War of the Castilian Succession
Encyclopedia
The War of the Castilian Succession was the military conflict contested from 1475 to 1479 for the succession
of the Crown of Castile
fought between the supporters of Juana la Beltraneja, daughter of the late monarch Henry IV of Castile
, and those of Henry's half sister, Isabella
, who was ultimately successful.
The war had a marked international character, as Isabella was married to Ferdinand, heir to the Crown of Aragon
, while Juana was strategically married to King Afonso V of Portugal
, her uncle, after the suggestion of her supporters. France intervened in support of Portugal, as they were rivals with Aragon for territory in Italy and Roussillon
.
Despite a few initial successes by the supporters of Juana, a lack of military aggressiveness by Afonso V and the stalemate in the battle of Toro
(1476) led to the disintegration of Juana's alliance between 1476 and 1477. Thereafter, the conflict consisted of a war between Castile and Portugal. The naval war in the Atlantic grew in importance; the Portuguese fleets overpowered the Castilians in a struggle for maritime access to the wealth of Guinea
.
The war concluded in 1479 with the signing of the Treaty of Alcáçovas
, which recognized Isabella and Ferdinand as kings of Castile and granted Portugal hegemony in the Atlantic, with the exception of the Canary Islands
. Juana lost her right to the throne of Castile and remained in Portugal until her death.
This conflict has also been called the Second Castilian Civil War, but this name may lead to confusion with the other civil wars
that involved Castile in the 14th and 15th centuries. Some authors refer to it as the War of Portugal; however, this term clearly represents a Castilian point of view and may dismiss the legitimacy of the alliance in favour of Juana. At other times the term Peninsular War has been used, but it is easily confused with the Peninsular War
(1808–1814), part of the Napoleonic Wars
. Some authors prefer the neutral expression War of 1475–1479.
Juana la Beltraneja, born in 1462, the first and only daughter of King Henry IV of Castile
, was immediately named Princess of Asturias
. A rumour spread that princess Juana was not actually the daughter of King Henry, but rather of Beltrán de la Cueva
, a known lover of the Queen Consort, Joan of Portugal
. Juana was thus nicknamed "la Beltraneja" as a mocking reference to her assumed father. Pressure from members of the nobility forced the King to strip her of the title and, in her place, he named his half-brother Alfonso as heir in 1464.
In 1465, a group of nobility assembled in Ávila and overthrew King Henry, naming Alfonso king. This led to a war that ended in 1468 with the death of the 14-year-old Alfonso.
Henry IV regained the throne, but the title of heir became disputed between Juana, his daughter, and Isabella, his half-sister. This was resolved via the Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando
, which gave Isabella succession rights but restricted her marriage options. Isabella secretly married Ferdinand
in 1469 at the age of 17, ignoring Henry IV's wishes.
Gradually the couple gained a larger number of supporters; they obtained a papal bull
sanctioning their marriage from Pope Sixtus IV
in 1472 and gained the support of the powerful Mendoza
family in 1473.
When Henry IV died in December 1474, each of the two candidates for the throne were proclaimed Queen of Castile by their respective supporters. Aware of their position of weakness against Isabella's supporters, Juana's supporters proposed that the 43-year-old King Afonso V of Portugal
, a widower for some 20 years, marry Juana, his niece, and become King Consort of Castile.
and the Crown of Aragon maintained a long-held rivalry for the control of Roussillon
and, more recently, for hegemony in Italy. In June 1474, French troops invaded Roussillon and the Aragonese were forced to retreat. On the possibility that the heir to the throne of Aragon would also become King of Castile, Louis XI of France
officially positioned himself on the side of Juana and Portugal in September 1475.
France was simultaneously at war with the Duchy of Burgundy
. This made Burgundy into theoretical allies of Isabella's supporters, but in practice, they continued their war against France without coordinating their actions with the Isabella alliance.
England
was also briefly at war with France with the disembarkation of King Edward IV
in Calais
in June 1475, but through a quick diplomatic response, Louis negotiated peace with Edward and signed the Treaty of Picquigny
in August. Edward IV accepted a truce of nine years in exchange for significant economic compensation, and returned to England.
The Kingdom of Navarre
was experiencing an intermittent civil war, and the Muslim Kingdom of Granada
remained neutral, despite Portuguese efforts to draw them into the war.
was a point of contention between the two Crowns. Later on, the control of commerce with the territories of Guinea
and Elmina
, rich in gold
and slaves, grew to a dispute of even greater importance.
During the first half of the century, Castile staged the conquest of a few of the Canary Islands (Lanzarote
, Fuerteventura
, Hierro
, and Gomera
) through feudal pacts, first with Norman
knights and later with Castilian nobles. Portugal opposed Castilian authority on the islands and continued the exploration of Guinea
, with significant commercial benefits.
Beginning in 1452, Pope Nicholas V
and his successor Calixtus III modified the previous policy of the neutrality of the Holy See
and issued a series of bulls
favourable to Portugal. They gave Portugal commercial control and ample religious authority over all of guinea, and in areas "further beyond". The Holy See did not arbitrate the question of the Canaries, whose conquest had been left relatively suspended. The King of Portugal adopted a freer commercial policy that allowed foreign subjects to trade on the African coasts in exchange for taxes.
In August 1475, after the start of the war, Isabella claimed that parts of Africa and Guinea belonged to Castile by right, and incited Castilian merchants to sail to them. This initiated a naval war in the Atlantic.
In favour of Isabella:
The Duchy of Burgundy
and the Kingdom of England
were at war with France in 1475, but did not coordinate their actions with the supporters of Isabella and are thus not normally considered part of the Isabella alliance.
, where Juana was expecting him. Juana and Afonso were proclaimed Kings of Castile on May 25 and were married; the required Papal dispensation (Juana was Afonso's niece) arrived few months later. From Plasencia, they marched to Arévalo
, with the intention of heading towards Burgos
. There Afonso hoped to be able to unite with any troops sent by his ally, Louis XI of France
.
The castle of Burgos and the cities of Plasencia and Arévalo were controlled by the Estúñiga family, supporters of Juana. The city of Burgos, controlled by the Fernandez de Velasco
family, backed Isabella.
Afonso found fewer supporters in Castile than he expected, and changed his plans, preferring to instead consolidate his control in the area closest to Portugal, in particular Toro
, a city that received him favourably, even though the garrison of the castle proclaimed itself loyal to Isabella. Zamora and other Leonese
villages of the lower Douro
also accepted the Portuguese King.
In la Mancha
, Rodrigo Tellez-Giron, the Master of the Order of Calatrava
, supporter of Juana, conquered Ciudad Real
. Rodrigo Manrique, treasurer of that same Order and the Master of the Order of Santiago
, reconquered the city for Isabella.
Prince Ferdinand concentrated an army in Tordesillas
, and on July 15 ordered it to march to seek an encounter with Afonso. Four days later, they arrived at Toro, where the Portuguese King avoided direct combat. Prince Ferdinand, lacking the necessary resources for a prolonged siege, was forced to return to Tordesillas and disband his army. The castle of Toro surrendered to Afonso V, who returned to Arévalo to wait for the expected French intervention.
Rodrigo Alfonso Pimentel, the Count of Benavente and supporter of Isabella, situated himself with a small force in Baltanás
to monitor the Portuguese. He was attacked on November 18, 1475, and was defeated and imprisoned. Even though this victory opened the way to Burgos, Afonso V decided once again to withdraw, this time to Zamora. His lack of aggressiveness debilitated the Juana alliance in Castile, which began to disintegrate.
, a significant portion of those of the Order of Calatrava
, and of the Marquisate of Villena. On December 4, part of the garrison in Zamora rebelled against King Afonso, who was forced to flee to Toro. The Portuguese garrison maintained control of the castle, but the city received Prince Ferdinand the following day.
In January 1476, the castle of Burgos surrendered to Isabella through a pact that avoided reprisals against the defeated.
, son of Afonso V, left its base in Toro and surrounded Ferdinand in Zamora. The siege took a worse toll on the Portuguese than on those under siege due to the Castilian winter, and on March 1, Afonso V withdrew back towards Toro. Ferdinand and his troops launched a pursuit and caught up to the Portuguese one league
(approximately 5 kilometres) from Toro, and combat began.
After three hours of fighting interrupted by rain and nightfall, the Portuguese King withdrew to Castronuño
with part of his troops. His son John remained near Toro, retreating with his army in an organized fashion towards the city, and even taking a few enemy prisoners.
Publicists from both sides claimed victory. Politically, the battle was decisive, because subsequently the bulk of the Portuguese troops retreated back to Portugal along with Juana, whose side then had hardly any troops in Castile.
Portuguese ships had transversed the Andalusian coast, apprehending fishing and merchant ships, since the start of the war. To stop this, Isabella and Ferdinand sent four galleys under the command of Álvaro de la Nava, who stopped the Portuguese incursions and plundered the Portuguese city of Alcoutim
on the Guadiana
river.
Sailors from Palos de la Frontera
pillaged the coasts of Guinea. Alfonso de Palencia
, official chronicler of Isabella, narrates an expedition in which two caravel
s from Palos captured 120 Africans and sold them as slaves. Despite protests by the monarchs, shortly afterwards another fleet of three caravels captured an African king and 140 nobles of his village.
In May 1476, Isabella ordered the liberation of the "King of Guinea" and his entourage. The order was only partly obeyed, as the king was liberated and return to Guinea, but his companions were all sold as slaves.
In 1476, a Portuguese fleet of twenty ships commanded by Fernão Gomes
set sail towards Guinea to attempt to regain control there. The Kings of Castile ordered the preparation of a fleet to apprehend the Portuguese and appointed Carlos de Valera to command. He had numerous problems preparing the expedition, because he was opposed by the Marquis of Cadiz, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, and the Estuñiga family.
The preparations were also delayed by a naval battle that took place when the Castilians found out that one or two Portuguese ships with a rich cargo had left the Mediterranean to return to Portugal under the escort of the pirate Alvar Méndez. A fleet of five galleys and five caravels captained by Carlos de Valera and Andrés Sonier intercepted them in Sanlucar de Barrameda
, and were victorious after a hard-fought battle.
Valera gathered a fleet of three Basque ships and nine Andalusian caravels (25 caravels according to Palencia), all heavily armed. There was no longer any possibility of intercepting the Portuguese fleet, so he decided, after stopping at Porto Santo Island
, to head towards the island of António Noli
in the Cape Verde
archipelago, near the coast of Guinea. They plundered the island and captured António Noli, who at the time held the territory feudally from the King of Portugal.
They next set sail for the coast of Africa, where they captured two caravels owned by the Marquis of Cadiz containing a shipment of 500 slaves. The sailors from Palos separated themselves from the expedition at this point. They were the most knowledgeable in the maritime navigation of Guinea, so Valera returned to Andalusia.
This expedition obtained few economic benefits, as a significant portion of the slaves were returned to the Marquis of Cadiz, and because Valera was forced to indemnify the Duke of Medina Sidonia for the damages caused on the Island of Noli, which the Duke claimed as his.
Between March and June of 1476, French troops captained by Alain I of Albret
tried to cross the border at Fuenterrabía, but were repelled. Ferdinand took advantage of the situation to secure his position in the unsettled Kingdom of Navarre. In August, negotiations began in Tudela
, which culminated with the signing of an accord by which the belligerent parties of the Navarrese Civil War put an end to their conflict. Ferdinand obtained the control of Viana
, Puente la Reina
and other strongholds, as well as the right to maintain a garrison of 150 lances in Pamplona
.
In this way, Castile strengthened itself militarily against a possible French penetration into Navarre.
On August 1476, Afonso V of Portugal departed towards France after signing a truce with Isabella and Ferdinand. There he tried to convince Louis XI to involve France to a greater extent in the war. Louis refused, as he was focused on defeating his main enemy, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy.
. On August 7, this fleet encountered five armed merchant ships from Cadiz heading for England: three Genoese carracks, a galley, and a Flemish vessel. Coullon attempted to capture the merchants through a ploy, but failed, and was forced to engage in combat. The Franco-Portuguese side emerged victorious. Due to the use of incendiary weapons by the French, fire razed two Genoese ships, the Flemish vessel, two Portuguese galleys, and two of Coullon's ships. According to Palencia, some 2,500 French and Portuguese died.
In November 1476, Isabella's troops captured the castle of Toro. In the following months, they took control of the last bordering localities controlled by the Portuguese and dealt with their adversaries in Extremadura
.
In July 1477, Isabella arrived in Seville
, the most populous city of Castile, with the objective of asserting her power over the nobility of Andalusia
.
In April 1476, Isabella and Ferdinand gave their first exculpation to the Marquis of Cadiz. He had been regaining power while his rival, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, initially the main Isabella supporter in Andalusia, had been falling into dishonour. Through skilful negotiations, the Queen managed to take control of the main strongholds of Seville occupied by the Marquis and the Duke and, instead of returning them to their legitimate owners, named others as their heads.
She prohibited both nobles from entering the city of Seville, under the pretext that their simultaneous presence there would risk violent conflicts. In this way the Duke's political dominance over Seville disappeared, and the city passed into the control of the Crown.
One of the few nobles that refused to submit to the monarchs was Marshall Fernán Arias de Saavedra. Isabella's troops laid siege to his fortress at Utrera
, and conquered it by assault in March 1478. The defeated suffered harsh repression.
The first son of the monarchs, Juan of Aragon and Castile
, was born in Seville on June 30, 1478, which opened new possibilites for dynastic stability of the Isabellian side.
At the beginning of 1478, the monarchs prepared two new expeditions from the port of Sanlúcar de Barrameda
, one directed towards Elmina
and the other, consisting of at least 35 ships, with the aim of conquering the island of Grand Canary.
Prince John of Portugal, aware of the Castilian plans, prepared an armada to surprise his enemies in the Canary Islands
. The Castilian fleet at Grand Canary was still disembarking its troops when arrived that a Portuguese squadron was approaching. The Castilian fleet immediately set sail, leaving 300 Castilian soldiers behind. These troops managed to prevent a Portuguese disembarkation. The detachment was insufficient to conquer the island and was left inactive until Castilian reinforcements arrived on the island the next year.
The other Castilian fleet arrived at Elmina
and obtained sizeable quantities of gold. The fleet remained stationed there for a few months, under the orders of the commercial representative of the Crown. The Portuguese fleet arrived, and the Castilians were attacked. They were defeated and taken as prisoners to Lisbon
. According to Hernando del Pulgar
, the gold King Afonso captured allowed him to relaunch the war on land against Castile. Portuguese sources affirm that both the prisoners and a significant portion of the captured gold were returned to Castile after the signing of peace in 1479.
and included the following clauses:
, La Mancha
(Marquis of Villena), and Galicia. The Portuguese, reinforced by the naval victory at Guinea
, once again intervened in Castile in aid of their allies.
and Medellín
, controlled by Beatriz Pacheco, Countess of Medellin and supporter of Afonso V. According to Palencia, the Portuguese army was composed of about 1,000 Knights (of which 250 were Castilians), plus infantry. 180 Knights of the Order of Santiago marched alongside him, commanded by their treasurer, Alfonso de Monroy.
On February 24, near the hill of Albuera, the army was challenged by Isabellian forces commanded by Alonso de Cárdenas, Master of the Order of Santiago. The army consisted of 500 Knights of the Order, 400 Knights of the Hermandad
(mainly from Seville), and 100 infantrymen. The battle was heavily contested. The Isabellian infantry suffered a severe blow from the Juanist cavalry and became disorganized, but intervention by the Master of Santiago aided the panicked infantry. The Portuguese were forced to retreat, leaving significant spoils of war on the battlefield, as well as around 85 dead Knights. Only 15 Isabellian Knights were killed.
The bulk of the Portuguese army was able to take refuge in Mérida and from there continued its march to Medellín
, which they occupied. Supporters of King Ferdinand placed Medellín and Mérida under siege.
Jacobo Rondón de Seseña arrived at Castile with notice that Pope Sixtus IV had reversed himself and had annulled the dispensation previously awarded to Afonso V for his marriage to his niece Juana. This gravely debilitated the legitimacy of the Juanist side and the pretension of the Portuguese King to the throne of Castile.
. However, they were unable to gather the necessary ships, and afterwards no expeditions of importance were launched up until the peace agreement with Portugal.
to participate in peace talks organized by Princess Beatriz, daughter of Afonso V and aunt of Isabella of Castile. The negotiations lasted 50 days, but in the end no agreement was reached.
The two sides continued the conflict, trying to better their respective positions in anticipation of a new peace negotiation. Isabella and Ferdinand launched an offensive against Alfonso Carrillo de Acuña, Archbishop of Toledo, who was forced to surrender, and which allowed the monarchs to challenge the Marquis of Villena. Meanwhile, the Portuguese garrisons in Extremadura successfully resisted a Castilian siege.
Peace negotiations were restarted in the summer and an agreement was reached.
on March 6, 1480. The treaty is also known as the Treaty of Alcáçovas-Toledo.
By this agreement, Afonso V renounced his aspirations to the throne of Castile, while Isabella and Ferdinand renounced any aspirations to the Portuguese throne. The two Crowns divided their areas of influence in the Atlantic: Portugal gained control of most of the territories, with the exception of the Canary Islands (the islands of Grand Canary, La Palma
, and Tenerife
were yet to be conquered).
Juana la Beltraneja renounced all her Castilian titles, and was given the option of either marrying the heir of Isabella and Ferdinand, Prince John
, or retiring to a convent. Juana chose to do the latter, although she remained active in politics until her death.
Isabella, Princess of Asturias (1470–1498), daughter of Isabella and Ferdinand, married Afonso, Prince of Portugal, the heir to the Portuguese throne; the parents of the bride paid a large dowry
that in practice represented war compensation obtained by Portugal.
Order of succession
An order of succession is a formula or algorithm that determines who inherits an office upon the death, resignation, or removal of its current occupant.-Monarchies and nobility:...
of the Crown of Castile
Crown of Castile
The Crown of Castile was a medieval and modern state in the Iberian Peninsula that formed in 1230 as a result of the third and definitive union of the crowns and parliaments of the kingdoms of Castile and León upon the accession of the then King Ferdinand III of Castile to the vacant Leonese throne...
fought between the supporters of Juana la Beltraneja, daughter of the late monarch Henry IV of Castile
Henry IV of Castile
Henry IV , King of the Crown of Castile, nicknamed the Impotent , was the last of the weak late medieval kings of Castile...
, and those of Henry's half sister, Isabella
Isabella I of Castile
Isabella I was Queen of Castile and León. She and her husband Ferdinand II of Aragon brought stability to both kingdoms that became the basis for the unification of Spain. Later the two laid the foundations for the political unification of Spain under their grandson, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor...
, who was ultimately successful.
The war had a marked international character, as Isabella was married to Ferdinand, heir to the Crown of Aragon
Ferdinand II of Aragon
Ferdinand the Catholic was King of Aragon , Sicily , Naples , Valencia, Sardinia, and Navarre, Count of Barcelona, jure uxoris King of Castile and then regent of that country also from 1508 to his death, in the name of...
, while Juana was strategically married to King Afonso V of Portugal
Afonso V of Portugal
Afonso V KG , called the African , was the twelfth King of Portugal and the Algarves. His sobriquet refers to his conquests in Northern Africa.-Early life:...
, her uncle, after the suggestion of her supporters. France intervened in support of Portugal, as they were rivals with Aragon for territory in Italy and Roussillon
Roussillon
Roussillon is one of the historical counties of the former Principality of Catalonia, corresponding roughly to the present-day southern French département of Pyrénées-Orientales...
.
Despite a few initial successes by the supporters of Juana, a lack of military aggressiveness by Afonso V and the stalemate in the battle of Toro
Battle of Toro
The Battle of Toro was a Royal battle from the War of the Castilian Succession, fought on 1 March 1476, near the city of Toro, between the Castilian troops of the Catholic Monarchs and the Portuguese-Castilian forces of Afonso V and Prince John....
(1476) led to the disintegration of Juana's alliance between 1476 and 1477. Thereafter, the conflict consisted of a war between Castile and Portugal. The naval war in the Atlantic grew in importance; the Portuguese fleets overpowered the Castilians in a struggle for maritime access to the wealth of Guinea
Guinea (region)
Guinea is a traditional name for the region of Africa that lies along the Gulf of Guinea. It stretches north through the forested tropical regions and ends at the Sahel.-History:...
.
The war concluded in 1479 with the signing of the Treaty of Alcáçovas
Treaty of Alcaçovas
The Treaty of Alcáçovas put an end to the War of the Castilian Succession in favor of Isabella I of Castile, and confirmed Castilian control of the Canary Islands and Portuguese control of the Madeira , Azores and Cape Verde islands , all in the Atlantic Ocean The Treaty of Alcáçovas (also known...
, which recognized Isabella and Ferdinand as kings of Castile and granted Portugal hegemony in the Atlantic, with the exception of the Canary Islands
Canary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
. Juana lost her right to the throne of Castile and remained in Portugal until her death.
This conflict has also been called the Second Castilian Civil War, but this name may lead to confusion with the other civil wars
Castilian Civil War
The Castilian Civil War lasted three years from 1366 to 1369. It became part of the larger conflict then raging between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France: the Hundred Years' War...
that involved Castile in the 14th and 15th centuries. Some authors refer to it as the War of Portugal; however, this term clearly represents a Castilian point of view and may dismiss the legitimacy of the alliance in favour of Juana. At other times the term Peninsular War has been used, but it is easily confused with the Peninsular War
Peninsular War
The Peninsular War was a war between France and the allied powers of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war began when French and Spanish armies crossed Spain and invaded Portugal in 1807. Then, in 1808, France turned on its...
(1808–1814), part of the Napoleonic Wars
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon's French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to...
. Some authors prefer the neutral expression War of 1475–1479.
Succession to the Crown of Castile
Henry IV of Castile
Henry IV , King of the Crown of Castile, nicknamed the Impotent , was the last of the weak late medieval kings of Castile...
, was immediately named Princess of Asturias
Prince of Asturias
Prince of Asturias is the historical title given to the heir to the Spanish throne. It was also the title under the earlier Kingdom of Castile. The current Prince of Asturias is Felipe, son of King Juan Carlos of Spain and Queen Sofía...
. A rumour spread that princess Juana was not actually the daughter of King Henry, but rather of Beltrán de la Cueva
Beltrán de la Cueva
Beltrán de la Cueva y Alfonso de Mercado, 1st Duke of Alburquerque was a Spanish nobleman and presumed lover of Queen Joan of Portugal.-Early life:...
, a known lover of the Queen Consort, Joan of Portugal
Joan of Portugal
Joan of Portugal was Queen consort of Castile as the second wife of King Henry IV of Castile and a Portuguese infanta, the posthumous daughter of King Edward of Portugal and his wife Eleanor of Aragon...
. Juana was thus nicknamed "la Beltraneja" as a mocking reference to her assumed father. Pressure from members of the nobility forced the King to strip her of the title and, in her place, he named his half-brother Alfonso as heir in 1464.
In 1465, a group of nobility assembled in Ávila and overthrew King Henry, naming Alfonso king. This led to a war that ended in 1468 with the death of the 14-year-old Alfonso.
Henry IV regained the throne, but the title of heir became disputed between Juana, his daughter, and Isabella, his half-sister. This was resolved via the Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando
Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando
The Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando is the name of a treaty agreed on top of the hill of Guisando near the Bulls of Guisando on September 18, 1468, between Henry IV of Castile and his half-sister Isabella of Castile...
, which gave Isabella succession rights but restricted her marriage options. Isabella secretly married Ferdinand
Ferdinand II of Aragon
Ferdinand the Catholic was King of Aragon , Sicily , Naples , Valencia, Sardinia, and Navarre, Count of Barcelona, jure uxoris King of Castile and then regent of that country also from 1508 to his death, in the name of...
in 1469 at the age of 17, ignoring Henry IV's wishes.
Gradually the couple gained a larger number of supporters; they obtained a papal bull
Papal bull
A Papal bull is a particular type of letters patent or charter issued by a Pope of the Catholic Church. It is named after the bulla that was appended to the end in order to authenticate it....
sanctioning their marriage from Pope Sixtus IV
Pope Sixtus IV
Pope Sixtus IV , born Francesco della Rovere, was Pope from 1471 to 1484. His accomplishments as Pope included the establishment of the Sistine Chapel; the group of artists that he brought together introduced the Early Renaissance into Rome with the first masterpiece of the city's new artistic age,...
in 1472 and gained the support of the powerful Mendoza
House of Mendoza
The Mendoza family was a powerful line of Spanish nobles. Members of the family wielded considerable power, especially from the 14th to the 17th centuries in Castile. The family originated from the town of Mendoza in the province of Álava in the Basque countries...
family in 1473.
When Henry IV died in December 1474, each of the two candidates for the throne were proclaimed Queen of Castile by their respective supporters. Aware of their position of weakness against Isabella's supporters, Juana's supporters proposed that the 43-year-old King Afonso V of Portugal
Afonso V of Portugal
Afonso V KG , called the African , was the twelfth King of Portugal and the Algarves. His sobriquet refers to his conquests in Northern Africa.-Early life:...
, a widower for some 20 years, marry Juana, his niece, and become King Consort of Castile.
International alliances
The Kingdom of FranceKingdom of France
The Kingdom of France was one of the most powerful states to exist in Europe during the second millennium.It originated from the Western portion of the Frankish empire, and consolidated significant power and influence over the next thousand years. Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King, developed a...
and the Crown of Aragon maintained a long-held rivalry for the control of Roussillon
Roussillon
Roussillon is one of the historical counties of the former Principality of Catalonia, corresponding roughly to the present-day southern French département of Pyrénées-Orientales...
and, more recently, for hegemony in Italy. In June 1474, French troops invaded Roussillon and the Aragonese were forced to retreat. On the possibility that the heir to the throne of Aragon would also become King of Castile, Louis XI of France
Louis XI of France
Louis XI , called the Prudent , was the King of France from 1461 to 1483. He was the son of Charles VII of France and Mary of Anjou, a member of the House of Valois....
officially positioned himself on the side of Juana and Portugal in September 1475.
France was simultaneously at war with the Duchy of Burgundy
Duchy of Burgundy
The Duchy of Burgundy , was heir to an ancient and prestigious reputation and a large division of the lands of the Second Kingdom of Burgundy and in its own right was one of the geographically larger ducal territories in the emergence of Early Modern Europe from Medieval Europe.Even in that...
. This made Burgundy into theoretical allies of Isabella's supporters, but in practice, they continued their war against France without coordinating their actions with the Isabella alliance.
England
Kingdom of England
The Kingdom of England was, from 927 to 1707, a sovereign state to the northwest of continental Europe. At its height, the Kingdom of England spanned the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain and several smaller outlying islands; what today comprises the legal jurisdiction of England...
was also briefly at war with France with the disembarkation of King Edward IV
Edward IV of England
Edward IV was King of England from 4 March 1461 until 3 October 1470, and again from 11 April 1471 until his death. He was the first Yorkist King of England...
in Calais
Calais
Calais is a town in Northern France in the department of Pas-de-Calais, of which it is a sub-prefecture. Although Calais is by far the largest city in Pas-de-Calais, the department's capital is its third-largest city of Arras....
in June 1475, but through a quick diplomatic response, Louis negotiated peace with Edward and signed the Treaty of Picquigny
Treaty of Picquigny
The Treaty of Picquigny was a peace treaty negotiated on 29 August 1475 between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France. Louis XI of France paid Edward IV of England to return to England and not take up arms to pursue his claim to the French throne. Edward was provided with an immediate...
in August. Edward IV accepted a truce of nine years in exchange for significant economic compensation, and returned to England.
The Kingdom of Navarre
Kingdom of Navarre
The Kingdom of Navarre , originally the Kingdom of Pamplona, was a European kingdom which occupied lands on either side of the Pyrenees alongside the Atlantic Ocean....
was experiencing an intermittent civil war, and the Muslim Kingdom of Granada
Emirate of Granada
The Emirate of Granada , also known as the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada , was an emirate established in 1238 following the defeat of Muhammad an-Nasir of the Almohad dynasty by an alliance of Christian kingdoms at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212...
remained neutral, despite Portuguese efforts to draw them into the war.
Rivalry between Castile and Portugal in the Atlantic
Throughout the 15th century, merchants, explorers and fishermen of Portugal and Castile had been penetrating further into the Atlantic Ocean. The possession of the Canary IslandsCanary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
was a point of contention between the two Crowns. Later on, the control of commerce with the territories of Guinea
Guinea (region)
Guinea is a traditional name for the region of Africa that lies along the Gulf of Guinea. It stretches north through the forested tropical regions and ends at the Sahel.-History:...
and Elmina
Elmina
Elmina, is a town in the Central Region, situated on a south-facing bay on the Atlantic Ocean coast of Ghana, about 12 km west of Cape Coast...
, rich in gold
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...
and slaves, grew to a dispute of even greater importance.
During the first half of the century, Castile staged the conquest of a few of the Canary Islands (Lanzarote
Lanzarote
Lanzarote , a Spanish island, is the easternmost of the autonomous Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, approximately 125 km off the coast of Africa and 1,000 km from the Iberian Peninsula. Covering 845.9 km2, it stands as the fourth largest of the islands...
, Fuerteventura
Fuerteventura
Fuerteventura , a Spanish island, is one of the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa. It is situated at 28°20' north, 14°00' west. At 1,660 km² it is the second largest of the Canary Islands, after Tenerife...
, Hierro
El Hierro
El Hierro, nicknamed Isla del Meridiano , is the smallest and farthest south and west of the Canary Islands , in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa, with a population of 10,162 .- Name :The name El Hierro, although phonetically identical to the Spanish word for 'iron', is generally thought...
, and Gomera
Gomera
Gomera usually refers to La Gomera, the second-smallest of Spain's Canary Islands.Gomera may also refer to:-Places:* La Gomera, Escuintla, a municipality in the Escuintla department of Guatemala....
) through feudal pacts, first with Norman
Normans
The Normans were the people who gave their name to Normandy, a region in northern France. They were descended from Norse Viking conquerors of the territory and the native population of Frankish and Gallo-Roman stock...
knights and later with Castilian nobles. Portugal opposed Castilian authority on the islands and continued the exploration of Guinea
Guinea
Guinea , officially the Republic of Guinea , is a country in West Africa. Formerly known as French Guinea , it is today sometimes called Guinea-Conakry to distinguish it from its neighbour Guinea-Bissau. Guinea is divided into eight administrative regions and subdivided into thirty-three prefectures...
, with significant commercial benefits.
Beginning in 1452, Pope Nicholas V
Pope Nicholas V
Pope Nicholas V , born Tommaso Parentucelli, was Pope from March 6, 1447 to his death in 1455.-Biography:He was born at Sarzana, Liguria, where his father was a physician...
and his successor Calixtus III modified the previous policy of the neutrality of the Holy See
Holy See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...
and issued a series of bulls
Papal bull
A Papal bull is a particular type of letters patent or charter issued by a Pope of the Catholic Church. It is named after the bulla that was appended to the end in order to authenticate it....
favourable to Portugal. They gave Portugal commercial control and ample religious authority over all of guinea, and in areas "further beyond". The Holy See did not arbitrate the question of the Canaries, whose conquest had been left relatively suspended. The King of Portugal adopted a freer commercial policy that allowed foreign subjects to trade on the African coasts in exchange for taxes.
In August 1475, after the start of the war, Isabella claimed that parts of Africa and Guinea belonged to Castile by right, and incited Castilian merchants to sail to them. This initiated a naval war in the Atlantic.
Combatants in 1475
In favour of Juana:- Portugal
- France
- Some of the high Castilian nobility and descendants of Portuguese families that settled in Castile after 1385; the Archbishop of Toledo (Alfonso Carrillo de Acuña); the Estúñiga family, with land bordering Portugal and Navarrese ancestors; the Marquis of Villena (Diego López Pacheco); the Marquis of Cádiz (Rodrigo Ponce de León); and the Grandmaster of the Order of CalatravaOrder of CalatravaThe Order of Calatrava was the first military order founded in Castile, but the second to receive papal approval. The papal bull confirming the Order of Calatrava as a Militia was given by Pope Alexander III on September 26, 1164.-Origins and Foundation:...
(Rodrigo Téllez Girón).
In favour of Isabella:
- The Crown of AragonCrown of AragonThe Crown of Aragon Corona d'Aragón Corona d'Aragó Corona Aragonum controlling a large portion of the present-day eastern Spain and southeastern France, as well as some of the major islands and mainland possessions stretching across the Mediterranean as far as Greece...
- The rest of the Castilian nobility: the powerful Mendoza family; the Manrique de Lara family; the Duke of Medina Sidonia (Enrique Pérez de Guzmán); Beltrán de la CuevaBeltrán de la CuevaBeltrán de la Cueva y Alfonso de Mercado, 1st Duke of Alburquerque was a Spanish nobleman and presumed lover of Queen Joan of Portugal.-Early life:...
;, the Order of SantiagoOrder of SantiagoThe Order of Santiago was founded in the 12th century, and owes its name to the national patron of Galicia and Spain, Santiago , under whose banner the Christians of Galicia and Asturias began in the 9th century to combat and drive back the Muslims of the Iberian Peninsula.-History:Santiago de...
and the Order of CalatravaOrder of CalatravaThe Order of Calatrava was the first military order founded in Castile, but the second to receive papal approval. The papal bull confirming the Order of Calatrava as a Militia was given by Pope Alexander III on September 26, 1164.-Origins and Foundation:...
, except its Grandmaster.
The Duchy of Burgundy
Duchy of Burgundy
The Duchy of Burgundy , was heir to an ancient and prestigious reputation and a large division of the lands of the Second Kingdom of Burgundy and in its own right was one of the geographically larger ducal territories in the emergence of Early Modern Europe from Medieval Europe.Even in that...
and the Kingdom of England
Kingdom of England
The Kingdom of England was, from 927 to 1707, a sovereign state to the northwest of continental Europe. At its height, the Kingdom of England spanned the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain and several smaller outlying islands; what today comprises the legal jurisdiction of England...
were at war with France in 1475, but did not coordinate their actions with the supporters of Isabella and are thus not normally considered part of the Isabella alliance.
Afonso V enters Castile
A Portuguese army entered the territory of the Crown of Castile under the command of Afonso V on May 10, 1475, and advanced to PlasenciaPlasencia
Plasencia is a walled market city in the province of Cáceres, Extremadura, Western Spain. , it had a population of 41,447.Situated on the bank of the Jerte River, Plasencia has a historic quarter that is a consequence of the city's strategic location along the Silver Route, or Ruta de la Plata...
, where Juana was expecting him. Juana and Afonso were proclaimed Kings of Castile on May 25 and were married; the required Papal dispensation (Juana was Afonso's niece) arrived few months later. From Plasencia, they marched to Arévalo
Arévalo
Arévalo is a municipality in Spain, it is situated in the province of Ávila and is part of the autonomous community of Castile and León. The name came from Celtic word arevalon, meaning "place near the wall."-Regional importance:...
, with the intention of heading towards Burgos
Burgos
Burgos is a city of northern Spain, historic capital of Castile. It is situated at the edge of the central plateau, with about 178,966 inhabitants in the city proper and another 20,000 in its suburbs. It is the capital of the province of Burgos, in the autonomous community of Castile and León...
. There Afonso hoped to be able to unite with any troops sent by his ally, Louis XI of France
Louis XI of France
Louis XI , called the Prudent , was the King of France from 1461 to 1483. He was the son of Charles VII of France and Mary of Anjou, a member of the House of Valois....
.
The castle of Burgos and the cities of Plasencia and Arévalo were controlled by the Estúñiga family, supporters of Juana. The city of Burgos, controlled by the Fernandez de Velasco
Dukedom of Frías
Duke of Frías is a hereditary title created in 1492 by King Ferdinand II of Aragon. It became one of the most important titles in Spain.The House of Velasco was one of the most powerful and influential noble Castilian families of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Era. Its original...
family, backed Isabella.
Afonso found fewer supporters in Castile than he expected, and changed his plans, preferring to instead consolidate his control in the area closest to Portugal, in particular Toro
Toro, Zamora
Toro is a town and municipality in the province of Zamora, part of the autonomous community of Castile and León, Spain. It is located on a fertile high plain, northwest of Madrid at an elevation of 740 meters....
, a city that received him favourably, even though the garrison of the castle proclaimed itself loyal to Isabella. Zamora and other Leonese
Kingdom of León
The Kingdom of León was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. It was founded in AD 910 when the Christian princes of Asturias along the northern coast of the peninsula shifted their capital from Oviedo to the city of León...
villages of the lower Douro
Douro
The Douro or Duero is one of the major rivers of the Iberian Peninsula, flowing from its source near Duruelo de la Sierra in Soria Province across northern-central Spain and Portugal to its outlet at Porto...
also accepted the Portuguese King.
In la Mancha
La Mancha
La Mancha is a natural and historical region or greater comarca located on an arid, fertile, elevated plateau of central Spain, south of Madrid, stretching between the Montes de Toledo and the western spurs of the Serrania de Cuenca. It is bounded on the south by the Sierra Morena and on the north...
, Rodrigo Tellez-Giron, the Master of the Order of Calatrava
Order of Calatrava
The Order of Calatrava was the first military order founded in Castile, but the second to receive papal approval. The papal bull confirming the Order of Calatrava as a Militia was given by Pope Alexander III on September 26, 1164.-Origins and Foundation:...
, supporter of Juana, conquered Ciudad Real
Ciudad Real
Ciudad Real is a city in Castile-La Mancha, Spain, with a population of c. 74,000. It is the capital of the province of Ciudad Real. It has a stop on the AVE high-speed rail line and has begun to grow as a long-distance commuter suburb of Madrid, located 115 miles to the north. A high capacity...
. Rodrigo Manrique, treasurer of that same Order and the Master of the Order of Santiago
Order of Santiago
The Order of Santiago was founded in the 12th century, and owes its name to the national patron of Galicia and Spain, Santiago , under whose banner the Christians of Galicia and Asturias began in the 9th century to combat and drive back the Muslims of the Iberian Peninsula.-History:Santiago de...
, reconquered the city for Isabella.
Prince Ferdinand concentrated an army in Tordesillas
Tordesillas
Tordesillas is a town and municipality in the province of Valladolid, Castile and León, central Spain.It is located 25 km southwest of the provincial capital, Valladolid at an elevation of 704 meters. The population was c. 9,000 in 2009....
, and on July 15 ordered it to march to seek an encounter with Afonso. Four days later, they arrived at Toro, where the Portuguese King avoided direct combat. Prince Ferdinand, lacking the necessary resources for a prolonged siege, was forced to return to Tordesillas and disband his army. The castle of Toro surrendered to Afonso V, who returned to Arévalo to wait for the expected French intervention.
Rodrigo Alfonso Pimentel, the Count of Benavente and supporter of Isabella, situated himself with a small force in Baltanás
Baltanás
Baltanás is a municipality located in the province of Palencia, Castile and León, Spain. According to the 2004 census , the municipality had a population of 1,452 inhabitants....
to monitor the Portuguese. He was attacked on November 18, 1475, and was defeated and imprisoned. Even though this victory opened the way to Burgos, Afonso V decided once again to withdraw, this time to Zamora. His lack of aggressiveness debilitated the Juana alliance in Castile, which began to disintegrate.
Isabellian counter-attack
Supporters of Isabella counter-attacked by taking Trujillo and gaining control of the lands of the Order of AlcantaraOrder of Alcántara
The Order of Alcántara , also called the Knights of St. Julian, was originally a military order of León, founded in 1166 and confirmed by Pope Alexander III in 1177.-Alcántara:...
, a significant portion of those of the Order of Calatrava
Order of Calatrava
The Order of Calatrava was the first military order founded in Castile, but the second to receive papal approval. The papal bull confirming the Order of Calatrava as a Militia was given by Pope Alexander III on September 26, 1164.-Origins and Foundation:...
, and of the Marquisate of Villena. On December 4, part of the garrison in Zamora rebelled against King Afonso, who was forced to flee to Toro. The Portuguese garrison maintained control of the castle, but the city received Prince Ferdinand the following day.
In January 1476, the castle of Burgos surrendered to Isabella through a pact that avoided reprisals against the defeated.
The Battle of Toro
In February 1476, the Portuguese army, reinforced by troops brought by John II of PortugalJohn II of Portugal
John II , the Perfect Prince , was the thirteenth king of Portugal and the Algarves...
, son of Afonso V, left its base in Toro and surrounded Ferdinand in Zamora. The siege took a worse toll on the Portuguese than on those under siege due to the Castilian winter, and on March 1, Afonso V withdrew back towards Toro. Ferdinand and his troops launched a pursuit and caught up to the Portuguese one league
League (unit)
A league is a unit of length . It was long common in Europe and Latin America, but it is no longer an official unit in any nation. The league originally referred to the distance a person or a horse could walk in an hour...
(approximately 5 kilometres) from Toro, and combat began.
After three hours of fighting interrupted by rain and nightfall, the Portuguese King withdrew to Castronuño
Castronuño
Castronuño is a municipality located in the province of Valladolid, Castile and León, Spain. According to the 2004 census , the municipality has a population of 1,049 inhabitants....
with part of his troops. His son John remained near Toro, retreating with his army in an organized fashion towards the city, and even taking a few enemy prisoners.
Publicists from both sides claimed victory. Politically, the battle was decisive, because subsequently the bulk of the Portuguese troops retreated back to Portugal along with Juana, whose side then had hardly any troops in Castile.
War at sea
One of the objectives of Isabella and Ferdinand was to challenge Portugal's monopoly on the rich Atlantic territories of Guinea. The gold and slaves constituted an important source of income which could be used to finance the war, and therefore expeditions to Guinea became a priority for both belligerent sides.Portuguese ships had transversed the Andalusian coast, apprehending fishing and merchant ships, since the start of the war. To stop this, Isabella and Ferdinand sent four galleys under the command of Álvaro de la Nava, who stopped the Portuguese incursions and plundered the Portuguese city of Alcoutim
Alcoutim
Alcoutim is a town and a municipality in southeastern Portugal near the border with Spain. The municipality has a total area of 575.32 km² and a population of 3,411 inhabitants. At the Portuguese census of 2001 it had a population of 3,770 inhabitants and was the least densely populated...
on the Guadiana
Guadiana
The Guadiana , or Odiana, is an international river located on the Portuguese–Spanish border, separating Extremadura and Andalucia from Alentejo and Algarve...
river.
Sailors from Palos de la Frontera
Palos de la Frontera
Palos de la Frontera is a town and municipality located in the southwestern Spanish province of Huelva, in the autonomous community of Andalusia. It is situated some from the provincial capital, Huelva...
pillaged the coasts of Guinea. Alfonso de Palencia
Alfonso de Palencia
Alfonso Fernández de Palencia , was a Castilian pre-Renaissance historiographer, lexicographer, and humanist....
, official chronicler of Isabella, narrates an expedition in which two caravel
Caravel
A caravel is a small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed in the 15th century by the Portuguese to explore along the West African coast and into the Atlantic Ocean. The lateen sails gave her speed and the capacity for sailing to windward...
s from Palos captured 120 Africans and sold them as slaves. Despite protests by the monarchs, shortly afterwards another fleet of three caravels captured an African king and 140 nobles of his village.
In May 1476, Isabella ordered the liberation of the "King of Guinea" and his entourage. The order was only partly obeyed, as the king was liberated and return to Guinea, but his companions were all sold as slaves.
In 1476, a Portuguese fleet of twenty ships commanded by Fernão Gomes
Fernão Gomes
Fernão Gomes was a Portuguese merchant and explorer from Lisbon, the son of Tristão Gomes de Brito .In 1469, King Afonso V of Portugal granted him the monopoly on trade in the Gulf of Guinea...
set sail towards Guinea to attempt to regain control there. The Kings of Castile ordered the preparation of a fleet to apprehend the Portuguese and appointed Carlos de Valera to command. He had numerous problems preparing the expedition, because he was opposed by the Marquis of Cadiz, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, and the Estuñiga family.
The preparations were also delayed by a naval battle that took place when the Castilians found out that one or two Portuguese ships with a rich cargo had left the Mediterranean to return to Portugal under the escort of the pirate Alvar Méndez. A fleet of five galleys and five caravels captained by Carlos de Valera and Andrés Sonier intercepted them in Sanlucar de Barrameda
Sanlúcar de Barrameda
Sanlúcar de Barrameda is a city in the northwest of Cádiz province, part of the autonomous community of Andalucía in southern Spain. Sanlúcar is located on the left bank at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River opposite the Doñana National Park, 52 km from the provincial capital Cádiz and...
, and were victorious after a hard-fought battle.
Valera gathered a fleet of three Basque ships and nine Andalusian caravels (25 caravels according to Palencia), all heavily armed. There was no longer any possibility of intercepting the Portuguese fleet, so he decided, after stopping at Porto Santo Island
Porto Santo Island
Porto Santo Island is a Portuguese island northeast of Madeira Island in the North Atlantic Ocean; it is the northernmost and easternmost island of the archipelago of Madeira, located in the Atlantic Ocean west of Europe and Africa.- History :...
, to head towards the island of António Noli
António Noli
Antonio de Noli was a 15th century Genoese nobleman and navigator, and the first governor of the earliest European overseas colony in Subsaharan Africa. He discovered some of the Cape Verde islands on behalf of Henry the Navigator and he was made first Governor of Cape Verde by King Afonso V...
in the Cape Verde
Cape Verde
The Republic of Cape Verde is an island country, spanning an archipelago of 10 islands located in the central Atlantic Ocean, 570 kilometres off the coast of Western Africa...
archipelago, near the coast of Guinea. They plundered the island and captured António Noli, who at the time held the territory feudally from the King of Portugal.
They next set sail for the coast of Africa, where they captured two caravels owned by the Marquis of Cadiz containing a shipment of 500 slaves. The sailors from Palos separated themselves from the expedition at this point. They were the most knowledgeable in the maritime navigation of Guinea, so Valera returned to Andalusia.
This expedition obtained few economic benefits, as a significant portion of the slaves were returned to the Marquis of Cadiz, and because Valera was forced to indemnify the Duke of Medina Sidonia for the damages caused on the Island of Noli, which the Duke claimed as his.
French intervention
On September 23, 1475, Louis XI of France signed a treaty of alliance with Afonso V of Portugal.Between March and June of 1476, French troops captained by Alain I of Albret
Alain I of Albret
Alain I of Albret , called "The Great", was a powerful French aristocrat. He was 16th Lord of Albret, Viscount of Tartas, the 2nd Count of Graves, and the Count of Castres. He was the son of Catherine de Rohan and Jean I of Albret...
tried to cross the border at Fuenterrabía, but were repelled. Ferdinand took advantage of the situation to secure his position in the unsettled Kingdom of Navarre. In August, negotiations began in Tudela
Tudela, Navarre
Tudela is a municipality in Spain, the second city of the autonomous community of Navarre. Its population is around 35,000. Tudela is sited in the Ebro valley. Fast trains running on two-track electrified railways serve the city and two freeways join close to it...
, which culminated with the signing of an accord by which the belligerent parties of the Navarrese Civil War put an end to their conflict. Ferdinand obtained the control of Viana
Viana, Spain
Viana is a town and municipality located in the province and autonomous community of Navarre, northern Spain. Cesare Borgia is buried there. Francisco Gonzalez de Ibarra, a missionary active in Southern California between 1820 and 1840 was a native of Viana, born there in 1782.**...
, Puente la Reina
Puente La Reina
Puente La Reina is a town and municipality located in the autonomous community of Navarra, in northern Spain....
and other strongholds, as well as the right to maintain a garrison of 150 lances in Pamplona
Pamplona
Pamplona is the historial capital city of Navarre, in Spain, and of the former kingdom of Navarre.The city is famous worldwide for the San Fermín festival, from July 6 to 14, in which the running of the bulls is one of the main attractions...
.
In this way, Castile strengthened itself militarily against a possible French penetration into Navarre.
On August 1476, Afonso V of Portugal departed towards France after signing a truce with Isabella and Ferdinand. There he tried to convince Louis XI to involve France to a greater extent in the war. Louis refused, as he was focused on defeating his main enemy, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy.
Battle of Cabo São Vicente
The King of France sent the fleet of Norman pirate Guillaume Coullon as aid to Portugal. In August 1476, King Afonso sent two Portuguese galleys loaded with soldiers along with the 11 ships of Coullon to come in the aid of the castle of CeutaCeuta
Ceuta is an autonomous city of Spain and an exclave located on the north coast of North Africa surrounded by Morocco. Separated from the Iberian peninsula by the Strait of Gibraltar, Ceuta lies on the border of the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Ceuta along with the other Spanish...
. On August 7, this fleet encountered five armed merchant ships from Cadiz heading for England: three Genoese carracks, a galley, and a Flemish vessel. Coullon attempted to capture the merchants through a ploy, but failed, and was forced to engage in combat. The Franco-Portuguese side emerged victorious. Due to the use of incendiary weapons by the French, fire razed two Genoese ships, the Flemish vessel, two Portuguese galleys, and two of Coullon's ships. According to Palencia, some 2,500 French and Portuguese died.
Consolidation of Isabella and Ferdinand (September 1476 – January 1479)
After their strategic victory at the battle of Toro, the repulsion of the French attack, and the truce with Afonso V, Isabella and Ferdinand were in a powerful position to obtain the throne of Castile. Nobles of the Juana alliance were forced to accept the circumstances and gradually pledged their allegiance to Isabella and Ferdinand. The war was reduced to skirmishes along the Portuguese border and the continuation of the naval war for control of the Atlantic commerce.Submission of the Juana alliance to Isabella and Ferdinand
Throughout 1476, supporters of Juana from the nobility continued to submit to Isabella and Ferdinand, particularly those from the Pacheco-Girón lineage: Juan Téllez Girón and his brother Rodrigo; Luis de Portocarrero; and, in September, the Marquis of Villena.In November 1476, Isabella's troops captured the castle of Toro. In the following months, they took control of the last bordering localities controlled by the Portuguese and dealt with their adversaries in Extremadura
Extremadura
Extremadura is an autonomous community of western Spain whose capital city is Mérida. Its component provinces are Cáceres and Badajoz. It is bordered by Portugal to the west...
.
In July 1477, Isabella arrived in Seville
Seville
Seville is the artistic, historic, cultural, and financial capital of southern Spain. It is the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia and of the province of Seville. It is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir, with an average elevation of above sea level...
, the most populous city of Castile, with the objective of asserting her power over the nobility of Andalusia
Andalusia
Andalusia is the most populous and the second largest in area of the autonomous communities of Spain. The Andalusian autonomous community is officially recognised as a nationality of Spain. The territory is divided into eight provinces: Huelva, Seville, Cádiz, Córdoba, Málaga, Jaén, Granada and...
.
In April 1476, Isabella and Ferdinand gave their first exculpation to the Marquis of Cadiz. He had been regaining power while his rival, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, initially the main Isabella supporter in Andalusia, had been falling into dishonour. Through skilful negotiations, the Queen managed to take control of the main strongholds of Seville occupied by the Marquis and the Duke and, instead of returning them to their legitimate owners, named others as their heads.
She prohibited both nobles from entering the city of Seville, under the pretext that their simultaneous presence there would risk violent conflicts. In this way the Duke's political dominance over Seville disappeared, and the city passed into the control of the Crown.
One of the few nobles that refused to submit to the monarchs was Marshall Fernán Arias de Saavedra. Isabella's troops laid siege to his fortress at Utrera
Utrera
Utrera is a municipality in south-west Spain. It is in the province of Seville, in the autonomous community of Andalusia. As of 2008 it has a population close to 50,202....
, and conquered it by assault in March 1478. The defeated suffered harsh repression.
The first son of the monarchs, Juan of Aragon and Castile
Juan, Prince of Asturias
John, Prince of Asturias, was the only son of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon who survived to adulthood.-Early life:...
, was born in Seville on June 30, 1478, which opened new possibilites for dynastic stability of the Isabellian side.
Return of Afonso V
After his diplomatic failure in France, Afonso V decided to return to Portugal. When he arrived in Portugal in October 1477, he found that his son John had proclaimed himself King. However, John happily received the return of his father and returned the Crown to him immediately.Expeditions to Guinea and the Canary Islands of 1478
In 1477, a fleet departed from Andalusia headed for Guinea.At the beginning of 1478, the monarchs prepared two new expeditions from the port of Sanlúcar de Barrameda
Sanlúcar de Barrameda
Sanlúcar de Barrameda is a city in the northwest of Cádiz province, part of the autonomous community of Andalucía in southern Spain. Sanlúcar is located on the left bank at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River opposite the Doñana National Park, 52 km from the provincial capital Cádiz and...
, one directed towards Elmina
Elmina
Elmina, is a town in the Central Region, situated on a south-facing bay on the Atlantic Ocean coast of Ghana, about 12 km west of Cape Coast...
and the other, consisting of at least 35 ships, with the aim of conquering the island of Grand Canary.
Prince John of Portugal, aware of the Castilian plans, prepared an armada to surprise his enemies in the Canary Islands
Canary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
. The Castilian fleet at Grand Canary was still disembarking its troops when arrived that a Portuguese squadron was approaching. The Castilian fleet immediately set sail, leaving 300 Castilian soldiers behind. These troops managed to prevent a Portuguese disembarkation. The detachment was insufficient to conquer the island and was left inactive until Castilian reinforcements arrived on the island the next year.
The other Castilian fleet arrived at Elmina
Elmina
Elmina, is a town in the Central Region, situated on a south-facing bay on the Atlantic Ocean coast of Ghana, about 12 km west of Cape Coast...
and obtained sizeable quantities of gold. The fleet remained stationed there for a few months, under the orders of the commercial representative of the Crown. The Portuguese fleet arrived, and the Castilians were attacked. They were defeated and taken as prisoners to Lisbon
Lisbon
Lisbon is the capital city and largest city of Portugal with a population of 545,245 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Lisbon extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of 3 million on an area of , making it the 9th most populous urban...
. According to Hernando del Pulgar
Hernando del Pulgar
Hernando del Pulgar was a Spanish writer.He was born at Pulgar and was educated at the court of John II. Henry IV made him one of his secretaries, and under Isabella he became councillor of state, was charged with a mission to France, and in 1482 was appointed historiographer-royal...
, the gold King Afonso captured allowed him to relaunch the war on land against Castile. Portuguese sources affirm that both the prisoners and a significant portion of the captured gold were returned to Castile after the signing of peace in 1479.
Peace between Castile and France
Towards the end of 1478, before word of the defeat at Elmina arrived in Castile, an embassy from King Louis XI of France offered a peace treaty to Isabella and Ferdinand. The accord was signed in GuadalupeGuadalupe, Cáceres
Guadalupe is a municipality located in Las Villuercas comarca, province of Cáceres, Extremadura, Spain with currently just over 2,000 inhabitants. The monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe is situated here. The Guadalupe River has its origins here....
and included the following clauses:
- Louis XI recognized Isabella and Ferdinand as Monarchs of Castile and León.
- Ferdinand agreed to break his alliance with Maximilian IMaximilian I, Holy Roman EmperorMaximilian I , the son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor and Eleanor of Portugal, was King of the Romans from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1493 until his death, though he was never in fact crowned by the Pope, the journey to Rome always being too risky...
, Duke of Burgundy.
- Both parties agreed to the arbitration of affairs relative to Roussillon.
Final phases (January – September 1479)
Towards the end of 1478, some of Juana's supporters revolted in ExtremaduraExtremadura
Extremadura is an autonomous community of western Spain whose capital city is Mérida. Its component provinces are Cáceres and Badajoz. It is bordered by Portugal to the west...
, La Mancha
La Mancha
La Mancha is a natural and historical region or greater comarca located on an arid, fertile, elevated plateau of central Spain, south of Madrid, stretching between the Montes de Toledo and the western spurs of the Serrania de Cuenca. It is bounded on the south by the Sierra Morena and on the north...
(Marquis of Villena), and Galicia. The Portuguese, reinforced by the naval victory at Guinea
Guinea
Guinea , officially the Republic of Guinea , is a country in West Africa. Formerly known as French Guinea , it is today sometimes called Guinea-Conakry to distinguish it from its neighbour Guinea-Bissau. Guinea is divided into eight administrative regions and subdivided into thirty-three prefectures...
, once again intervened in Castile in aid of their allies.
Portuguese offensive
In February 1479, a Portuguese army commanded by Garcia de Meneses, Bishop of Évora, penetrated into Extremadura. His objective was to occupy and reinforce the strongholds of MéridaMérida, Spain
Mérida is the capital of the autonomous community of Extremadura, western central Spain. It has a population of 57,127 . The Archaeological Ensemble of Mérida is a UNESCO World Heritage site since 1993.- Climate :...
and Medellín
Medellín (Spain)
Medellín is a village in the province of Badajoz, Extremadura, Spain, notable as the birthplace of Hernán Cortés in 1485 and the site of the Battle of Medellín, during the Peninsular War...
, controlled by Beatriz Pacheco, Countess of Medellin and supporter of Afonso V. According to Palencia, the Portuguese army was composed of about 1,000 Knights (of which 250 were Castilians), plus infantry. 180 Knights of the Order of Santiago marched alongside him, commanded by their treasurer, Alfonso de Monroy.
On February 24, near the hill of Albuera, the army was challenged by Isabellian forces commanded by Alonso de Cárdenas, Master of the Order of Santiago. The army consisted of 500 Knights of the Order, 400 Knights of the Hermandad
Hermandad
Hermandad, literally "brotherhood" in Spanish, was a peacekeeping association of armed individuals, which became characteristic of municipal life in medieval Spain, especially in Castile....
(mainly from Seville), and 100 infantrymen. The battle was heavily contested. The Isabellian infantry suffered a severe blow from the Juanist cavalry and became disorganized, but intervention by the Master of Santiago aided the panicked infantry. The Portuguese were forced to retreat, leaving significant spoils of war on the battlefield, as well as around 85 dead Knights. Only 15 Isabellian Knights were killed.
The bulk of the Portuguese army was able to take refuge in Mérida and from there continued its march to Medellín
Medellín
Medellín , officially the Municipio de Medellín or Municipality of Medellín, is the second largest city in Colombia. It is in the Aburrá Valley, one of the more northerly of the Andes in South America. It has a population of 2.3 million...
, which they occupied. Supporters of King Ferdinand placed Medellín and Mérida under siege.
The Pope switches sides
The nuncioNuncio
Nuncio is an ecclesiastical diplomatic title, derived from the ancient Latin word, Nuntius, meaning "envoy." This article addresses this title as well as derived similar titles, all within the structure of the Roman Catholic Church...
Jacobo Rondón de Seseña arrived at Castile with notice that Pope Sixtus IV had reversed himself and had annulled the dispensation previously awarded to Afonso V for his marriage to his niece Juana. This gravely debilitated the legitimacy of the Juanist side and the pretension of the Portuguese King to the throne of Castile.
Last Castilian initiatives at sea
In February 1479, Isabelle and Ferdinand tried to organize a new fleet of about twenty caravels to expel the Portuguese from ElminaElmina
Elmina, is a town in the Central Region, situated on a south-facing bay on the Atlantic Ocean coast of Ghana, about 12 km west of Cape Coast...
. However, they were unable to gather the necessary ships, and afterwards no expeditions of importance were launched up until the peace agreement with Portugal.
Peace talks
In April 1479, King Ferdinand arrived at AlcántaraAlcántara
Alcántara is a municipality in the province of Cáceres, Extremadura, Spain, on the Tagus, near Portugal. The toponym is from the Arabic word al-QanTarah meaning "the bridge".-History:...
to participate in peace talks organized by Princess Beatriz, daughter of Afonso V and aunt of Isabella of Castile. The negotiations lasted 50 days, but in the end no agreement was reached.
The two sides continued the conflict, trying to better their respective positions in anticipation of a new peace negotiation. Isabella and Ferdinand launched an offensive against Alfonso Carrillo de Acuña, Archbishop of Toledo, who was forced to surrender, and which allowed the monarchs to challenge the Marquis of Villena. Meanwhile, the Portuguese garrisons in Extremadura successfully resisted a Castilian siege.
Peace negotiations were restarted in the summer and an agreement was reached.
The Peace Treaty
The treaty that put an end to the war was signed in the Portuguese city of Alcáçovas on September 4, 1479. The agreement was ratified by the King of Portugal on September 8, 1479, and by the Monarchs of Castile and Aragon in ToledoToledo, Spain
Toledo's Alcázar became renowned in the 19th and 20th centuries as a military academy. At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 its garrison was famously besieged by Republican forces.-Economy:...
on March 6, 1480. The treaty is also known as the Treaty of Alcáçovas-Toledo.
By this agreement, Afonso V renounced his aspirations to the throne of Castile, while Isabella and Ferdinand renounced any aspirations to the Portuguese throne. The two Crowns divided their areas of influence in the Atlantic: Portugal gained control of most of the territories, with the exception of the Canary Islands (the islands of Grand Canary, La Palma
La Palma
La Palma is the most north-westerly of the Canary Islands. La Palma has an area of 706 km2 making it the fifth largest of the seven main Canary Islands...
, and Tenerife
Tenerife
Tenerife is the largest and most populous island of the seven Canary Islands, it is also the most populated island of Spain, with a land area of 2,034.38 km² and 906,854 inhabitants, 43% of the total population of the Canary Islands. About five million tourists visit Tenerife each year, the...
were yet to be conquered).
Juana la Beltraneja renounced all her Castilian titles, and was given the option of either marrying the heir of Isabella and Ferdinand, Prince John
Juan, Prince of Asturias
John, Prince of Asturias, was the only son of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon who survived to adulthood.-Early life:...
, or retiring to a convent. Juana chose to do the latter, although she remained active in politics until her death.
Isabella, Princess of Asturias (1470–1498), daughter of Isabella and Ferdinand, married Afonso, Prince of Portugal, the heir to the Portuguese throne; the parents of the bride paid a large dowry
Dowry
A dowry is the money, goods, or estate that a woman brings forth to the marriage. It contrasts with bride price, which is paid to the bride's parents, and dower, which is property settled on the bride herself by the groom at the time of marriage. The same culture may simultaneously practice both...
that in practice represented war compensation obtained by Portugal.