Chinese-Peruvian
Encyclopedia
Chinese Peruvians, also known as tusán (a loanword
from Chinese 土生 pinyin
: tǔ shēng, jyutping
: tou2 saang1 "local born"), are people of Overseas Chinese
ancestry born in Peru
, or who have made Peru their adopted homeland.
Most Chinese Peruvians are multilingual. In addition to Spanish
or Quechua, many of them speak one or more Chinese dialects that may include Cantonese, Hakka, Mandarin
, and Minnan
. Since the first Chinese immigrants came from Macau
, some of them also speak Portuguese
.
In Peru, Asian Peruvians are estimated at least 5% of the population.
in the 19th century, who took a four-month trip from Macau
(then a Portuguese
territory), settled Peru as contract laborers or "coolie
s". Other Chinese coolies from Guangdong
followed. One hundred thousand Chinese contract laborers, mostly cantonese and almost all male, were sent mostly to the sugar
plantations from 1849 to 1874, for the termination of slavery
and continuous labor for the coastal guano mines and especially for the coastal plantations where they became a major labor force until the end of the century. While the coolies were believed to be reduced to virtual slaves, they also represented a historical transition from slave to free labor.
Many Chinese saw the Chilean liberation as an opportunity to avenge years of abuse from the plantation owners; in Pacasmayo 600 to 800 Chinese forced labourers looted the sugar estates and this scene was repeated in the Chicama, Lambayeque and Cañete Valleys. The Chinese also fought alongside the Chileans in the battles of San Juan-Chorrillis and Miraflores, and there was also rioting and looting by non-Chinese workers in the coastal cities. As Heraclio Bonilla has observed; oligarchs soon came to fear the popular clashes more than the Chileans, and this was an important reason why they sued for peace. [Source: "From chattel slaves to wage slaves: dynamics of labour bargaining in the Americas", by Mary Turner.]
Another group of Chinese settlers came after the founding of Sun Yat-sen
's republic in 1912, World War II
, and the establishment of Communist rule
in 1949.
and, again, Macau because of fear of their return to Communist rule
in 1997 and 1999, while others have come from other places in mainland China, Taiwan
, and Southeast Asian Chinese communities, including Malaysia, Indonesia
, Singapore
, and the Philippines
. Many Chinese Indonesian
s and Chinese Malaysians came to Peru after anti-Chinese riot
s and massacres in those countries the 1960s, 1970s, and late 1990s. These recent Chinese immigrants make Peru the home of the largest ethnic Chinese community
in Latin America
.
, where they were called Chinese American
s or Peruvian Americans of Chinese descent, while others went to Canada
, Spain, mainland China
, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Australia
, or New Zealand
.
, also known as Barrio Chino de Lima, became one of the Western Hemisphere
's earliest Chinatowns. The Chinese coolies married Peruvian women, and many Chinese Peruvians today are of mixed Chinese, Spanish
, and Africa
n or Native American
descent. Chinese Peruvians also assisted in the building of railroad and development of the Amazon Rainforest
, where they tapped rubber trees, washed gold, cultivated rice, and traded with the Indians. They even became the largest foreign colony in the Amazon capital of Iquitos
by the end of the century.
Loanword
A loanword is a word borrowed from a donor language and incorporated into a recipient language. By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept where the meaning or idiom is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. The word loanword is itself a calque of the German Lehnwort,...
from Chinese 土生 pinyin
Pinyin
Pinyin is the official system to transcribe Chinese characters into the Roman alphabet in China, Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan. It is also often used to teach Mandarin Chinese and spell Chinese names in foreign publications and used as an input method to enter Chinese characters into...
: tǔ shēng, jyutping
Jyutping
Jyutping is a romanization system for Cantonese developed by the Linguistic Society of Hong Kong in 1993. Its formal name is The Linguistic Society of Hong Kong Cantonese Romanization Scheme...
: tou2 saang1 "local born"), are people of Overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Greater China Area . People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese....
ancestry born in Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
, or who have made Peru their adopted homeland.
Most Chinese Peruvians are multilingual. In addition to Spanish
Spanish language
Spanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the...
or Quechua, many of them speak one or more Chinese dialects that may include Cantonese, Hakka, Mandarin
Standard Mandarin
Standard Chinese or Modern Standard Chinese, also known as Mandarin or Putonghua, is the official language of the People's Republic of China and Republic of China , and is one of the four official languages of Singapore....
, and Minnan
Min Nan
The Southern Min languages, or Min Nan , are a family of Chinese languages spoken in southern Fujian, eastern Guangdong, Hainan, Taiwan, and southern Zhejiang provinces of China, and by descendants of emigrants from these areas in diaspora....
. Since the first Chinese immigrants came from Macau
Macau
Macau , also spelled Macao , is, along with Hong Kong, one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China...
, some of them also speak Portuguese
Portuguese language
Portuguese is a Romance language that arose in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, nowadays Galicia and Northern Portugal. The southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia became independent as the County of Portugal in 1095...
.
In Peru, Asian Peruvians are estimated at least 5% of the population.
Early history
Chinese immigrantsImmigration
Immigration is the act of foreigners passing or coming into a country for the purpose of permanent residence...
in the 19th century, who took a four-month trip from Macau
Macau
Macau , also spelled Macao , is, along with Hong Kong, one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China...
(then a Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
territory), settled Peru as contract laborers or "coolie
Coolie
Historically, a coolie was a manual labourer or slave from Asia, particularly China, India, and the Phillipines during the 19th century and early 20th century...
s". Other Chinese coolies from Guangdong
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
followed. One hundred thousand Chinese contract laborers, mostly cantonese and almost all male, were sent mostly to the sugar
Sugar
Sugar is a class of edible crystalline carbohydrates, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose, characterized by a sweet flavor.Sucrose in its refined form primarily comes from sugar cane and sugar beet...
plantations from 1849 to 1874, for the termination of slavery
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
and continuous labor for the coastal guano mines and especially for the coastal plantations where they became a major labor force until the end of the century. While the coolies were believed to be reduced to virtual slaves, they also represented a historical transition from slave to free labor.
Many Chinese saw the Chilean liberation as an opportunity to avenge years of abuse from the plantation owners; in Pacasmayo 600 to 800 Chinese forced labourers looted the sugar estates and this scene was repeated in the Chicama, Lambayeque and Cañete Valleys. The Chinese also fought alongside the Chileans in the battles of San Juan-Chorrillis and Miraflores, and there was also rioting and looting by non-Chinese workers in the coastal cities. As Heraclio Bonilla has observed; oligarchs soon came to fear the popular clashes more than the Chileans, and this was an important reason why they sued for peace. [Source: "From chattel slaves to wage slaves: dynamics of labour bargaining in the Americas", by Mary Turner.]
Another group of Chinese settlers came after the founding of Sun Yat-sen
Sun Yat-sen
Sun Yat-sen was a Chinese doctor, revolutionary and political leader. As the foremost pioneer of Nationalist China, Sun is frequently referred to as the "Father of the Nation" , a view agreed upon by both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China...
's republic in 1912, World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, and the establishment of Communist rule
Communist Party of China
The Communist Party of China , also known as the Chinese Communist Party , is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China...
in 1949.
Modern-day immigration
Recent Chinese immigrants settled in Peru from Hong KongHong Kong
Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...
and, again, Macau because of fear of their return to Communist rule
Communist Party of China
The Communist Party of China , also known as the Chinese Communist Party , is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China...
in 1997 and 1999, while others have come from other places in mainland China, Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
, and Southeast Asian Chinese communities, including Malaysia, Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
, Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
, and the Philippines
Philippines
The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
. Many Chinese Indonesian
Chinese Indonesian
Chinese Indonesians, also called the Indonesian Chinese, are an overseas Chinese group whose ancestors emigrated from China to Indonesia, formerly a colony of the Netherlands known as the Dutch East Indies...
s and Chinese Malaysians came to Peru after anti-Chinese riot
Riot
A riot is a form of civil disorder characterized often by what is thought of as disorganized groups lashing out in a sudden and intense rash of violence against authority, property or people. While individuals may attempt to lead or control a riot, riots are thought to be typically chaotic and...
s and massacres in those countries the 1960s, 1970s, and late 1990s. These recent Chinese immigrants make Peru the home of the largest ethnic Chinese community
Community
The term community has two distinct meanings:*a group of interacting people, possibly living in close proximity, and often refers to a group that shares some common values, and is attributed with social cohesion within a shared geographical location, generally in social units larger than a household...
in Latin America
Latin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
.
Emigration
Many Chinese Peruvians left Peru in the 1960s and 1970s. Most of them headed to the United StatesUnited States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, where they were called Chinese American
Chinese American
Chinese Americans represent Americans of Chinese descent. Chinese Americans constitute one group of overseas Chinese and also a subgroup of East Asian Americans, which is further a subgroup of Asian Americans...
s or Peruvian Americans of Chinese descent, while others went to Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, Spain, mainland China
Mainland China
Mainland China, the Chinese mainland or simply the mainland, is a geopolitical term that refers to the area under the jurisdiction of the People's Republic of China . According to the Taipei-based Mainland Affairs Council, the term excludes the PRC Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and...
, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, or New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
.
Role in the economy
After their contracts ended, many of them adopted the last name of their patrons (one of the reasons that many Chinese Peruvians carry Spanish last names). Some freed coolies (and later immigrants) established many small businesses. These included chifas (Chinese-Peruvian restaurants - the word is derived from chī fàn, or "eat meal" in Mandarin). Calle Capón, Lima's ChinatownChinatown
A Chinatown is an ethnic enclave of overseas Chinese people, although it is often generalized to include various Southeast Asian people. Chinatowns exist throughout the world, including East Asia, Southeast Asia, the Americas, Australasia, and Europe. Binondo's Chinatown located in Manila,...
, also known as Barrio Chino de Lima, became one of the Western Hemisphere
Western Hemisphere
The Western Hemisphere or western hemisphere is mainly used as a geographical term for the half of the Earth that lies west of the Prime Meridian and east of the Antimeridian , the other half being called the Eastern Hemisphere.In this sense, the western hemisphere consists of the western portions...
's earliest Chinatowns. The Chinese coolies married Peruvian women, and many Chinese Peruvians today are of mixed Chinese, Spanish
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, and Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
n or Native American
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
descent. Chinese Peruvians also assisted in the building of railroad and development of the Amazon Rainforest
Amazon Rainforest
The Amazon Rainforest , also known in English as Amazonia or the Amazon Jungle, is a moist broadleaf forest that covers most of the Amazon Basin of South America...
, where they tapped rubber trees, washed gold, cultivated rice, and traded with the Indians. They even became the largest foreign colony in the Amazon capital of Iquitos
Iquitos
Iquitos is the largest city in the Peruvian rainforest, with a population of 370,962. It is the capital of Loreto Region and Maynas Province.Located on the Amazon River, it is only above sea level, although it is more than from the mouth of the Amazon at Belém on the Atlantic Ocean...
by the end of the century.
Prominent Chinese Peruvians
- Alfredo Raul Chang Ruiz, Current director of the oldest and still active magazine of Peru called "Revista Oriental", a magazine with the theme of links of Peruvian and Asian communities
- Eugenio Chang Rodríguez, writer, linguist, university professor (Universidad Nacional Mayor de San MarcosNational University of San MarcosThe National University of San Marcos is the most important and respected higher-education institution in Peru. Its main campus, the University City, is located in Lima...
/City University of New York) - Juan Pablo Chang Navarro-Lévano (1930–1967) communist student leader and guerrilla, died alongside Che GuevaraChe GuevaraErnesto "Che" Guevara , commonly known as el Che or simply Che, was an Argentine Marxist revolutionary, physician, author, intellectual, guerrilla leader, diplomat and military theorist...
- Rosa Fung Pineda, archaeologist
- José Antonio ChangJosé Antonio ChangJosé Antonio Chang Escobedo was the Prime Minister of Peru, appointed by President Alan García. He was also Minister of Education, and resigned both cabinet positions on Friday March 18, 2011....
, former Prime Minister of Peru - Efraín Wong, Operations Manager of the Corporación WongWong (supermarket)Wong is the largest supermarket chain in Peru. Known until 2005 as E. Wong, it started as a small store opened in 1942 by Chinese Peruvians in a residential area of the San Isidro District in Lima...
and founder of Las Falcas distillery. - Erasmo Wong, founder and former owner of the WongWong (supermarket)Wong is the largest supermarket chain in Peru. Known until 2005 as E. Wong, it started as a small store opened in 1942 by Chinese Peruvians in a residential area of the San Isidro District in Lima...
supermarket chain - Patty WongPatty WongPatty Wong is a Peruvian model. She formerly co-hosted a popular youth-oriented Peruvian show called R con R. She also won in "Miss Perú Tusan," a beauty contest for Peruvian-Chinese girls, like her. She also co-hosts a Peruvian television show in the singing talent contest format, called Camino a...
, TV host - Walter Wong, anthropologist, late AyacuchoAyacuchoAyacucho is the capital city of Huamanga Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru.Ayacucho is famous for its 33 churches, which represent one for each year of Jesus's life. Ayacucho has large religious celebrations, especially during the Holy Week of Easter...
Regional Director of the Instituto Nacional de Cultura - Annie Yep TV Host, Journalist
- Pedro S. Zulen (1889–1925), philosopher, university professor (Universidad Nacional Mayor de San MarcosNational University of San MarcosThe National University of San Marcos is the most important and respected higher-education institution in Peru. Its main campus, the University City, is located in Lima...
), poet, writer Pedro Zulen - Edwin Vasquez Cam, Olympic gold medal Free Pistol (1948)
- Siu Kam Wen (1951-) Novelist
- Isabel Wong-Vargas, businesswoman, owner of La Caleta restaurant in Lima, received various gastronomic awards including the Best Seafood restaurant in Lima
- Kokin Li, Singer
- Teodoro Wuchi, Footballer
- Javier Wong, Chef.
- Chang Kin Phan, Kung Fu Master.
- Li Pan Chi, Kung Fu Master.
- Ronald Chang, Kung Fu Master.
- Armando Chiang, Kung Fu Master.
- Fausto Man Li, Kung Fu Master.
- Juan Chang Yembo, Kung Fu Master.
- Alan Wong, Karate Sensei, Aerobics, Trainer, Gym owner.
- Jimmy Wong, Karate Sensei, 1st place Greece 2009 X Shotokan World Karate Championship, 2nd place World Championship Los Angeles 1989.
- Humberto Lay, Cogress man.
See also
- Asian Latin American
- Chinatowns in Latin AmericaChinatowns in Latin AmericaChinatowns in Latin America developed with the rise of Chinese immigration in the 19th century to various countries in Latin America as contract laborers in agricultural and fishing industries. Most came from Guangdong Province. Since the 1970s, the new arrivals have typically hailed from Hong...
- History of PeruHistory of PeruThe history of Peru spans several millennia, extending back through several stages of cultural development in the mountain region and the coastal desert....
- Japanese PeruvianJapanese PeruvianJapanese Peruvians are people of Japanese ancestry who were born in or immigrated to Peru. The immigrants from Japan are called the Issei generation. Second and third generation Peruvians are referred to as nisei and sansei in Japanese...
- Overseas ChineseOverseas ChineseOverseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Greater China Area . People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese....
Further reading
-
- Translated into Chinese as
External links
- APCH.com, Asociación Peruano China (Web official)