin Rush, a cinematographer for the TV series
Star Trek: VoyagerStar Trek: Voyager is a science fiction television series set in the Star Trek universe. The show was created by Rick Berman, Michael Piller, and Jeri Taylor and is the fourth incarnation of Star Trek, which began with the 1960s series Star Trek, created by Gene Roddenberry...
, was so concerned with GM's weak efforts that he spent $20,000 of his own funds to produce and air four unofficial radio commercials for the car. While the automaker was initially appalled, it later changed its position, announcing that it would make the spots official and reimburse Rush. The company spent $10 million on EV1 advertising in 1997, and promised to increase that amount by $5 million the following year. According to then-EV1 program brand manager Frank Periera, the EV1 was not suited to a high-profile advertising campaign because it only appealed to a small fraction of the car-buying public, who were unfazed at the prospect of a relatively expensive (lease payments were $399 per month), limited-range two-seater.
Second generation: 1999-2003
For the 1999 model year, GM released a Gen II version of the EV1. Major improvements included lower production costs, quieter operation, extensive weight reduction, and the advent of a nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) battery pack. The Gen II models were initially released with a 60 amp-hour (18.7 kilowatt-hour)
PanasonicPanasonic is an international brand name for Japanese electric products manufacturer Panasonic Corporation Under this brand the company sells plasma and LCD display panels, DVD recorders and players, Blu-ray Disc players, camcorders, telephones, vacuum cleaners, microwave ovens, shavers,...
lead-acid battery pack, a slight improvement over the Gen I power source; later models featured an
OvonicsEnergy Conversion Devices is headquartered in Rochester Hills, Michigan.United Solar Ovonic, LLC is its wholly owned subsidiary located in Auburn Hills, Michigan...
NiMH battery rated at 77 Ah (26.4 kWh). Cars with the lead-acid pack had a range of 80 to 100 miles, while the NiMH cars could travel between 100 and 140 miles between charges. For the second-generation EV1, the leasing program was expanded to the cities of San Diego,
SacramentoSacramento, an Italian-, Spanish- and Portuguese-language word meaning sacrament, is a common toponym in parts of the world where those tongues were or are spoken....
, and Atlanta; monthly payments ranged from $349 to $574. 457 Gen II EV1s were produced by General Motors and leased to customers in the eight months following December 1999. According to some sources, hundreds of drivers wanted to but could not become EV1 lessees.
On March 2, 2000, GM issued a
recallA product recall is a request to return to the maker a batch or an entire production run of a product, usually due to the discovery of safety issues. The recall is an effort to limit liability for corporate negligence and to improve or avoid damage to publicity...
for 450 Gen I EV1s. The automaker had determined that a faulty charge port cable could eventually build up enough heat to catch on fire. Sixteen "thermal incidents" and at least one fire occurred as a result of the defect, destroying a car owned by Ron Brauer and Ruth Bygness as it was charging. The recall did not affect second-generation EV1s.
Over the next two years, approximately 200 Gen I EV1s were refitted with NiMH batteries and re-issued to their original lessees on revised two-year leases, including a new limited-mileage clause. Delays were involved due to design complications resulting from the NiMH pack retrofit. As a result, GM offered Gen I drivers the opportunity to terminate their lease at no charge, or the chance to transfer the lease to one of the remaining 150 second-generation EV1s — ahead of those already on the waiting list for Gen II models.
Program cancellation
Despite continued interest in the EV1, and filled waiting lists, GM pressed ahead with its battle against CARB regulations, going as far as to sue CARB in federal court. At the 2000 hearings, GM declared that consumers were not showing sufficient interest in the EV1 to meet CARB mandates. The American automaker, along with Toyota, cited a study they had commissioned, which showed that customers would only choose an electric car over a gasoline car if it cost a full $28,000 less than a comparable gasoline car.
Dr. Kenneth E. TrainKenneth E. Train is an Professor of Economics at the University of California, Berkeley., USA. He is also Vice President of in San Francisco, California. He received a Bachelors in Economics at Harvard and PhD from UC Berkeley...
of UC Berkeley, who conducted the study, stated that given a typical retail price of $21,000 for a
RAV4The Toyota RAV4, pronounced "rav-four" outside of Japan, is a compact crossover SUV built and marketed by the Toyota Motor Corporation. It was the first compact crossover SUV introduced in Japan and Europe in 1994 and sales began in North America in 1996 to cater to consumers wanting a vehicle that...
SUV, "Toyota would have to give the average consumer a free RAV4-EV plus a check for approximately $7,000." An independent study commissioned by the California Electric Transportation Coalition (CalETC) and conducted by the Green Car Institute and the Dohring Company automotive market research firm found very different results. The study "used the same research methodologies employed by the auto industry to identify markets for its gasoline vehicles". It found the annual consumer market for EVs to be 12-18% of the new light-duty vehicle market in California, amounting to annual sales of between 151,200 and 226,800 electric vehicles, approximately ten times the quantity specified by CARB's mandate. The results of the Toyota-GM study were also questionable in light of the success of Toyota's electric RAV4-EV, which retailed at $30,000 yet had a waiting list of its own. At the hearings, the automakers also presented the
hydrogen vehicleA hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen as its onboard fuel for motive power. The term may refer to a personal transportation vehicle, such as an automobile, or any other vehicle that uses hydrogen in a similar fashion, such as an aircraft...
as a higher alternative to the gasoline car, bolstered by a recent federal earmark for hydrogen research. Many, including members of the CARB hearing committee, were concerned that this was a bait-and-switch on the automakers' part, in order to make CARB eliminate the EV mandate, and that hydrogen was not as viable as it was made to seem.
In 2001, Judge Robert E. Coyle of the US District Court for the Eastern District of California issued a preliminary injunction on June 11 against the CARB, preventing the implementation of 2001 amendments to the state's ZEV mandate. The original regulation allowed the carmakers to substitute a variety of advanced-technology, partial-zero emission vehicles in place of battery EVs. This effectively reduced the number of battery electrics sold to as few of 2% of the original 10% dictated by the mandate. The car companies successfully argued that CARB's method of determining whether or not a vehicle qualified as an Advanced Technology Partial ZEV (AT PZEV), it used the vehicle's fuel economy as one of the standards, in addition to reduced emissions. The court viewed this provision as unconstitutional. This left CARB unable to enforce its 2001 amendments through 2004, and chose to delay the ZEV stipulations.
By 2002, 1,117 EV1s had been produced, though production had ended in 1999, when GM shut down the EV1 assembly line. On February 7, 2002, GM Advanced Technology Vehicles brand manager Ken Stewart notified lessees that GM would be removing the cars from the road, contradicting an earlier statement that GM would in fact not be "taking cars off the road from customers." Drivers feared that their working cars would be destroyed after repossession, given historic GM actions such as the destruction of the Impact prototypes and the company's role in the Great American streetcar scandal.
In late 2003, General Motors, then led by CEO
Rick WagonerGeorge Richard "Rick" Wagoner, Jr. is an American businessman and former Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of General Motors. Wagoner resigned as Chairman and CEO at General Motors on March 29, 2009, at the request of the White House...
, officially canceled the EV1 program. GM stated that it could not sell enough of the cars to make the EV1 profitable. In addition, the cost of maintaining a parts supply and service infrastructure for the 15-year minimum required by the state of California meant that existing leases would not be renewed, and all the cars would have to be returned to GM's possession. At least 58 EV1 drivers sent letters and deposit checks to GM, requesting lease extensions at no risk or cost to the automaker. The drivers reportedly agreed to be responsible for the maintenance and repair costs of the EV1, and would allow GM the right to terminate the lease if expensive repairs were needed. On June 28, GM famously refused the offer and returned the checks, which totaled $22,000; By contrast, Honda, which had taken similar actions with its EV+ program, agreed to extend its customer's leases. In November 2003, GM began reclaiming the cars; several were donated to museums and educational institutions (e.g.
Mott Community CollegeCharles Stewart Mott Community College is a publicly supported post-secondary institution located in Flint, Michigan. Its district is the same as the Genesee Intermediate School District and is governed by an elected board of Trustees...
in
Flint, MichiganFlint is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan and is located along the Flint River, 66 miles northwest of Detroit. As of the 2000 census, the city had a population of 124,943, making it the fifth largest city in Michigan. It is the county seat of Genesee County which lies in the Flint/Tri-Cities...
), albeit with deactivated powertrains meant to keep the cars from ever running again, but the majority were sent to
car crusherA car crusher is an industrial device used to reduce the dimensions of derelict automobiles prior to transport for recycling.Car crushers are compactors and can be of two types: "pancake", where a scrap automobile is flattened by a huge descending hydraulically-powered plate, or the baling press...
s to be destroyed, allegedly with government permission to do so.
Reaction
In the aftermath of the program, reactions to the cancellation of the EV1 continued to be mixed. In GM's view, the EV1 was not a failure, but the program was doomed when the expected breakthroughs in battery technology did not take place within the anticipated timeline, citing the lack of availability of the NiMH-technology battery packs, developed by Energy Conversion Devices of
MichiganMichigan is a Midwestern state of the United States of America. It was named after Lake Michigan, whose name is a French adaptation of the Ojibwe term mishigama, meaning "large water" or "large lake"....
, until late in the production cycle. The batteries improved the EV1's range, but not as dramatically as expected, and came with their own set of problems; a less-efficient charging algorithm had to be used (lengthening charge times), and the batteries heated up more quickly than the lead-acid packs (requiring use of the air conditioner to cool them down, wasting power). The automaker also cited the elimination of the CARB zero-emissions mandate that led to the car's creation as a factor in the program's cancellation, though the company was widely accused of lobbying against the mandate in an act of deliberate self-sabotage. The media perspective was far less favorable; in 2006, the
Wall Street Journals Detroit Bureau Chief Joe White said, "The EV1 was a failure, as were other electric vehicles launched in the 1990s to placate California clean-air regulators." This opinion as echoed by TimeTime is an American newsmagazine. A European edition is published from London. Time Europe covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong. As of 2009, Time no longer publishes a Canadian advertiser edition...
magazine, who in 2008 placed the EV1 on their list of "The 50 Worst Cars of All Time".
In light of falling car sales later in the decade, as the world oil and financial crises began to take hold, opinions of the EV1 program began to change. In 2006, former GM Chairman and CEO
Rick WagonerGeorge Richard "Rick" Wagoner, Jr. is an American businessman and former Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of General Motors. Wagoner resigned as Chairman and CEO at General Motors on March 29, 2009, at the request of the White House...
stated that his worst decision during his tenure at GM was "axing the EV1 electric-car program and not putting the right resources into hybrids. It didn’t affect profitability, but it did affect image." Wagoner repeated this assertion during an NPR interview after the December 2008 Senate hearings on the U.S. auto industry bailout request. In the March 13, 2007 issue of
NewsweekNewsweek is an American weekly newsmagazine published in New York City. It is distributed throughout the United States and internationally. It is the second largest news weekly magazine in the U.S., having trailed Time in circulation and advertising revenue for most of its existence...
, "GM R&D chief
Larry BurnsLawrence D. Burns is the vice president of Research and Development for General Motors. Burns oversees GM's advanced technology, innovation programs, and corporate strategy. He is a member of GM’s Automotive Strategy Board and Automotive Product Board....
. . . now wishes GM hadn't killed the plug-in hybrid EV1 prototype his engineers had on the road a decade ago: 'If we could turn back the hands of time,' says Burns, 'we could have had the Chevy Volt 10 years earlier,'" referring to the forthcoming plug-in hybrid car which was hailed as the spiritual and technological successor to the EV1.
Resurrection
Some of the deactivated EV1s given to universities and engineering schools were reactivated, and driven on public roads. The institutions came under fire from General Motors for violating the agreements of the donation, which indicated that the cars not be "titled, licensed, nor driven on public highways" and could only be restored and showcased. GM has potential legal obligations under laws that require automakers to maintain parts and service infrastructure for consumer vehicles for a period of no less than 15 years.
Technology and design
The decades before the release of the Impact and the EV1 had seen little in the way of development on the electric car front. The
Henney KilowattThe Henney Kilowatt was an electric car introduced for the 1959 model year. Although electric cars outsold gasoline cars in 1900, , the introduction of the Kilowatt followed a period in which they had been out of favor.-Corporate funding:...
, which ended production in 1961, was the last time a feasible production electric car of any sort had been released; GM's own
ElectrovairThe Chevrolet Corvair was an automobile produced by the Chevrolet division of General Motors from 1959 to 1969, for the 1960–1969 model years. The Corvair was offered in a wide range of body styles, including four-door sedans, two-door coupes, convertibles, and station wagons...
and
ElectrovetteThe Chevrolet Chevette was introduced in September, 1975 and produced for the 1976 through 1987 model years. It is Chevrolet's version of GM's worldwide T platform which was also sold as the Vauxhall Chevette, Opel Kadett, Isuzu Gemini and the Holden Gemini, among others.-History:The T-car was...
of 1966 and 1976, respectively, never reached production, amounting to little more than conceptual electric conversion kits for the automaker's popular gasoline models. Technical and production costs difficulties were blamed.
In contrast to these cars, the EV1 was designed from the ground up to be an electric vehicle. It was not a conversion of an existing vehicle, nor did it share a drivetrain with another GM model, which contributed to its high development and production costs. The EV1 program was initially administered by a GM engineer named Kenneth Baker, who had been the lead on the Electrovette program in the 1970s.
The EV1 was not only used to showcase the electric powertrain, but also premiered a number of features and technologies that would later find their way onto more common GM models and other manufacturers' cars. The EV1 was among the first production vehicles to utilize aluminum in the construction of the
frameA frame is the main structure of an automobile chassis. All other components fasten to it.-C-shape:By far the most common, the C-rail has been used on nearly every type of vehicle at one time or another...
. The car's body panels were made of plastic rather than metal, making the car lightweight and dent resistant. Anti-lock brakes, which had just appeared on the production car scene, and a traction control system were among the EV1's advanced driveability technologies. Comfort improvements included a keyless entry and ignition system, a special one-way thermal glass for better heat rejection on sunny days, an automated tire pressure loss warning system, electric
power steeringPower steering , assists the driver of an automobile in steering by directing a portion of the vehicle's power to traverse the axis of one or more of the roadwheels. On road going vehicles there has to be a mechanical linkage as a fail safe...
, and a time-programmable
HVACHVAC is an acronym that stands for the closely related functions of "Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning"-the technology of indoor environmental comfort...
system. To boost efficiency, the EV1 possessed a very low
drag coefficientThe drag coefficient is a common metric in automotive design, where designers strive to achieve a low coefficient. Minimizing drag is done to improve fuel efficiency at highway speeds, where aerodynamic effects represent a substantial fraction of the energy needed to keep the car moving. Indeed,...
(C
d) and reference area (C
dA) of 0.19 and 0.36 m² (3.95 ft²), respectively. Super-light
magnesium alloyMagnesium alloys are mixtures of magnesium with other metals , often aluminum, zinc, manganese, silicon, copper and zirconium. Magnesium is the lightest structural metal. Magnesium alloys have hexagonal lattice structure, which effect fundamentals properties of these alloys...
wheels and seats provided strength despite their low weight, and self-sealing, low-
rolling resistanceRolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag, is the resistance that occurs when a round object such as a ball or tire rolls on a flat surface. It is caused mainly by the deformation of the object, the deformation of the surface, or both...
tires developed by
MichelinMichelin based in Clermont-Ferrand in the Auvergne région of France, is primarily a tyre manufacturer, currently either the world's second-largest or the largest...
rounded out the EV1's exceptional efficiency characteristics.
At 169.7 inches (4,310 mm) in length, and 69.5 inches (1,765 mm) in width, the EV1 was a
subcompact carA subcompact car is an automobile in a North American vehicle size class, encompassing vehicles smaller than compact cars...
, with a 2-door
coupéA coupé or coupe is a closed car body style, the precise definition of which varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, and over time...
body style. The car's 3-phase
ACIn alternating current the movement of electric charge periodically reverses direction. An electric charge would for instance move forward, then backward, then forward, then backward, over and over again...
induction electric motor produced 137 brake horsepower (102 kW) at 7000 rpm. Like all electrically-powered cars, and unlike a car powered by an ICE, the EV1 could deliver its full torque capacity throughout its power band, producing 110 pound-feet (149 newton-meters) of torque anywhere between 0 and 7000 rpm. Power was delivered to the
front wheelsFront-wheel drive is a form of engine/transmission layout used in motor vehicles, where the engine drives the front wheels only. Most modern front-wheel drive vehicles feature a transverse engine, rather than the conventional longitudinal engine arrangement generally found in rear-wheel drive and...
through a single-speed reduction integrated
transmissionTransmission is the act of passing something on.Specifically, it may refer to:*Transmission , a gear system transmitting mechanical power, as in a car*Transmission , the act of transmitting messages over distances...
.
The Gen I EV1 models, released in 1996, used
lead-acid batteriesLead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having the second lowest energy-to-weight ratio and a correspondingly low energy-to-volume ratio, their ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells maintain...
, and weighed in at 3,086 pounds (1,400 kg). The first batch of batteries were provided by GM's Delphi branch; these were rated at a mere 53 amp-hours at 312 volts, and provided the initially mediocre range of 55 to 75 miles (90 to 120 km) per charge. Gen II cars, released in 1999, used a new batch of lead-acid batteries provided by
PanasonicPanasonic is an international brand name for Japanese electric products manufacturer Panasonic Corporation Under this brand the company sells plasma and LCD display panels, DVD recorders and players, Blu-ray Disc players, camcorders, telephones, vacuum cleaners, microwave ovens, shavers,...
; some Gen I cars were retrofitted with this battery pack. The Japanese batteries were rated at 60 amp-hours (18.7 kWh) at 312 volts, and increased the EV1's range to 75 to 100 miles (120 to 160 km). Soon after the rollout of the second generation cars, the originally intended nickel metal hydride (NiMH) "Ovonic" battery pack, which reduced the car's curb weight to 2,908 pounds (1,319 kg) entered production; this pack was also retrofitted to earlier cars. The NiMH batteries, rated at 77 amp-hours (26.4 kWh) at 343 volts, gave the cars a range of 75 to 150 miles (120 to 240 km) per charge, more than twice what the original Gen I cars could muster.
It took the NiMH-equipped cars as much as eight hours for the cars to charge to full capacity (though an 80% charge could be achieved in between one and three hours). The Panasonic battery pack consisted of twenty-six 12 volt, 60 amp-hour lead-acid batteries holding 67.4 megajoules (18.7 kWh) of energy. The NiMH packs contained twenty-six 13.2 volt, 77 Ah nickel-metal hydride batteries which held 95.1 megajoules (26.4 kWh) of energy.
Leasing experience
The experience of leasing and driving an EV1 was unlike a conventional gasoline or
dieselA diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber during the final stage of compression...
vehicle. The EV1's drag coefficient of 0.19 was the lowest of any production automobile in history, while typical production cars have C
d's in the 0.3 to 0.4 range. The EV1's clean shape meant it produced less wind noise at highway speeds, providing a more comfortable driving experience for its occupants. At lower speeds, and when idling, the car produced little to no noise at all, save for a slight whine from the single-speed gear reduction unit. The car's smooth shape, waterfall tail and rear
fender skirtsFender skirts, known in Australia and the United Kingdom as spats, are pieces of bodywork on the fender that cover the upper portions of the rear tires of an automobile.-Functions:...
gave it a distinctive appearance, reminiscent of an updated, 2-door
Citroën DSThe Citroën DS is an executive car produced by the French manufacturer Citroën between 1955 and 1975. Styled by Italian sculptor and industrial designer Flaminio Bertoni, the DS is known for its futuristic body design and innovative technology, including a hydropneumatic self-levelling...
. The EV1 had no analog dials, and all instrumentation readouts were displayed in a single thin curved strip mounted high on the dashboard, just underneath the
windshieldThe windshield or windscreen of an aircraft, automobile, bus, motorcycle, or tram is the front window. Modern windshields are generally made of laminated safety glass, a type of treated glass, which consists of two curved sheets of glass with a plastic layer laminated between them for safety, and...
.
Thanks to the on-demand torque output of the electric motor, the EV1 could accelerate from 0–50 mph (0–80 km/h) in 6.3 seconds, and from 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) in eight seconds. The car's top speed was electronically limited to . At the time of release, the lead-acid battery-equipped EV1 was the only electric car produced which met all of the
United States Department of EnergyThe United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government concerned with the United States' policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material...
's EV America performance goals.
The home charger provided by GM, which was required for "fast recharging" of the car, measured roughly 1.5 by 2 by 5 feet (0.5 by 0.6 by 1.5 m), and featured integrated heatsinks and a resemblance to a gasoline pump. The charger refueled the car using
inductionInductive charging charges electrical batteries using electromagnetic induction. A charging station sends energy through inductive coupling to an electrical device, which stores the energy in the batteries...
, accomplished by inserting a
Magne ChargeMagne Charge is an inductive charging system used to charge battery electric vehicles formerly made by General Motors, such as the EV1, Chevy S10 EV, and other electric vehicles. It was produced by the General Motors subsidiary Delco Electronics. The most common was the 6.6 kW version although a...
paddle into the slot between the EV1's headlights. The wireless charging technology meant that no direct connection was made, and charging the car while it was raining did not pose any risks, though there were isolated incidents involving fires starting at the charge port. GM also offered a 120 V AC convenience charger that could be use with any standard North America power socket to slow-charge the battery pack. The convenience charger was not available for EV1s equipped with the NiMH battery packs.
Analysis of success vs. failure
The view of the EV1 as failure is a controversial one in itself. When viewed as an attempt to produce a viable EV product, it was a success, while certainly from GM's perspective not a commercial success as the high profit margins seen with internal combustion engine vehicles remained elusive. If one considers the vehicle as a technological showpiece—a production electric car that actually could replace a gasoline powered vehicle—the program's outcome is less clear. The EV1 was produced for the consumer market, and many lessees found driving an EV1 to be a favorable experience. On that basis, EV1 might qualify as the most successful electric car ever built.
Some analysts have suggested that it is inappropriate to compare the EV1 with existing
gasolineGasoline or petrol is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture, primarily used as fuel in internal combustion engines...
powered commuter cars as the EV1 was, in effect, a completely new product category that had no equivalent vehicles to be judged against.
Costs
GM based the lease payments for the EV1 on an initial vehicle price of US$33,995. Lease payments ranged from around $299 to $574 per month, depending on the availability of state rebates. Since GM did not offer consumers the option to purchase at the end of the lease, the car's
residual valueResidual value is one of the constituents of a leasing calculus or operation. It describes the future value of a good in terms of percentage of depreciation of its initial value....
was never established, making it impossible to determine the actual full purchase price or replacement value. One industry official said that each EV1 cost the company about US$80,000, including research, development and other associated costs; other estimates placed the vehicle's actual cost as high as $100,000. GM stated the cost of the EV1 program at slightly less than $500 million before marketing and sales costs, and over $1 billion in total; a portion of this cost was defrayed by the
Clinton Administration'sThe United States Presidency of Bill Clinton, also known as the Clinton Administration, was the executive branch of the federal government of the United States from January 20,1993 to January 20 ,2001.-First Term :...
$1.25 billion Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) program. In addition, all manufacturers seeking to produce electric cars for market consumption also benefited from matching government funds committed to the United States Advanced Battery Consortium.
Related development
General Motors revealed several prototype variants of the EV1 drivetrain at the 1998 Detroit Auto Show. The models included
dieselA diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber during the final stage of compression...
/electric parallel hybrid,
gas turbineA gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a flow of combustion gas. It has an upstream compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in-between. Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where air is mixed with...
/electric series hybrid,
fuel cellA fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that produces electricity from a replenishable fuel tank. The electricity is generated through the reaction, triggered in the presence of an electrolyte, between the fuel and an oxidant . The reactants flow into the cell, and the reaction products flow out of...
/electric version and
compressed natural gasCompressed Natural Gas is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline , diesel, or propane fuel. Although its combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it is a more environmentally clean alternative to those fuels, and it is much safer than other fuels in the event of a spill .CNG is made by compressing...
low emission
internal combustion engineThe internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to a movable...
version. In addition, during this period, GM reorganized their electronics divisions (amongst them Hughes Electronics and Delco Divisions) into Delco Propulsion Systems in order to attempt to commercialize this technology in niche markets. Several non-affiliated companies purchased inverter and drivetrain systems from DPS for vehicle/fleet conversion purposes.
The new platform was a four-passenger variant of the EV1, lengthened by 19". This design was based on an internal (GM) program for a more "marketable" EV begun during the proof of concept phase of the EV1's development. During the original EV1 R&D period, focus groups indicated one of the major market limiting factors of the original EV1 was its two seater configuration. GM investigated the possibility of making the EV1 a four seater, but ultimately determined that the increased length and weight of the four seater would reduce vehicle's already limited range to 40–50 miles - placing the first ground up electric car's performance squarely in the pack of aftermarket gas vehicle conversions. Understandably, the company elected to produce the lighter two seater design.
For hybrid and electric vehicles, the battery pack was upgraded to 44
NiMHNIMH or NiMH may refer to:*Nickel metal hydride battery, a type of rechargeable battery*National Institute of Mental Health, a part of the United States National Institutes of Health...
cells, arranged in "I" formation down the centerline, which could fully recharge in just 2 hours using onboard 220 V induction charger; additional power units were installed in the trunk, thus complementing the 3rd generation 137 hp AC Induction electric motor installed in the hood. Hybrid modifications retained the capability of all-electric
ZEVA zero-emissions vehicle, or ZEV a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power. Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates , hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. Although not considered emission...
propulsion for up to 40 miles (64.4 km).
EV1 CNG
The
compressed natural gasCompressed Natural Gas is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline , diesel, or propane fuel. Although its combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it is a more environmentally clean alternative to those fuels, and it is much safer than other fuels in the event of a spill .CNG is made by compressing...
(CNG) variant was the only non-electric vehicle in the line-up, even though it employed the same up-stretched platform. It used a modified
Suzukiis a Japanese multinational corporation headquartered in Hamamatsu, Japan that specializes in manufacturing compact automobiles, a full range of motorcycles, all-terrain vehicles , outboard marine engines, wheelchairs and a variety of other small internal combustion engines...
1.0-liter turbocharged 3-cylinder all-aluminum OHC engine installed under the hood. Due to the high octane rating of the CNG (allowing for a greater
compression ratioThe compression ratio of an internal-combustion engine or external combustion engine is a value that represents the ratio of the volume of its combustion chamber; from its largest capacity to its smallest capacity...
), this small engine was able to deliver 72 hp at 5500 rpm.
The batteries were replaced with two CNG tanks capable of maximum operating pressure of 3000 psi. The tanks could be refueled from a single nozzle in only 4 minutes. In-tank solenoids shut off the fuel during refueling and engine idle, and a pressure relief device safeguarded against excessive temperature and pressure. With the help of a
continuously variable transmissionA continuously variable transmission is a transmission which can change steplessly through an infinite number of effective gear ratios between maximum and minimum values. This contrasts with other mechanical transmissions that only allow a few different distinct gear ratios to be selected...
, the car accelerated 0 to 60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 11 seconds. The maximum range was 350 to 400 miles, and fuel economy was 60 mpg (in
gasolineGasoline or petrol is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture, primarily used as fuel in internal combustion engines...
equivalent) .
EV1 series hybrid
The series hybrid prototype had a gas turbine engine
APUAn auxiliary power unit is a device on a vehicle whose purpose is to provide energy for functions other than propulsion. Different types of APU are found on aircraft, as well as on some large ground vehicles.-Functions of APU:...
placed in the trunk. A single-stage, single-shaft,
recuperatedA recuperator is a special purpose counter-flow heat exchanger used to recover waste heat from exhaust gases. In many types of processes, combustion is used to generate heat, and the recuperator serves to recuperate, or reclaim this heat, in order to reuse or recycle it...
gas turbine unit with a high-speed permanent-magnet AC generator was provided by
Williams InternationalWilliams International is a manufacturer of small gas turbine engines based in Walled Lake, Michigan, United States. It produces jet engines for cruise missiles and small jet-powered aircraft.- History :...
; it weighed 220 lb (99.8 kg), measured 20 inches (50.8 cm) in diameter by 22 inches (55.9 cm) long and was running between 100,000 and 140,000 rpm. The turbine could run on a number of high-octane alternative fuels, from octane-boosted gasoline to
compressed natural gasCompressed Natural Gas is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline , diesel, or propane fuel. Although its combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it is a more environmentally clean alternative to those fuels, and it is much safer than other fuels in the event of a spill .CNG is made by compressing...
. The APU started automatically when the battery charge dropped below 40% and delivered 40 kW of electrical power, enough to achieve speeds up to 80 mph (128.8 km/h) and to return the car's 44
NiMHNIMH or NiMH may refer to:*Nickel metal hydride battery, a type of rechargeable battery*National Institute of Mental Health, a part of the United States National Institutes of Health...
cells to a 50% charge level.
A fuel tank capacity of and fuel economy of to in hybrid mode, depending on the driving conditions, allowed for a highway range of more than 390 miles (627.6 km). The car accelerated to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 9 seconds.
There was also a research program that powered the series hybrid Gen2 version from
Stirling engineA Stirling engine is a heat engine that operates by cyclic compression and expansion of air or other gas, the working fluid, at different temperature levels such that there is a net conversion of heat energy to mechanical work....
based generator. The program demonstrated the technical feasibility of such drivetrain, but concluded that commercial viability was out of reach at that time.
EV1 parallel hybrid
The parallel hybrid variant featured a de-stroked 1.3 L turbocharged DTI diesel engine (
Isuzu, is a Japanese car, commercial vehicle and heavy truck manufacturing company, headquartered in Tokyo. In 2005, Isuzu became the world's largest manufacturer of medium to heavy duty trucks. It has assembly and manufacturing plants in the Japanese city of Fujisawa, as well as in the prefectures...
Circle LThe Circle L is an automobile engine produced by Isuzu Motors Polska in Poland. It is a Diesel straight-4 originally designed by Isuzu but now owned by General Motors. The engine is used in Europe by GM's Opel and Vauxhall subsidiary and by Honda.-Honda:...
), delivering , installed in the trunk along with an additional DC motor/generator; the two motors drove the rear wheels through an electronically controlled transaxle. When combined with the AC induction motor which powered the front wheels, all three power units delivered a total output of , accelerating the car to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 7 seconds. A single tank of diesel fuel could keep the car running for with a fuel economy of .
A similar technology is used in the 2005
Opel AstraThe Opel Astra is a small family car designed and manufactured by Opel, the European subsidiary of General Motors.It is branded as an Opel in continental Europe, the Republic of Ireland, the Middle East, North Africa, Russia, South Africa, India and Taiwan, as Vauxhall Astra in the United Kingdom,...
Diesel Hybrid concept.
EV1 fuel cell
This variant extended all-electric propulsion capabilities with a methanol-powered fuel cell system (developed by
Daimler-BenzDaimler-Benz AG was a German manufacturer of automobiles, motor vehicles, and engines which was founded in 1926. An Agreement of Mutual Interest—which was valid until year 2000—was signed on May 1 1924 between Karl Benz's Benz & Cie. and Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft, which had been founded by...
/
BallardBallard Power Systems , located in Burnaby, British Columbia -- a suburb of Vancouver -- is a company that designs, develops, and manufactures zero emission proton-exchange-membrane fuel cells. This company has made a bus that uses only hydrogen fuel cells. These fuel cells combine hydrogen and...
for the Mercedes-Benz NECAR), again installed in the trunk. The system consisted of a fuel processor, an expander/compressor and the fuel cell stack. The highway range was about , with a fuel economy of (in a gasoline equivalent). The car accelerated to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 9 seconds.
The EV1 in the media
On November 14, 2006, a documentary film debuted entitled
Who Killed the Electric Car?Who Killed the Electric Car? is a 2006 documentary film that explores the creation, limited commercialization, and subsequent destruction of the battery electric vehicle in the United States, specifically the General Motors EV1 of the 1990s...
. The subject of the film is the demise of the EV1. Much of the film accounts for GM's efforts to demonstrate to California that there was no demand for their product and then to reclaim every last EV1 and dispose of them. A few vehicles were disabled and given to museums and universities, but almost all were found to have been crushed, or shredded using a special machine, as seen in the documentary.
GM responded to the film's claims, laying out several reasons why the EV1 was not commercially viable at the time. One theory discussed in the documentary is that the EV1 program was eliminated because it threatened the oil industry.
A scene from the film depicted a GM advertisement for the EV1, where a solemn voice-over asks questions such as "How does it go without gas and air?" and "How does it go without sparks and explosions?", as the camera panned over disturbing images of a family's shadows cast against a pockmarked concrete surface. Though interpreted by some reviewers as a television advertisement, the image in the scene was part of a print ad commissioned by GM and executed by design firm Labyrinth Worldwide; the voice-over, soundtrack, and panning effects were inserted in the documentary's production, and the ad was presented ambiguously as part of a "GM-produced ad campaign, 1996".
See also
- Chevrolet Volt
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle to be produced by the Chevrolet division of General Motors and expected to be launched in November 2010 as a 2011 model. Its price is estimated to be near $40,000, which would give a net price of about $32,500 after the $7,500 Federal tax credit...
, the commercial successor to the EV1
- Chevrolet S-10 EV, a GM electric pickup truck
A pickup truck is a light motor vehicle with an open-top rear cargo area which is almost always separated from the cab to allow for chassis flex when carrying or pulling heavy loads....
that used EV1 technology
- Plug In America
Plug In America is a 501 non-profit educational organization that promotes and advocates the use of plug-in cars, trucks and sports utlilty vehicles powered by domestic and renewable electricity which it claims will help reduce dependence on fossil fuels, improve the global environment and...
, an organization which campaigned to save electric cars such as the EV1 from being crushed
- List of production battery electric vehicles
External links
News articles
Media
GM Wiki