The
Chevrolet Volt is a
plug-in hybrid electric vehicleA plug-in hybrid electric vehicle is a hybrid vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an external electric power source...
to be produced by the
ChevroletChevrolet is a brand of automobile produced by General Motors Company . Founded by Louis Chevrolet and ousted GM founder William C. Durant in 1911, Chevrolet was acquired by General Motors in 1917...
division of
General MotorsGeneral Motors Company, often known as simply GM, is a United States based automaker with headquarters in Detroit, Michigan. GM was the world's 18th largest corporate entity and third largest automaker as ranked by 2008 revenues on the Fortune Global 500. Ranked by global unit sales for 2008, it...
and expected to be launched in November 2010 as a 2011 model. Its price is estimated to be near $40,000, which would give a net price of about $32,500 after the $7,500 Federal tax credit. The automaker has kept the Volt on or ahead of schedule, despite
GM's Chapter 11 reorganizationThe General Motors Chapter 11 reorganization was partially implemented through a section 363 Chapter 11 bankruptcy of automobile manufacturer General Motors and some of its subsidiaries in the United States Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of New York...
. The Volt's propulsion system will be based on GM's new Voltec (formerly known as E-Flex) electric vehicle platform, which differs significantly from GM's earlier BAS Hybrid and Two-Mode Hybrid systems. The first
pre-production test carPre-production cars are vehicles that allow the automaker to find problems before a new model goes on sale to the public. Pre-production cars come after prototypes, or development mules which themselves are preceded by concept cars...
based on the full Volt design was built in June 2009 in
Warren, MichiganWarren is a city in Macomb County in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 138,247, making Warren the largest city in Macomb County, the third most populous city in Michigan, and Metro Detroit's largest suburb....
and by October 80 Volts had been built and were being tested in various conditions.
For up to the first 40 miles, the Volt is powered by electricity stored in its on-board lithium-ion batteries which are charged by an electrical power outlet. The Volt's 16 kWh (8.0 kWh usable) lithium-ion battery pack can be
fully chargedState of charge is the equivalent of a fuel gauge for the battery pack in a battery electric vehicle , hybrid vehicle , or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle...
by plugging the car into a 120-240VAC residential electrical outlet using the provided
SAE J1772SAE J1772 is a North American standard for electrical connectors for electric vehicles maintained by the Society of Automotive Engineers and has the formal title "SAE Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice J1772, SAE Electric VehicleConductive Charge Coupler”...
compliant charging cord. No external charging station will be required. Unlike most current commercially available electric hybrids, the actual propulsion of the Volt is accomplished exclusively by the electric motor.
With fully charged batteries, enough electrical energy will be stored to power the Volt up to . This distance is capable of satisfying the daily
commuteCommuting is regular travel between one's place of residence and place of work or full time study. Institutions that have few dormitories or near-campus student housing are called commuter schools in the United States....
for 75% of
AmericansThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, whose commute is on average . After , a small
4-cylinderThe inline-four engine or straight-four engine is a four-cylinder internal combustion engine with all four cylinders mounted in a straight line, or plane along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in either a vertical or an inclined plane with all the pistons driving a...
gasoline
internal combustion engineThe internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to a movable...
creates electricity on-board to
generatorIn electricity generation, an electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by a motor; motors and generators have many similarities...
extend the Volt's range to over The electrical power from the generator is sent to either the electric motor or the batteries, depending on the
state of chargeState of charge is the equivalent of a fuel gauge for the battery pack in a battery electric vehicle , hybrid vehicle , or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle...
(SOC) of the battery pack and the power demanded at the wheels. The distribution is controlled by the
electronic control unitIn automotive electronics, electronic control unit is a generic term for any embedded system that controls one or more of the electrical systems or subsystems in a motor vehicle....
(ECU) of the vehicle.
Classification as a "hybrid"
Since the current Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) definition of a hybrid vehicle states the vehicle shall have "two or more energy storage systems both of which must provide propulsion power, either together or independently", the company has avoided the use of the term "hybrid" when describing its Voltec designs. Instead GM describes the Volt as an
electric vehicleAn electric vehicle , also referred to as an electric drive vehicle, is a vehicle which uses one or more electric motors for propulsion. Depending on the type of vehicle, motion may be provided by wheels or propellers driven by rotary motors, or in the case of tracked vehicles, by linear motors...
equipped with a "range extending" gasoline powered
internal combustion engine (ICE)The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to a movable...
as a
gensetAn engine-generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine mounted together to form a single piece of equipment. This combination is also called an engine-generator set or a gen-set...
and therefore dubbed an "Extended Range Electric Vehicle" or E-REV. However, the combination of an internal combustion engine and electric motors in such a configuration is most commonly referred to as a plug-in series hybrid.
Concept vehicle
The Volt concept vehicle has four doors with a rear liftgate, and is capable of carrying four passengers. This is a significant change in design when compared to the
General Motors EV1The General Motors EV1 was an electric car produced and leased by the General Motors Corporation from 1996 to 1999. It was the first mass-produced and purpose-designed electric vehicle of the modern era from a major automaker, and the first GM car designed to be an electric vehicle from the outset...
of the 1990s, which only seated two to reduce weight. The top speed has also been increased on the Volt, from the electronically limited to . The battery pack size has also been reduced, from about 300
L
in volume in the EV1, to just 100 L in the Volt.
GM's Vice Chairman
Robert LutzRobert A. "Bob" Lutz is the Vice Chairman of Global Product Development at General Motors Company...
told
NewsweekNewsweek is an American weekly newsmagazine published in New York City. It is distributed throughout the United States and internationally. It is the second largest news weekly magazine in the U.S., having trailed Time in circulation and advertising revenue for most of its existence...
in 2007 that a two-seat sports car by
Tesla MotorsTesla Motors Inc. is a Silicon Valley-based company that engineers and manufactures electric cars . It is currently the only automaker building and selling highway-capable EVs in serial production in North America or Europe...
, the
RoadsterThe Tesla Roadster is an all-electric sports car produced by the electric car firm Tesla Motors. Tesla has shipped more than 700 Roadsters to customers in the United States and Europe, and Canadian deliveries are expected to begin in late 2009. The Roadster can travel on a single charge of its...
, and the rapid advancement of battery technology inspired him to push GM to develop the Volt.
Production model
The production design model, first revealed to the public on September 16, 2008, differs greatly in design from the original concept car. Citing necessary aerodynamic changes needed to extend the Volt's initial full-charge range, the Volt uses GM's new "Delta II" platform, shared by the planned 2010
Chevrolet CruzeThe Chevrolet Cruze is a General Motors automobile produced since 2001, spanning two generations and two unrelated vehicles. The first generation, a subcompact crossover SUV, was manufactured by Suzuki in Japan under joint venture with GM. This venture project derived from the 2000–2006 generation...
and the 2011 Saab 9-3. Although GM has not publicly revealed the production model's drag coefficient, they claim it will be lower than the 0.25 drag coefficient of the
Toyota PriusThe Toyota Prius is a full hybrid electric mid-size car developed and manufactured by the Toyota Motor Corporation. It first went on sale in Japan in 1997, making it the first mass-produced hybrid vehicle. It was subsequently introduced worldwide in 2001. The Prius is sold in more than 40...
, which uses a
KammbackA Kammback is a car body style that derives from the research of the German aerodynamicist Wunibald Kamm in the 1930s, this research itself deriving from that of another pioneer German aerodynamicist, Baron Reinhard Koenig-Fachsenfeld. "Kammback" is an American coinage...
body.
Electromechanical design timeline
GM executives report that battery technology will have a large impact in determining the success of the car.
To help spur battery research, GM selected two companies to provide advanced lithium-ion battery packs: Compact Power (CPI), which uses manganese spinel based cells made by its parent company, LG Chemical; and
Continental Automotive SystemsContinental Automotive Systems , founded in 1906 by Alfred Teves, a division of Continental AG, is a leading brake and electronics supplier to the automotive industry, delivering systems, components, electronics, lithium-ion batteries and engineering services for vehicle safety, comfort and...
, which uses nanophosphate based cylindrical cells made by
A123SystemsA123Systems is a supplier of high-power Lithium-Ion batteries. The company has 1,800 employees and is headquartered in Watertown, Massachusetts....
. However, on August 9, 2007, GM established a more close-knit relationship with
A123SystemsA123Systems is a supplier of high-power Lithium-Ion batteries. The company has 1,800 employees and is headquartered in Watertown, Massachusetts....
so that the two companies could co-develop a Volt-specific battery cell. This cell was later unveiled at the EVS23 industry convention in Anaheim, CA. Work with CPI has continued at a rapid pace, and in late 2007 CPI delivered two fully-functional prototype battery packs to GM's testing facilities. On January 31, 2008, A123 and Continental delivered their first prototype to GM's European test facilities. GM announced on January 12, 2009 that it would use the LG Chem batteries for the production model.
GM expects ten years of life out of the batteries. As of early 2008, they had started extensive battery testing and planned to have 10-year battery results in two years. Batteries were placed in the
Chevrolet MalibuThe Chevrolet Malibu is a mid-size car produced in the United States by General Motors. It is marketed in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East.-First generation 1964–1967 :...
for further real-world testing.
In April 2008, GM Vice Chairman
Bob LutzBob Lutz may refer to:*Bob Lutz , tennis player of the 1970s*Robert Lutz, General Motors Company executive*Bobby Lutz, basketball coach...
said that the first battery test mule was now running with a lithium-ion battery pack. By that summer, GM confirmed that a non-turbocharged, 1.4 liter 4-cylinder engine would be used as the range extender, and that the intention is to build it in
Flint, MichiganFlint is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan and is located along the Flint River, 66 miles northwest of Detroit. As of the 2000 census, the city had a population of 124,943, making it the fifth largest city in Michigan. It is the county seat of Genesee County which lies in the Flint/Tri-Cities...
. In August 2008, Andrew Farah, the car's chief engineer, stated that the project remains on-track to hit the 2010 deadline saying "at this point, there’s nothing standing in our way of continuing to do what we said we’re going to do."
In April 2009, GM allowed some in the media to test the Volt
powertrainIn a motor vehicle, the term powertrain or powerplant refers to the group of components that generate power and deliver it to the road surface, water, or air. This includes the engine, transmission, driveshafts, differentials, and the final drive...
in the body of
Chevrolet CruzeThe Chevrolet Cruze is a General Motors automobile produced since 2001, spanning two generations and two unrelated vehicles. The first generation, a subcompact crossover SUV, was manufactured by Suzuki in Japan under joint venture with GM. This venture project derived from the 2000–2006 generation...
sedans used as test mules but without the range extending engine powering the vehicle. The driving tests were conducted at GM Technical Center in
Warren, MichiganWarren is a city in Macomb County in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 138,247, making Warren the largest city in Macomb County, the third most populous city in Michigan, and Metro Detroit's largest suburb....
. Several of the journalists noted that the Volt mule's drive in electric mode is quiet and smooth, without any of the typical noises in commercially available hybrids when accelerating or decelerating. GM plans to include in the Volt some type of noisemaker to alert blind pedestrians crossing at intersections of the car's presence
The first integration prototype based on the final Volt design was built in June 2009, in
Warren, MichiganWarren is a city in Macomb County in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 138,247, making Warren the largest city in Macomb County, the third most populous city in Michigan, and Metro Detroit's largest suburb....
. By October 80 Volts had been built and tested in various conditions, and by October 2009, GM expects 80 of them to be on the road as press cars and test vehicles.
Drivetrain
The 2007 Chevrolet Volt concept vehicle that appeared in the
North American International Auto ShowThe North American International Auto Show , is an annual auto show held in Detroit, Michigan at Cobo Center. It is among the largest auto shows in North America.-History:...
introduced the Voltec drive system, which is an attempt to standardize many components of possible future electrically-propelled vehicles, and to allow multiple interchangeable electricity-generating systems. The initial design as envisioned in the Volt combines an electric motor and lithium-ion battery plug-in system with a small 1.0 L engine powered by
gasolineGasoline or petrol is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture, primarily used as fuel in internal combustion engines...
linked to a generator. The vehicle is propelled by an
electric motorAn electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, usually through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on...
with a peak output of . Ordinarily, the vehicle would be charged while at home overnight. According to General Motors a full charge will take approximately eight hours from a standard North American 120
VThe volt is the SI derived unit of electromotive force, commonly called "voltage". It is also the unit for the related but slightly different quantity electric potential difference...
, 15
AThe ampere is the SI unit of electric current. The ampere, in practice often shortened to amp, is an SI base unit, and is named after André-Marie Ampère, one of the main discoverers of electromagnetism....
household outlet and less than three hours if using a standard 240 VAC outlet. Charge times will be less if the battery is not fully depleted when charging commences.
Since the electrical drivetrain is not affected by the method used to charge its batteries, several options could be available for an engine. The original prototype specifications for the Volt indicated a turbo-charged 1.0 litre 3-cylinder engine would be used. However the initial production configuration currently specified by GM indicates the use of a naturally aspirated 1.4-liter 4-cylinder gasoline engine (Opel's
Family 0The Family 0 is a family of inline piston engines that was developed by GM-Opel Powertrain, a subsidiary of Adam Opel GmbH, as a low-displacement engine for use on entry-level subcompact cars from Opel/Vauxhall....
). It will be a flex-fuel internal combustion engine capable of running gasoline or
E85E85 is an alcohol fuel mixture that typically contains a mixture of up to 85% denatured fuel ethanol and gasoline or other hydrocarbon by volume...
(85%
ethanolEthanol fuel is ethanol , the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It can be used as a fuel, mainly as a biofuel alternative to gasoline, and is widely used by flex-fuel light vehicles in Brazil, and as an oxygenate to gasoline in the United States. Together, both countries were...
, 15% gasoline) or any blend of those fuels.
This general layout is considered a plug-in series hybrid design since mechanical power initially drives the generator, which in turn either charges the battery pack or provides power to the electric motor. While the
ICEThe internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to a movable...
has an electrical connection with the electric motor and hence the wheels, it does not have any mechanical linkage to the wheels (unlike current automobile hybrid vehicles such as the
Toyota PriusThe Toyota Prius is a full hybrid electric mid-size car developed and manufactured by the Toyota Motor Corporation. It first went on sale in Japan in 1997, making it the first mass-produced hybrid vehicle. It was subsequently introduced worldwide in 2001. The Prius is sold in more than 40...
), and can run at optimal rpm for fuel consumption, reduced emissions and charge rate efficiency.
GM plans to station charge the lithium-ion battery to a state-of-charge (SoC) range of approx 85%. Then once the battery depletes to a precise low set-point (<25%) the on-board ICE powered generator will recharge the battery to an upper set-point above the 30% SoC level.
GM has decided on a new descriptive terminology to distinguish it from traditional hybrids. They are calling the Volt an E-REV, for extended-range electric vehicle, although it still qualifies as a hybrid.
Production and sales
In July 2007, General Motors stated that it would have the Volt on the U.S. market in 2010, and in early June 2008, they confirmed that production had been approved, with a target of getting the Volt into showrooms by the end of 2010. Following the conclusion of the 2007
UAW-GMThe International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, better known as the United Auto Workers , is a labor union which represents workers in the United States and Puerto Rico...
contract talksThe 2007 General Motors strike was a strike from September 24 to 26, 2007, by the United Auto Workers against General Motors.On September 24, 2007 at approximately 11:00 a.m. EDT, the roughly 73,000 General Motors workers represented by the United Auto Workers union went on strike against the company...
, assembly of the Volt was assigned to
Detroit/Hamtramck AssemblyDetroit/Hamtramck Assembly is a General Motors automobile factory straddling the border between Detroit and Hamtramck, Michigan. It is located about three miles from corporate headquarters and has been used for production of Buick, Oldsmobile, and Cadillac products.The site was once an inner-city...
. Initially the gasoline engine will be imported from GM's
OpelAdam Opel GmbH, commonly known as Opel, is a German automaker. The company was founded on 21 January 1863, began making automobiles in 1899, and was acquired by General Motors in 1929...
engine plant in
AspernAspern is part of Donaustadt, the 22nd district of Vienna.In 1904, the formerly independent village was incorporated into Vienna as part of the 21st district, Floridsdorf. Only in 1946 did it become part of the newly created 22nd district, Donaustadt. The area is known because of the Battle of...
,
AustriaAustria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.3 million people in Central Europe. It borders both Germany and the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west...
. Early estimates, from GM staff, were of initial annual production of 60,000 units, but these claims have been scaled back to a planned 10,000 units, as of May 2008, with a ramp up to 60,000 units in the second year.
At the 2009 Frankfurt Auto Show Opel/Vauxhall (to be owned by
Magna InternationalMagna International Inc. is a Canadian company based in Aurora, Ontario. It is Canada's largest automobile parts manufacturer, and one of the country's largest companies. It owns the successful Magna Steyr automobile production company of Austria....
) showed the Ampera version of the Chevrolet Volt.
Tax credits
In the U.S. market, the price of the Volt is expected to be around
US$The United States dollar is the unit of currency of the United States. The U.S. dollar is normally abbreviated as the dollar sign, $, or as USD or US$ to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies and from others that use the $ symbol. It is divided into 100 cents .The U.S...
40,000 General Motors expects that the capacity of the Volt's battery pack will qualify U.S.-based purchasers for the maximum US$7,500 tax credit as specified in the
Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 , commonly referred to as a bailout of the U.S. financial system, is a law enacted in response to the subprime mortgage crisis authorizing the United States Secretary of the Treasury to spend up to US$700 billion to purchase distressed assets,...
. Initially, the former GM vice president Bob Lutz wanted the Volt at about $30,000.
The Volt is being endorsed by
Dalton McGuintyDalton James Patrick McGuinty, Jr., MPP is a Canadian lawyer and politician and, since October 23, 2003, premier of the Canadian province of Ontario...
and the
OntarioOntario is a province located in east-central Canada, the largest by population and second largest, after Quebec, in total area. Ontario is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba to the west and Quebec to the east, and 5 U.S...
government in
CanadaCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
. The province will provide a $10,000 subsidy, and will purchase 500 Volts for the
Ontario Public ServiceThe Government of Ontario refers to the provincial government of the province of Ontario. Its powers and structure are set out in the Constitution Act, 1867....
fleet. The subsidies are part of McGuinty's target to have electric vehicles make up 5% of all cars in Ontario by 2020.
Production and sales in foreign markets
At the British International Motor Show in July 2008, GM stated that they were considering building all of the Volts for the European market, branded
ChevroletChevrolet is a brand of automobile produced by General Motors Company . Founded by Louis Chevrolet and ousted GM founder William C. Durant in 1911, Chevrolet was acquired by General Motors in 1917...
,
OpelAdam Opel GmbH, commonly known as Opel, is a German automaker. The company was founded on 21 January 1863, began making automobiles in 1899, and was acquired by General Motors in 1929...
and
VauxhallVauxhall Motors is a British automobile company owned by Magna International and General Motors. Most current Vauxhall models are right-hand drive derivatives of Magna's Opel brand; however, production of left hand vehicles also takes place for export to other parts of Europe and certain marginal...
, at their Vauxhall plant in
Ellesmere PortEllesmere Port is a large industrial town and port in the unitary authority of Cheshire West and Chester and the ceremonial county of Cheshire, England. It is situated in the south of the Wirral Peninsula on the estuary of the River Mersey, and to the north of the city of Chester...
on the other side of the
River MerseyThe River Mersey is a river in North West England. It is around long, stretching from Stockport, Greater Manchester, and ending at Liverpool Bay, Merseyside. For centuries, it formed part of the ancient county divide between Lancashire and Cheshire....
to the Jaguar car plant in
LiverpoolLiverpool is a city and metropolitan borough of Merseyside, England, along the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary. It was founded as a borough in 1207 and was granted city status in 1880...
,
United KingdomThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands...
. In August 2008 GM stated that the Volt would be available for sale in Europe in 2011. In the UK market the indicated price is around .
In late January 2009, GM Europe announced that its version of the Volt, the Opel Ampera, will be unveiled at the Geneva Auto Show in March. The price is still not yet firm but could land around
EUR€The euro is the official currency of 16 of the 27 Member States of the European Union . The states, known collectively as the Eurozone, are Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain...
40,000. The planned employment of the Opel Ampera should demand only an extremely low annual car tax of about
EUR€The euro is the official currency of 16 of the 27 Member States of the European Union . The states, known collectively as the Eurozone, are Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain...
28 in Germany. Opel is developing the battery control modules for the Opel Ampera at LG in Mainz-Kastel. In Asian markets, the car will be known as the Chevy Ohm. A special version for Arabic countries, called the Ohma, is being considered.
At the
Sydney Motor ShowThe Australian International Motor Show is an auto show held bi-annually at the Sydney Convention and Exhibition Centre, Darling Harbour, New South Wales, Australia. In 2008 and before, the show was held annually, but in 2009 it was announced that the show will be held bi-annually between Sydney...
in October 2008,
HoldenGM Holden Ltd is an Australian automaker based in Port Melbourne, Victoria. The company was founded in 1856 as a saddlery business, but later moved into the automotive field, becoming a subsidiary of General Motors in 1931. Holden has taken charge of vehicle operations for GM in Australasia and,...
stated that the Volt would be available in
AustraliaAustralia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the continental mainland , the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans...
by 2012 for "more than
AUD$The Australian dollar is the currency of the Commonwealth of Australia, including Christmas Island, Cocos Islands, and Norfolk Island, as well as the independent Pacific Island states of Kiribati, Nauru and Tuvalu...
30,000".
Marketing
GM has promoted the Volt through a viral marketing campaign in which the number 230 was promoted without explanation. On August 11, 2009, GM announced the Volt can achieve a US EPA 'City' rating of plus 25 kWh/ using the EPA's proposed method for evaluating plug-in hybrids.
Fuel efficiency
For trips less than about , a fully charged Chevy Volt may travel using just stored electricity and not require any on-board gasoline. This is referred to as
Charge Depletion (CD) mode and the Volt is expected to use approximately 25 kW·h/100 mi on the city cycle of the EPA's test while operating in this mode.
Once the Volt's battery has discharged to the estimated 30% lower
State of Charge (SoC)State of charge is the equivalent of a fuel gauge for the battery pack in a battery electric vehicle , hybrid vehicle , or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle...
limit, the engine starts and supplies power to the electric motor to continue driving the car and maintains the battery charge at 30%. The Volt's range-extending gasoline engine is expected to get approximately on the city cycle of the EPA's test while operating in this
Charge Sustaining (CS) mode.
On August 11, 2009, GM released their estimated EPA city fuel economy rating for the Volt of of gasoline plus 25 kW·h/ of electricity. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a statement clarifing that the "EPA has not tested a Chevy Volt and therefore cannot confirm the fuel economy values claimed by GM."
If testing on the Volt were done using the EPA's 2009 hybrid testing methodology, it would yield an estimated and require the car to complete the test with a battery fully charged by running the gasoline engine. The Volt, however, can use both gasoline
and grid electricity; thus, assigning a fuel economy value that only refers to
on-board gasoline might not be appropriate. The EPA is working on an updated methodology for determining and then reporting the fuel economy of PHEVs. An EPA presentation to the Society of Automotive Engineers in February, 2009 discussed a method based on SAE J1711 to combine the gasoline fuel economy with the electrical fuel economy using the petroleum equivalency factor of 33.7 (the
lower heating valueThe lower heating value of a fuel is defined as the amount of heat released by combusting a specified quantity and returning the temperature of the combustion products to 150 °C.Which means that, LHV assumes all the water component is in vapor state at the end of combustion...
of gasoline and the value used by the
DOEThe United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government concerned with the United States' policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material...
) which would combine GM's estimated city fuel economies for the Volt into an overall 85
mpggeThe mile per gallon gasoline equivalent a unit of energy efficiency equal to one gasoline gallon equivalent of energy consumed per mile traveled...
for reporting.
Battery
ReutersReuters Group Limited is a UK-based, Canadian-controlled news service and former financial market data provider that provides reports from around the world to newspapers and broadcasters. News reporting once accounted for less than 10% of the company's income. Its main focus was on supplying the...
reported in October, 2008 that GM had decided to work exclusively with Compact Power Incorporated (CPI), a Detroit-based unit of South Korea’s
LG ChemLG Chem Ltd. , often referred to as LG Chemical and also known as Lucky GoldStar Chemical, is the largest Korean chemical company and is headquartered in Seoul, South Korea...
, to provide the battery systems for the first production version of the Volt. The cells will be produced in Korea and subsequently shipped to the United States, where the battery packs will be assembled at a purpose-built facility in Michigan owned and operated by GM.
The Volt's , 220-cell lithium-ion battery (Li-ion) pack is anticipated to store 16 kW·h of energy, but will be restricted to use only 8.8 kW·h of this capacity to maximize the life of the pack. It will only be allowed to charge to 85% of full capacity and to discharge only to approximately 30%
SoCState of charge is the equivalent of a fuel gauge for the battery pack in a battery electric vehicle , hybrid vehicle , or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle...
before the engine cuts in and maintains the charge near the lower level. When the vehicle is plugged into a charger the battery
SoCState of charge is the equivalent of a fuel gauge for the battery pack in a battery electric vehicle , hybrid vehicle , or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle...
is restored to 85%.
The Volt's battery pack is much lighter than the EV1's , 18.7 kW·h Panasonic
lead-acid batteryLead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having the second lowest energy-to-weight ratio and a correspondingly low energy-to-volume ratio, their ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells maintain...
pack mainly because the Volt will use higher
specific energySpecific energy is defined as the energy per unit mass. Common metric units are J/kg or, in basic SI units: m2/s2. It is an intensive property. Contrast this with energy, which is an extensive property. There are two main types of specific energy: field strength and strength...
Li-ion batteries. The EV1's , 26.4 kW·h advanced battery pack used higher specific energy nickel metal hydride (NiMH) cells. Li-ion batteries are expected to become less expensive as economies of scale take effect.
The battery needs a minimum temperature of between 0°C to 10°C (32°F to 50°F) to be used and when the Volt is plugged in the battery will be kept warm enough so that it can be used immediately when the Volt is unplugged. If the Volt is kept unplugged and the temperature of the battery is below the minimum temperature the gasoline engine will run until the battery warms up. This temperature regulation is done since electro-chemical batteries have degraded performance when they are very cold.
Charge Plug interface
The Volt will use a new plug specification,
SAE J1772SAE J1772 is a North American standard for electrical connectors for electric vehicles maintained by the Society of Automotive Engineers and has the formal title "SAE Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice J1772, SAE Electric VehicleConductive Charge Coupler”...
, that is being proposed as a standard for electric cars.
Tailpipe emissions
It is anticipated that the Chevrolet Volt will be granted a
California Air Resources BoardThe California Air Resources Board, also known as is the "clean air agency" in the government of California. Established in 1967 in the Mulford-Carrell Act, combining the Bureau of Air Sanitation and the Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board, the ARB is a department within the cabinet-level...
(CARB) classification as an Advanced Technology
Partial zero-emissions vehicleA Partial Zero Emissions Vehicle is a vehicle that has zero evaporative emissions from its fuel system, has a 15 year warranty and meets SULEV tailpipe emission standards...
(AT-PZEV).
Assuming a fully charged battery, the Volt will use no gasoline and produce no tailpipe emissions for up to of initial daily driving. However, after , the
state-of-chargeState of charge is the equivalent of a fuel gauge for the battery pack in a battery electric vehicle , hybrid vehicle , or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle...
(SOC) of the HV battery will be depleted and the internal combustion engine (ICE) will start up to commence power generation. During this period, using typical closed-loop fueling and exhaust after treatment (i.e. catalytic converter) the tail-pipe exhaust emissions will be similar to other 4-cyl low displacement gasoline-powered automobiles.
However, once a sufficient battery state-of-charge has been achieved, the ICE will again turn OFF, returning to a zero emissions state. This ON:OFF ICE cycling behavior results in the reduction of Initial Trip Starts and therefore a reduction in total tailpipe emissions per distance travelled.
EPA testing
As of September 2008, General Motors was reportedly in disagreement with the
United States Environmental Protection AgencyThe U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged to regulate chemicals and protect human health by safeguarding the natural environment: air, water, and land...
regarding how the Volt should be tested to determine its official fuel economy rating. The EPA reportedly wants to alter the method of testing currently used for all other hybrid vehicles. If tested with the same EPA tests used by other hybrids, the Volt's ability to use the energy stored in the batteries would result in it achieving a fuel economy rating of over 100 mpg, which would make the Volt the first mass-produced automobile to achieve such a rating.
General Motors believes that although the Volt is an entirely new type of vehicle, it suggests that altering the current EPA hybrid testing methods to suit a single vehicle entry would be unfair and would not recognize the fact that the car can travel an estimated on battery power alone before the gasoline powered engine has to be started to commence recharging its battery pack.
CAFE impact
In a response to the
U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration'sThe National Highway Traffic Safety Administration is an agency of the Executive Branch of the U.S. Government, part of the Department of Transportation...
(NHTSA) proposed targets for
Corporate Average Fuel EconomyThe Corporate Average Fuel Economy regulations in the United States, first enacted by Congress in 1975, are federal regulations intended to improve the average fuel economy of cars and light trucks sold in the US in the wake of the 1973 Arab Oil Embargo...
(CAFE), GM indicated that the potentially limited production numbers of the Volt will mean it will have little influence on its CAFE results during the 2011-2015 timeframe."
Cost
In 2009, the
Presidential Task Force on the Auto IndustryThe Presidential Task Force on the Auto Industry is an ad hoc group of United States cabinet-level and other officials that was formed to deal with the financial bail out of automakers, Chrysler Corporation and General Motors....
said that "
GM is at least one generation behind Toyota on advanced, “green” powertrain development. In an attempt to leapfrog Toyota, GM has devoted significant resources to the Chevy Volt." and that "
while the Chevy Volt holds promise, it is currently projected to be much more expensive than its gasoline-fueled peers and will likely need substantial reductions in manufacturing cost in order to become commercially viable."
Earlier in June 2008,
Bob LutzBob Lutz may refer to:*Bob Lutz , tennis player of the 1970s*Robert Lutz, General Motors Company executive*Bobby Lutz, basketball coach...
admitted the first-generation Volt with a price tag of about US$40,000 was not expected to generate a profit for GM. In an April 2009 interview with the president of GM's North American operations, Troy Clark stated he was uncertain if the next generation systems following the Volt would be profitable.
A recent Carnegie Mellon University study indicates that a PHEV-40 will be less cost effective than a
HEVA hybrid electric vehicle combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle, or better performance. A variety of types of HEV...
or a PHEV-7 in all of the scenarios considered, due to the cost and weight of the battery. Jon Lauckner, a Vice President at GM, responded that the study did not consider the inconvenience of a 7 mile electric range and that the study's cost estimate for the Volt's battery pack was "many hundreds of dollars per kWh higher" than what it costs to make today.
Battery charging emissions
Charging the Volt's batteries still results in some
greenhouse gasGreenhouse gases are gases in an atmosphere that absorb and emit radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. The main greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone...
emissions from
electrical generationElectricity generation is the process of creating electricity from other forms of energy.The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday...
at the local
power stationA power station is an industrial facility for the generation of electric power....
. However, under most conditions CO
2 output is less than other
low emission vehicleA low emission vehicle is a vehicle that emits relatively low levels of air pollutants. The term may be used in a general sense, but in some countries it is defined in law; low emission vehicles may be given tax or other advantages, while high emission vehicles may suffer restrictions or additional...
s even with electricity derived from "
dirty coalA fossil-fuel power plant is a power plant that burns fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas or petroleum to produce electricity.Fossil-fuel power plants are designed on a large scale for continuous operation...
", and in the best case emissions are nearly zero. GM claims that the Volt saves 4.4 metric tonnes in CO
2 emissions annually compared to a typical U.S. car.
In locations such as
OntarioOntario is a province located in east-central Canada, the largest by population and second largest, after Quebec, in total area. Ontario is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba to the west and Quebec to the east, and 5 U.S...
, where there is a high level of constant electric generation due to a high mix of
nuclear power generationNuclear power is power produced from controlled nuclear reactions. Commercial plants in use to date use nuclear fission reactions....
and large-scale
hydro-electric power generationHydroelectricity is electricity generated by hydropower, i.e., the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy...
, much of the power goes to "waste" in off-peak times as generation exceeds the baseload due to the impracticality of scaling back the output of a
CANDU reactorThe CANDU reactor is a Canadian-invented, pressurized heavy water reactor developed initially in the late 1950s and 1960s by a partnership between Atomic Energy of Canada Limited , the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario , Canadian General Electric , as well as...
or hydro-electric plant on an hour-by-hour basis. In Ontario, baseload demand varies between 12000 and 15000 MW depending on season while the total generation by nuclear and hydroelectric plants (when all are in operation) accounts for over 19000 MW. In this jurisdiction and other similar ones, electric vehicles which are charged during off-peak times result in zero additional
pollutionPollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living organisms . Pollution can take the form of chemical substances, or energy, such as noise, heat, or light...
.
The
University of California, DavisThe University of California, Davis is a public research university located in Davis, California, and one of ten campuses in the University of California system. Commonly referred to as UC Davis, the school was originally established in 1905 as the University Farm, an extension of UC Berkeley. UC...
calculated that, generally, plug-in cars that are charged using electricity from the local
gridElectric power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical energy, a process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. A power transmission network typically connects power plants to multiple substations near a populated area...
will emit notably less CO
2 overall than the use of cars powered from on-board, oil-based fuel, if a significant proportion of that electricity is generated from
nuclear powerNuclear power is power produced from controlled nuclear reactions. Commercial plants in use to date use nuclear fission reactions....
and renewable sources such as hydro-electric (45% in California, for example).
UK based
Auto ExpressAuto Express is a weekly motoring magazine sold in the United Kingdom, with features including news, road tests, first drives, readers' letters and feedback, product tests, long-term tests, used cars, prices, motorsport and comment columns. the columnists include Mike Rutherford who also writes for...
magazine claims in a non-
scientific studyScientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific...
to have calculated that the generation of electricity for charging the batteries in the Volt resulted in emissions equivalent to 124.2 g/km of CO
2 for electric-only trips (those not involving the use of any on board fuel), based on government figures for the average CO
2 emissions from power stations. No calculations are shown in the article, so the veracity of this claim cannot be evaluated. According to Auto Express, this is more CO
2 than the
BMW 118dThe BMW 1 Series is a compact car produced by the German automaker BMW since 2004. The 1 Series is the only vehicle in its class featuring rear-wheel drive, 50:50 weight balance, a longitudinally-mounted engine and an advanced aluminum multilink suspension...
produces.
A study by the American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (ACEEE) predicts that, on average, a typical plug-in hybrid electric vehicle is expected to achieve about a 15% reduction in net CO
2 emissions compared to the driver of a regular hybrid, based on the 2005 distribution of power sources feeding the U.S. electrical grid. The ACEEE study also predicts that in areas where less than 80% of grid-power comes from coal-burning power plants, local net CO
2 emissions will decrease, but points out that these numbers are first order estimates and are not conclusive.
In
AustraliaAustralia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the continental mainland , the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans...
, where 85% of electricity nationally is produced using black and brown coal, with most of the remainder produced using
hydroHydroelectricity is electricity generated by hydropower, i.e., the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy...
and
natural gasNatural gas is a gas consisting primarily of methane. It is found associated with fossil fuels, in coal beds, as methane clathrates, and is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, and landfills...
, the
greenhouse emission factorsAn emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced, or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to GDP...
vary between states, and is 1.22 kg-CO
2e/kWh in
VictoriaVictoria is the second most populous state in Australia. Geographically smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales to the north, South Australia to the west, and Tasmania to the south, across the Bass Strait. Victoria is the most densely populated state, with over 70% of...
, 0.890 kg-CO
2e/kWh in
New South WalesNew South Wales is Australia's most populous state, located in the south-east of the country, north of Victoria, south of Queensland and east of South Australia...
, and 0.120 kg-CO
2e/kWh in
TasmaniaTasmania is an Australian island and state. It is located south of the eastern side of the continent, from which it is separated by Bass Strait. The state includes the island of Tasmania – the 26th largest island in the world – and the surrounding islands. The state has a population of 500,000 ,...
. Assuming a charge requires 8.8 kWh, allowing 40 miles (64 km) of travel without petrol, the greenhouse intensities are 167 g-CO
2e/km for Victoria, 122 g-CO
2e/km for NSW, and 16 g-CO
2e/km for Tasmania. Electricity consumers can elect to purchase green power at a higher cost, but with significantly lower emissions. For comparative purposes using the same methodology, that is, measuring only the direct emissions from the burning of the fuel, and ignoring fuel procurement/production/delivery, the
Toyota PriusThe Toyota Prius is a full hybrid electric mid-size car developed and manufactured by the Toyota Motor Corporation. It first went on sale in Japan in 1997, making it the first mass-produced hybrid vehicle. It was subsequently introduced worldwide in 2001. The Prius is sold in more than 40...
tank-to-wheel greenhouse intensity in units of g-CO
2 (
CO2eCarbon dioxide equivalent and Equivalent carbon dioxide are two related but distinct measures for describing how much global warming a given type and amount of greenhouse gas may cause, using the functionally equivalent amount or concentration of carbon dioxide as the reference.- Global Warming...
information not available) in Australia is 115 g/km (5.1 l/100 km combined cycle),
Toyota Yaris-Toyota Vitz:The Toyota Vitz, a hatchback sold as the Toyota Yaris in South Africa, Europe, South America, The Middle East and later in Australia - as the Toyota Echo - and North America and Jamaica-Toyota Belta:...
1.3 manual is 141 g/km (6.0 l/100 km combined cycle), and the BMW 120d is 162 g/km (6.1 l/100 km combined cycle). It should be noted that this comparison is not the standard method used by government agencies for comparing the emissions of two vehicles, where the tank-to-wheel only is used; in this case, the Volt would be emission-free for the 40-mile all-electric range (AER). The above comparison does not include the full fuel cycle for either vehicle, known as a well-to-wheel analysis, and so the numbers may be slightly misleading.
Awards
- 2009 Green Car Vision Award by the Green Car Journal
Since 1992 Green Car Journal is a quarterly publication focusing on vehicles that uses energy and technology environmentally friendly.The Green Car of the Year is an award from the Green Car Journal....
at the Washington Auto Show for "a bold and far-reaching approach that promises to bring an exceptionally fuel efficient model to consumers at reasonable cost."
See also
- GM Voltec platform
- Electric car
An electric car is an alternative fuel automobile that uses electric motors and motor controllers for propulsion, in place of more common propulsion methods such as the internal combustion engine . Electric cars are a specifically a variety of electric vehicle intended for use as a road-going...
- General Motors EV1
The General Motors EV1 was an electric car produced and leased by the General Motors Corporation from 1996 to 1999. It was the first mass-produced and purpose-designed electric vehicle of the modern era from a major automaker, and the first GM car designed to be an electric vehicle from the outset...
- all-electric car from the 1990s
- General Motors XP-883
The XP-883 was an experimental plug-in hybrid car demonstrated by General Motors in 1969. Primarily intended as a commuter vehicle, the very small car had a fiberglass body with a design resembling the then-future Chevrolet Vega or Ford Pinto...
- plug-in hybrid vehicle from 1969
- General Motors Hy-wire
The Hy-wire is a concept car from General Motors originally introduced in January 2002. The car runs on hydrogen fuel cells and uses a drive-by-wire system, meaning that the car is controlled electronically...
- hydrogen powered
- General Motors Sequel
The Sequel is a hydrogen fuel cell-powered concept car and sport utility vehicle from General Motors, employing the latest generation of HydroGen3 technology developed by Opel. The Sequel uses a drive-by-wire system. It has a range of three hundred miles, and its only emission is water...
- hydrogen powered
- Genset trailer
A genset trailer is a range extending device for use with battery electric vehicles consisting of an internal combustion engine and an electrical generator . They run on traditional fuels such as gasoline or diesel and are sized to provide the continuous power requirements for the vehicle they are...
- Magna International
Magna International Inc. is a Canadian company based in Aurora, Ontario. It is Canada's largest automobile parts manufacturer, and one of the country's largest companies. It owns the successful Magna Steyr automobile production company of Austria....
- Opel Antara
The Opel Antara is a compact crossover SUV produced in South Korea by GM Daewoo, but sold under the Opel brand. Launched in 2006, the Antara is based on the GM Theta platform which shares its underpinnings and powertrains with the Daewoo Winstorm. However, it has a different exterior and interior...
- Opel Flextreme
The Opel Flextreme is a diesel plug-in hybrid concept car created by General Motors. It can travel on its lithium-ion battery before a small diesel engine starts charging the battery . The Flextreme uses the same platform and technology as the Chevrolet Volt...
- Diesel plug-in hybrid by GM
External links