Robeson County is a county in the
U.S. stateA U.S. state is any one of the 50 federated states of the United States of America that share sovereignty with the federal government. Because of this shared sovereignty, an American is a citizen both of the federal entity and of his or her state of domicile. Four states use the official title of...
of
North CarolinaNorth Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
. As of 2010 it had a population of 134,168. Since then, it has been one of the 10% of United States counties that were majority-minority; its combined population of
American IndianThe indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
,
African AmericanAfrican Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have at least partial ancestry from any of the native populations of Sub-Saharan Africa and are the direct descendants of enslaved Africans within the boundaries of the present United States...
and
LatinoThe demonyms Latino and Latina , are defined in English language dictionaries as:* "a person of Latin-American descent."* "A Latin American."* "A person of Hispanic, especially Latin-American, descent, often one living in the United States."...
residents comprise over 68% of the total. Native Americans make up 38% of the population.
Robeson County was formed in 1787 from part of Bladen County. It was named in honor of Col. Thomas Robeson of
Tar Heel, North CarolinaTar Heel is a town located in Bladen County, North Carolina, in the United States. As of the 2000 census, the town population was 70.Tar Heel is home to the largest pork processing plant in the world which opened in 1992, operated by Smithfield Foods and is located just north of the Town...
, a hero of the
Revolutionary WarThe American Revolutionary War , the American War of Independence, or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers.The war was the result of the...
. In 1781, Robeson and 70
PatriotsPatriots is a name often used to describe the colonists of the British Thirteen United Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution. It was their leading figures who, in July 1776, declared the United States of America an independent nation...
defeated an army of 400
LoyalistsLoyalists were American colonists who remained loyal to the Kingdom of Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War. At the time they were often called Tories, Royalists, or King's Men. They were opposed by the Patriots, those who supported the revolution...
at the Battle of Elizabethtown.
LumbertonLumberton is a city in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 20,795 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Robeson County. Lumberton, located in southern North Carolina's Inner Banks region, is located on the Lumber River...
is the
county seatA county seat is an administrative center, or seat of government, for a county or civil parish. The term is primarily used in the United States....
. The
University of North Carolina at PembrokeThe University of North Carolina at Pembroke , also known as UNC Pembroke, is a public, co-educational, historically American Indian liberal arts university in the town of Pembroke in Robeson County, North Carolina....
, a historically Native American college, is located in the county.
Geography
Robeson County is bordered by the state of
South CarolinaSouth Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...
, and the
North CarolinaNorth Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
counties of
Bladen-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 32,278 people, 12,897 households, and 8,937 families residing in the county. The population density was 37 people per square mile . There were 15,316 housing units at an average density of 18 per square mile...
,
Columbus-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 54,749 people, 21,308 households, and 15,043 families residing in the county. The population density was 58/sq mi . As of 2004, there were 24,668 housing units at an average density of 26/sq mi...
,
Cumberland-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 302,963 people, 107,358 households, and 77,619 families residing in the county. The population density was 464 people per square mile . There were 118,425 housing units at an average density of 181 per square mile...
,
Hoke-Demographics:As of the census of 2010, there were 46,952 people, 11,373 households, and 8,745 families residing in the county. The population density was 86 people per square mile . There were 12,518 housing units at an average density of 32 per square mile...
, and
Scotland-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 35,998 people, 13,399 households, and 9,674 families residing in the county. The population density was 113 people per square mile . There were 14,693 housing units at an average density of 46 per square mile...
.
According to the
U.S. Census BureauThe United States Census Bureau is the government agency that is responsible for the United States Census. It also gathers other national demographic and economic data...
, the county has a total area of 951 square miles (2,463 km²), making it the largest in
North CarolinaNorth Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
. 949 square miles (2,457 km²) of it is land and 2 square miles (6 km²) of it (0.23%) is water. Thus, the topography is mostly level to undulating
coastal plainA coastal plain is an area of flat, low-lying land adjacent to a seacoast and separated from the interior by other features. One of the world's longest coastal plains is located in eastern South America. The southwestern coastal plain of North America is notable for its species diversity...
, largely made up of
sandhillsSandhills could be:* SandhillUSA*Sand Hills , Coconino County, Arizona*Sand Hills , Yuba County, California*Sandhills , a region in North and South Carolina*Sand Hills , Bonneville County, Idaho...
and coastal dunes with elevations above mean sea level that vary from 60 feet in the extreme southeastern portion of the county to 250 feet in the north, to the west of
Parkton, North CarolinaParkton is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, in the Lumberton metro area, in the United States. The town was named because it was a place where farmers tied up their horses while waiting for the train...
. Moreover, numerous swamps that generally flow in a northwest to southeast course, characterize the area and eventually drain into the
Lumber RiverThe Lumber River is a river in south-central North Carolina in the flat Coastal Plain. European settlers first called the river Drowning Creek, which still is the name of its headwater. The waterway known as the Lumber River extends downstream from the Scotland County-Hoke County border to the...
. The highest density of swamps is in that part of the county that is most populated by the
LumbeeThe Lumbee belong to a state recognized Native American tribe in North Carolina. The Lumbee are concentrated in Robeson County and named for the primary waterway traversing the county...
Indian Tribe, recognized by the state of
North CarolinaNorth Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
.
Demographics
As of the
censusA census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population. The term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common...
of 2010, there were 134,168 people. In 2000 there were 43,677 households, and 32,015 families residing in the county. The
population densityPopulation density is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and particularly to humans...
was 130 people per square mile (50/km²). There were 47,779 housing units at an average density of 50 per square mile (19/km²).
As of 2000, the racial makeup of the county was:
- 38.02% Native American
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
- 32.80% White
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
- 25.11% Black
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
or African-AmericanRace and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
- 4.86% Hispanic
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
or LatinoRace and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
of any race
- 0.33% Asian
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
- 0.06% Pacific Islander
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
- 2.26% from other races
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
- 1.41% from two or more races
In 2005 29.1% of the county population was non-Hispanic whites. 38.5% of the population identified as Native American, mostly
LumbeeThe Lumbee belong to a state recognized Native American tribe in North Carolina. The Lumbee are concentrated in Robeson County and named for the primary waterway traversing the county...
. 24.3% of the population was African American. 7.4% of the population was Latino.
Native Americans
The
LumbeeThe Lumbee belong to a state recognized Native American tribe in North Carolina. The Lumbee are concentrated in Robeson County and named for the primary waterway traversing the county...
Indian Tribe of North Carolina comprises more than one-half the state of
North CarolinaNorth Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
's indigenous population of 101,000. With a population of 58,443, reflecting a 34.5% increase from the 1980 population of 43,465 members, the Lumbee reside primarily in Robeson,
Hoke-Demographics:As of the census of 2010, there were 46,952 people, 11,373 households, and 8,745 families residing in the county. The population density was 86 people per square mile . There were 12,518 housing units at an average density of 32 per square mile...
,
Cumberland-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 302,963 people, 107,358 households, and 77,619 families residing in the county. The population density was 464 people per square mile . There were 118,425 housing units at an average density of 181 per square mile...
, and
Scotland-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 35,998 people, 13,399 households, and 9,674 families residing in the county. The population density was 113 people per square mile . There were 14,693 housing units at an average density of 46 per square mile...
counties. In Robeson County, Native Americans number 46,869 out of a total county population of 123,339. Most identify as Lumbee, and Native Americans make up 38.02%, comprising the largest racial/ethnic group in the county.
The Lumbee are the largest tribal nation east of the
Mississippi RiverThe Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. Flowing entirely in the United States, this river rises in western Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains...
, and the ninth largest tribal nation in the United States. They are the largest non-reservation tribe of
Native Americans in the United StatesNative Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
. Several majority-Lumbee communities are located within Robeson County.
Households
There were 43,677 households out of which 37.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.60% were married couples living together, 20.60% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.70% were non-families. 22.70% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.20.
In the county the population was spread out with 29.00% under the age of 18, 10.60% from 18 to 24, 29.30% from 25 to 44, 21.10% from 45 to 64, and 10.00% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females there were 94.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.20 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $28,202, and the median income for a family was $32,514. Males had a median income of $26,646 versus $20,599 for females. The
per capita incomePer capita income or income per person is a measure of mean income within an economic aggregate, such as a country or city. It is calculated by taking a measure of all sources of income in the aggregate and dividing it by the total population...
for the county was $13,224. About 19.60% of families and 28.20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30.00% of those under age 18 and 25.30% of those age 65 or over. It is ranked as North Carolina's poorest county. Industrial, technological and professional jobs are lacking in the area.
History
Archaeological excavation performed in Robeson County reveals widespread, continuous occupation of the region by various cultures of
indigenous peoplesIndigenous peoples are ethnic groups that are defined as indigenous according to one of the various definitions of the term, there is no universally accepted definition but most of which carry connotations of being the "original inhabitants" of a territory....
since the end of the last
Ice AgeAn ice age or, more precisely, glacial age, is a generic geological period of long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers...
. They had camps and settlements near the
Lumber RiverThe Lumber River is a river in south-central North Carolina in the flat Coastal Plain. European settlers first called the river Drowning Creek, which still is the name of its headwater. The waterway known as the Lumber River extends downstream from the Scotland County-Hoke County border to the...
for its water, transportation, fish and related wildife resources. Local excavations reveal that
Native AmericanNative Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
peoples made stone tools, using materials brought to present-day Robeson County from the Carolina Piedmont. The large amounts of ancient pottery found at some Robeson County sites have been dated to the early Archaic
Woodland periodThe Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures was from roughly 1000 BCE to 1000 CE in the eastern part of North America. The term "Woodland Period" was introduced in the 1930s as a generic header for prehistoric sites falling between the Archaic hunter-gatherers and the...
. Materials show that local settlements were part of an extensive Native American
tradeTrade is the transfer of ownership of goods and services from one person or entity to another. Trade is sometimes loosely called commerce or financial transaction or barter. A network that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and...
network with other regions. Portions of the river basin show that Robeson County was a "zone of cultural interactions."
Swamps, streams, and artesian wells provided an excellent supply of water for Native peoples. Fish were plentiful, and the region's lush vegetation included numerous food crops. "Carolina bays" continue to dot the landscape. Numerous 10,000-year-old
Clovis pointClovis points are the characteristically-fluted projectile points associated with the North American Clovis culture. They date to the Paleoindian period around 13,500 years ago. Clovis fluted points are named after the city of Clovis, New Mexico, where examples were first found in 1929.At the right...
s found along their banks indicate indigenous peoples used these depressions as campsites.
After colonial contact, European-made items, such as kaolin tobacco pipes, were traded by the
SpanishSpain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
,
FrenchThe French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, and
EnglishEngland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
to
Native AmericanNative Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
peoples of the coastal region. The coastal peoples traded with those further inland. Remnants of European goods have been dated prior to permanent European settlements along the
Lumber RiverThe Lumber River is a river in south-central North Carolina in the flat Coastal Plain. European settlers first called the river Drowning Creek, which still is the name of its headwater. The waterway known as the Lumber River extends downstream from the Scotland County-Hoke County border to the...
.
Colonial era
Early written sources specific to the Robeson County region are few for the post-contact period of European colonization. In 1725, surveyors for the Wineau factory charted a village of
WaccamawThe Waccamaw Indians of South Carolina, distinct from the Waccamaw Siouan Indians of North Carolina, are the first state-recognized tribe of Native Americans in South Carolina...
Indians on the
Lumber RiverThe Lumber River is a river in south-central North Carolina in the flat Coastal Plain. European settlers first called the river Drowning Creek, which still is the name of its headwater. The waterway known as the Lumber River extends downstream from the Scotland County-Hoke County border to the...
, a few miles west of the present-day town of
PembrokePembroke is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 2,399, at the 2000 census, 89% of which is Native American...
. In 1754, North Carolina
GovernorA governor is a governing official, usually the executive of a non-sovereign level of government, ranking under the head of state...
Arthur DobbsArthur Dobbs was a wealthy landowner in North Carolina and served as colonial governor from 1754 to 1765.-Early life and career:...
received a report from his agent, Col. Rutherford, head of a Bladen County militia, that a "mixed crew" of 50 families were living along Drowning Creek. The communication also reported the shooting of a surveyor who entered the area "to view vacant lands." These are the first written accounts about the Native peoples from whom the
LumbeeThe Lumbee belong to a state recognized Native American tribe in North Carolina. The Lumbee are concentrated in Robeson County and named for the primary waterway traversing the county...
claim descent.
Bladen County encompassed a portion of what is today Robeson County. English colonials named the river "Drowning Creek". After the violent upheavals of the
Yamasee WarThe Yamasee War was a conflict between British settlers of colonial South Carolina and various Native American Indian tribes, including the Yamasee, Muscogee, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Catawba, Apalachee, Apalachicola, Yuchi, Savannah River Shawnee, Congaree, Waxhaw, Pee Dee, Cape Fear, Cheraw, and...
of 1715-1717, and the
Tuscarora WarThe Tuscarora War was fought in North Carolina during the autumn of 1711 until 11 February 1715 between the British, Dutch, and German settlers and the Tuscarora Native Americans. A treaty was signed in 1715....
of 1711-1715, families of
AlgonquianThe Algonquian are one of the most populous and widespread North American native language groups, with tribes originally numbering in the hundreds. Today hundreds of thousands of individuals identify with various Algonquian peoples...
WaccamawThe Waccamaw Indians of South Carolina, distinct from the Waccamaw Siouan Indians of North Carolina, are the first state-recognized tribe of Native Americans in South Carolina...
left South Carolina Colony in 1718. They may have established a village west of present-day
Pembroke, North CarolinaPembroke is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 2,399, at the 2000 census, 89% of which is Native American...
by 1725. The "mixed crew" that Rutherford observed in 1754 were located in the same locale as the earlier Waccamaw settlement.
Anthropologist
John R. SwantonJohn Reed Swanton was an American anthropologist and linguist who worked with Native American peoples throughout the United States. Swanton achieved recognition in the fields of ethnology and ethnohistory...
of the
Smithsonian InstitutionThe Smithsonian Institution is an educational and research institute and associated museum complex, administered and funded by the government of the United States and by funds from its endowment, contributions, and profits from its retail operations, concessions, licensing activities, and magazines...
tried to identify the origin of the people known as
CroatanThe Croatan were a small Native American group living in the coastal areas of what is now North Carolina. They may have been a branch of the larger Roanoke people or allied with them....
Indians before the 1950s (they have since identified as Lumbee). Swanton posited that the people were the descendants of Siouan-speaking peoples, of which the most prominent in the area were the
CherawThe Cheraw , were a tribe of Siouan-speaking Amerindians first encountered by Hernando De Soto in 1540. The name they called themselves is lost to history but the Cherokee called them Ani-suwa'ii and the Catawba Sara...
and Keyauwee. They were not his major area of study, however, and some of his findings have been superseded by more recent evidence. The descent from Cheraw peoples is part of the Lumbee oral tradition, as well as a basis of their campaign for federal recognition as a tribe. They suggest that Native American refugees of other tribes, such as Tuscarora, gathered in the Robeson County area and merged as a people in the early nineteenth century.
By the mid-eighteenth century, many migrants from Virginia entered the frontier area from Virginia. In the 1790-1810 censuses, descendants of these families were classified as both white (European American) and
free people of colorA free person of color in the context of the history of slavery in the Americas, is a person of full or partial African descent who was not enslaved...
, which could include people of African and Native American descent, as well as mixed-race descendants. They held few slaves. Late 20th-century researchers have traced 80 percent of the
free people of colorA free person of color in the context of the history of slavery in the Americas, is a person of full or partial African descent who was not enslaved...
in North Carolina listed in those early censuses to African Americans free in Virginia in colonial times. The families were mostly descended from white women (which is what gave them free status so early) and men who were African or
African AmericanAfrican Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have at least partial ancestry from any of the native populations of Sub-Saharan Africa and are the direct descendants of enslaved Africans within the boundaries of the present United States...
. In addition, some African male slaves had been freed in Virginia as early as the mid-17th century. They founded free families of several generations before migrating to other areas. In the early years of the southern colonies, working-class whites and Africans lived and worked closely together, marrying and forming unions. Many free people of color migrated to frontier areas to gain relief from the racial strictures of the coastal
plantationPlantations were an important aspect of the history of the American South, particularly the antebellum .-Planter :The owner of a plantation was called a planter...
areas.
Other settlers often called mixed-race people as Indian, Portuguese or Arab, in attempts to classify them. They sometimes self-identified as Indian as well, trying to escape from
racial segregationRacial segregation is the separation of humans into racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a public toilet, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home...
associated with African slaves. Some likely intermarried with remnants of Indian tribes who remained in the area. Names on early land deeds and other historic documents in Robeson County correspond to many of the families of free people of color, including ancestors of contemporary self-identified Lumbee. Settlements included
ProspectProspect is a census-designated place in Robeson County, North Carolina. The population was 690 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Prospect is located at ....
and Red Banks.
By the late eighteenth century, settlement patterns shifted. The name of the region's river was changed again. A lottery was used to dispose of lots with which to establish
LumbertonLumberton is a city in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 20,795 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Robeson County. Lumberton, located in southern North Carolina's Inner Banks region, is located on the Lumber River...
. The town was later incorporated in 1788, and John Willis proposed the name "Lumberton", after the important lumber and
naval storesNaval Stores is a broad term which originally applied to the resin-based components used in building and maintaining wooden sailing ships, a category which includes cordage, mask, turpentine, rosin, pitch and tar...
industry. This dominated the otherwise agricultural economy of Robeson County throughout the nineteenth century. Lumberton was located at a section known throughout that century as "Drowning Creek," still used for the headwater portions of the river. The first Robeson County courthouse was erected on land which formed a part of the "Red Bluff Plantation", owned by Lumberton founder John Willis. Robeson County's post office was established in 1794.
In 1809, the state legislature renamed Drowning Creek the
Lumber RiverThe Lumber River is a river in south-central North Carolina in the flat Coastal Plain. European settlers first called the river Drowning Creek, which still is the name of its headwater. The waterway known as the Lumber River extends downstream from the Scotland County-Hoke County border to the...
, after the area's major industry.
Nineteenth century
By the beginning of the
American Civil WarThe American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
, many remnant
Native AmericansNative Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
in the Upper South struggled to survive and their status continued to decline. Since 1790,
Native AmericansNative Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
in the southern states were enumerated as "free persons of color" on the local and federal census, included with African Americans. By 1835, in the wake of
Nat TurnerNathaniel "Nat" Turner was an American slave who led a slave rebellion in Virginia on August 21, 1831 that resulted in 60 white deaths and at least 100 black deaths, the largest number of fatalities to occur in one uprising prior to the American Civil War in the southern United States. He gathered...
's
Slave RebellionA slave rebellion is an armed uprising by slaves. Slave rebellions have occurred in nearly all societies that practice slavery, and are amongst the most feared events for slaveholders...
of 1831, North Carolina like other southern states reduced the rights of free people of color, including those identifying as Native Americans. Out of fear of slave rebellion aided by free blacks, the legislature withdrew the rights of free people of color to vote, serve on juries, own and use firearms, and learn to read and write. During the 1830s, the federal government forced
Indian RemovalIndian removal was a nineteenth century policy of the government of the United States to relocate Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river...
, relocating the
CherokeeThe Cherokee are a Native American people historically settled in the Southeastern United States . Linguistically, they are part of the Iroquoian language family...
and other major tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River. Native Americans who stayed in the Southeast tended to live in frontier and marginal areas to avoid white supervision.
Civil War
North Carolina seceded from the Union in 1861. A major
yellow feverYellow fever is an acute viral hemorrhagic disease. The virus is a 40 to 50 nm enveloped RNA virus with positive sense of the Flaviviridae family....
epidemic in 1862 killed 10 percent of the
Cape FearCape Fear is a coastal plain and tidewater region of North Carolina centered about the city of Wilmington. The region takes its name from the adjacent Cape Fear headland, as does the Cape Fear River which flows through the region and empties into the Atlantic Ocean near the cape...
region's population. Most white men of military age had either enlisted with the
ConfederacyThe Confederate States of America was a government set up from 1861 to 1865 by 11 Southern slave states of the United States of America that had declared their secession from the U.S...
or fled the region. The Confederate Army conscripted Indians and African-American slaves as workers to build a system of forts to defend
Fort FisherFort Fisher was a Confederate fort during the American Civil War. It protected the vital trading routes of the port at Wilmington, North Carolina, from 1861 until its capture by the Union in 1865....
, near
Wilmington, North CarolinaWilmington is a port city in and is the county seat of New Hanover County, North Carolina, United States. The population is 106,476 according to the 2010 Census, making it the eighth most populous city in the state of North Carolina...
. Such conscription affected the free people of color of Robeson County, too.
Late in the Civil War, General
William Tecumseh ShermanWilliam Tecumseh Sherman was an American soldier, businessman, educator and author. He served as a General in the Union Army during the American Civil War , for which he received recognition for his outstanding command of military strategy as well as criticism for the harshness of the "scorched...
and his army began to push their way toward Robeson County as they headed north. After hearing of the Union Army's burning of
Columbia, South CarolinaColumbia is the state capital and largest city in the U.S. state of South Carolina. The population was 129,272 according to the 2010 census. Columbia is the county seat of Richland County, but a portion of the city extends into neighboring Lexington County. The city is the center of a metropolitan...
on February 17, 1865, residents of Robeson County worried about the troops' advance. Washington Chaffin, a Methodist minister in
LumbertonLumberton is a city in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 20,795 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Robeson County. Lumberton, located in southern North Carolina's Inner Banks region, is located on the Lumber River...
speculated in his diary about how the county might be treated by Sherman and his
YankeeThe term Yankee has several interrelated and often pejorative meanings, usually referring to people originating in the northeastern United States, or still more narrowly New England, where application of the term is largely restricted to descendants of the English settlers of the region.The...
s. Chaffin noted that
Henry Berry LowrieHenry Berry Lowrie or "Lowry" led an outlaw gang in North Carolina during and after the American Civil War. He is sometimes viewed as a Robin Hood type figure, especially by the Lumbee and Tuscarora people, who consider him one of their tribe and a pioneer in the fight for their civil rights and...
and his gangwere "doing much mischief in this country." Lowrie's gang had "torn up and destroyed" white homesteads. In the late stages of the war, gangs and insurgents carried out private feuds.
Robeson County's home guard, which included county magistrates, clergymen, and lawyers, who mainly represented the interests of the
planter classPlantations were an important aspect of the history of the American South, particularly the antebellum .-Planter :The owner of a plantation was called a planter...
(large slaveholders were exempted from participation in the army), raided the farmstead of Allen Lowrie,
Henry Berry LowrieHenry Berry Lowrie or "Lowry" led an outlaw gang in North Carolina during and after the American Civil War. He is sometimes viewed as a Robin Hood type figure, especially by the Lumbee and Tuscarora people, who consider him one of their tribe and a pioneer in the fight for their civil rights and...
's father. In the confrontation, they killed Allen and another son William. Henry Lowrie swore revenge. Two days after Allen and William Lowrie's funeral, local Indian guides helped Sherman's army cross the Lumber River into North Carolina. According to Sherman, the trek across the Lumber River and through the
swampA swamp is a wetland with some flooding of large areas of land by shallow bodies of water. A swamp generally has a large number of hammocks, or dry-land protrusions, covered by aquatic vegetation, or vegetation that tolerates periodical inundation. The two main types of swamp are "true" or swamp...
s,
pocosinPocosin is a term for a type of palustrine wetland with deep, acidic, sandy, peat soils. Groundwater saturates the soil except during brief seasonal dry spells and during prolonged droughts...
s, and creeks of Robeson County "was the damnest marching I ever saw."
During the next seven years, Henry Lowrie led a group of free people of color, poor whites and blacks in one of many postwar
insurgentInsurgent, insurgents or insurgency can refer to:* The act of insurgency-Specific insurgencies:* Iraqi insurgency, uprising in Iraq* Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir, uprising in India* Insurgency in North-East India...
movements during years of social disruption. He campaigned against the white elite. His activities made him a folk hero to many of the poorer folk.
Twentieth century
Until late in the 20th century, Robeson County was a center of
Ku Klux KlanKu Klux Klan, often abbreviated KKK and informally known as the Klan, is the name of three distinct past and present far-right organizations in the United States, which have advocated extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically...
activity and support in
North CarolinaNorth Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
. On January 18, 1958, armed
LumbeeThe Lumbee belong to a state recognized Native American tribe in North Carolina. The Lumbee are concentrated in Robeson County and named for the primary waterway traversing the county...
Native AmericansNative Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
chased off an estimated 50 Klansmen and supporters led by grand wizard James W. "Catfish" Cole at the town of
MaxtonMaxton is a town in Robeson County and Scotland County Counties, North Carolina, in the United States. The population was 2,551 at the time of the 2000 U.S. Census.-History:...
in the
Battle of Hayes PondThe Battle of Hayes Pond refers to an armed confrontation between the Ku Klux Klan and Lumbee men near Maxton, North Carolina, on the night of January 18, 1958...
.
Law and government
Recently, the Robeson County Animal Shelter has been the focus of animal welfare activists, who allege that the shelter is not properly caring for animals in its care, not releasing homeless animals to qualified rescue organizations, and improperly utilizing heartstick euthanasia.
Robeson County is a member of the regional
Lumber River Council of GovernmentsThe Lumber River Council Of Governments is one of the 17 regional North Carolina Councils of Governments established by the North Carolina General Assembly for the purpose of regional planning and administration. Headquartered in Lumberton, North Carolina, it serves Richmond, Scotland, Hoke,...
.
Adjacent counties
- Cumberland County, North Carolina
-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 302,963 people, 107,358 households, and 77,619 families residing in the county. The population density was 464 people per square mile . There were 118,425 housing units at an average density of 181 per square mile...
- north-northeast
- Bladen County, North Carolina
-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 32,278 people, 12,897 households, and 8,937 families residing in the county. The population density was 37 people per square mile . There were 15,316 housing units at an average density of 18 per square mile...
- east
- Columbus County, North Carolina
-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 54,749 people, 21,308 households, and 15,043 families residing in the county. The population density was 58/sq mi . As of 2004, there were 24,668 housing units at an average density of 26/sq mi...
- southeast
- Horry County, South Carolina
Horry County is a county located in the U.S. state of South Carolina. This name honored Revolutionary War Hero, Peter Horry. Brigadier General Horry was born in South Carolina sometime around 1743 and started his distinguished military career in 1775 as one of 20 captains the Provincial Congress...
- south (quad-county border at Lumber River near Fair Bluff, Columbus CountyFair Bluff is a town in Columbus County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 1,181 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Fair Bluff is located at , along the banks of the Lumber River...
)
- Dillon County, South Carolina - southwest
- Marlboro County, South Carolina - west
- Scotland County, North Carolina
-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 35,998 people, 13,399 households, and 9,674 families residing in the county. The population density was 113 people per square mile . There were 14,693 housing units at an average density of 46 per square mile...
- northwest
- Hoke County, North Carolina
-Demographics:As of the census of 2010, there were 46,952 people, 11,373 households, and 8,745 families residing in the county. The population density was 86 people per square mile . There were 12,518 housing units at an average density of 32 per square mile...
- north-northwest
Municipalities and communities
Towns
- Fairmont
Fairmont is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 2,604 at the 2000 census.-History:Fairmont was originally founded on the site of the Ashpole Institute, a small private academy, and was chartered in 1899 as Ashpole, then Union City and lastly as Fairmont...
- Lumber Bridge
Lumber Bridge is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 118 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Lumber Bridge is located at ....
- Marietta
Marietta is a town located in Robeson County, North Carolina. As of the 2000 census, the town had a total population of 164.-Geography:Marietta is located at 34°22'6" North, 79°7'16" West ....
- Maxton
Maxton is a town in Robeson County and Scotland County Counties, North Carolina, in the United States. The population was 2,551 at the time of the 2000 U.S. Census.-History:...
- McDonald
McDonald is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 119 at the 2000 census.-Geography:McDonald is located at ....
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Orrum Orrum is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 79 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Orrum is located at .According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , all of it land....
ParktonParkton is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, in the Lumberton metro area, in the United States. The town was named because it was a place where farmers tied up their horses while waiting for the train...
PembrokePembroke is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 2,399, at the 2000 census, 89% of which is Native American...
ProctorvilleProctorville is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 133 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Proctorville is located at ....
RaynhamRaynham is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 67 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Raynham is located at ....
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Red Springs Red Springs is a town in Robeson and Hoke counties in the U.S. state of North Carolina. The population was 3,493 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Red Springs is located at ....
RennertRennert is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 283 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Rennert is located at ....
RowlandRowland is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 1,146 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Rowland is located at ....
St. PaulsSt. Pauls is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 2,137 at the 2000 census.-History:The town of St. Pauls was built up around St. Pauls Presbyterian Church which was built on land donated in 1799 by William Davis. St. Pauls grew slowly from a town of just the...
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Townships
|
Bear Swamp
- Alfordsville
- Back Swamp
- Britts
- Burnt Swamp
- East Howellsville
- Fairmont
- Gaddy
- Lumber Bridge
- Lumberton
- Maxton
|
Orrum
Parkton
Pembroke
Philadelphus
Raft Swamp
Raynham
Red Springs
Rennert
Rowland
Saddletree |
Shannon
Smiths
Smyrna
St. Pauls
Sterlings
Thompson
Union
West Howellsville
Whitehouse
Wishart |
Census-designated places
- Barker Ten Mile
Barker Ten Mile is a census-designated place in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 976 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Barker Ten Mile is located at ....
- Elrod
Elrod is a census-designated place in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 441 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Elrod is located at ....
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Prospect Prospect is a census-designated place in Robeson County, North Carolina. The population was 690 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Prospect is located at ....
RaemonRaemon is a census-designated place in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 212 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Raemon is located at ....
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Rex Rex is a census-designated place in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 55 at the 2000 census. And ranked 4th on the list of the highest-income places in the United States.-Geography:...
ShannonShannon is a census-designated place in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 197 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Shannon is located at ....
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Notable people
- John Beard, a former Los Angeles television news anchor grew up in St. Pauls
St. Pauls is a town in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 2,137 at the 2000 census.-History:The town of St. Pauls was built up around St. Pauls Presbyterian Church which was built on land donated in 1799 by William Davis. St. Pauls grew slowly from a town of just the...
.
- Chris Chavis
Christopher "Chris" Chavis , is a Native American professional wrestler best known for his work with World Wrestling Entertainment as Tatanka from 1991 to 1996 and from 2005 to 2007...
is a professional wrestler better known as, "Tatanka" and "The War Eagle", and is a member of the World Wrestling EntertainmentWorld Wrestling Entertainment, Inc. is an American publicly traded, privately controlled entertainment company dealing primarily in professional wrestling, with major revenue sources also coming from film, music, product licensing, and direct product sales...
(WWE).
- Carmen Hart
Carmen Hart is an American pornographic actress from North Carolina.She grew up in a Christian home, but she says that her family was not very strict. At fifteen, she lost her virginity...
- porn star
- Ron Jones (stage name Stacy Layne Matthews), drag queen
A drag queen is a man who dresses, and usually acts, like a caricature woman often for the purpose of entertaining. There are many kinds of drag artists and they vary greatly, from professionals who have starred in films to people who just try it once. Drag queens also vary by class and culture and...
and reality show personality from Back Swamp, contestant in RuPaul's Drag RaceRuPaul's Drag Race is an American reality television series produced by World of Wonder for Logo. RuPaul plays host, mentor and inspiration for this series, which details RuPaul's search for "America's next drag superstar."...
season three.
- Vonta Leach
Terzell Vonta Leach is an American football fullback for the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League. He was signed by the Green Bay Packers as an undrafted free agent in 2004...
, born in Lumberton, is a footballAmerican football is a sport played between two teams of eleven with the objective of scoring points by advancing the ball into the opposing team's end zone. Known in the United States simply as football, it may also be referred to informally as gridiron football. The ball can be advanced by...
player and currently a fullbackA fullback is a position in the offensive backfield in American and Canadian football, and is one of the two running back positions along with the halfback...
in the NFLThe National Football League is the highest level of professional American football in the United States, and is considered the top professional American football league in the world. It was formed by eleven teams in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association, with the league changing...
for the Houston TexansThe Houston Texans are a professional American football team based in Houston, Texas. The team is currently a member of the Southern Division of the American Football Conference in the National Football League...
.
- Drew Levinson is a CBS news
CBS News is the news division of American television and radio network CBS. The current chairman is Jeff Fager who is also the executive producer of 60 Minutes, while the current president of CBS News is David Rhodes. CBS News' flagship program is the CBS Evening News, hosted by the network's main...
correspondent.
- Sean Locklear
Sean Hillary "Cornbread" Locklear is an American football offensive tackle for the Washington Redskins of the National Football League. He was originally drafted by the Seattle Seahawks in the third round of the 2004 NFL Draft. He played college football at North Carolina State.-Early...
, born in LumbertonLumberton is a city in Robeson County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 20,795 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Robeson County. Lumberton, located in southern North Carolina's Inner Banks region, is located on the Lumber River...
, is the starting offensive lineman for the Seattle SeahawksThe Seattle Seahawks are a professional American football team based in Seattle, Washington. They are currently members of the Western Division of the National Football Conference in the National Football League . The team joined the NFL in 1976 as an expansion team...
of the NFLThe National Football League is the highest level of professional American football in the United States, and is considered the top professional American football league in the world. It was formed by eleven teams in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association, with the league changing...
.
- Henry Berry Lowrie
Henry Berry Lowrie or "Lowry" led an outlaw gang in North Carolina during and after the American Civil War. He is sometimes viewed as a Robin Hood type figure, especially by the Lumbee and Tuscarora people, who consider him one of their tribe and a pioneer in the fight for their civil rights and...
, an Indian and cultural hero of the LumbeeThe Lumbee belong to a state recognized Native American tribe in North Carolina. The Lumbee are concentrated in Robeson County and named for the primary waterway traversing the county...
and Tuscarora Indian Tribes of North CarolinaNorth Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
was a pioneer in the fight for the rights of Indians and the civil rightsCivil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' freedom from unwarranted infringement by governments and private organizations, and ensure one's ability to participate in the civil and political life of the state without discrimination or repression.Civil rights include...
of African Americans during the American Civil WarThe American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
and Reconstruction.
- Mike McIntyre
Douglas Carmichael "Mike" McIntyre II is the U.S. Representative for , serving since 1997. He is a member of the Democratic Party....
represents North Carolina's 7th Congressional district in the United States House of RepresentativesThe United States House of Representatives is one of the two Houses of the United States Congress, the bicameral legislature which also includes the Senate.The composition and powers of the House are established in Article One of the Constitution...
.
- Angus McLean
Angus Wilton McLean was a lawyer and banker who was the 56th Governor of the U.S. state of North Carolina from 1925 to 1929...
- Governor of North CarolinaThe Governor of North Carolina is the chief executive of the State of North Carolina, one of the U.S. states. The current governor is Bev Perdue, North Carolina's first female governor.-Powers:...
1924-1928
- Malcom McLean
Malcom Purcell McLean , born in Maxton, North Carolina, was an American entrepreneur, often called "the father of containerization"...
, entrepreneur from MaxtonMaxton is a town in Robeson County and Scotland County Counties, North Carolina, in the United States. The population was 2,551 at the time of the 2000 U.S. Census.-History:...
, often called "the father of containerizationContainerization is a system of freight transport based on a range of steel intermodal containers...
".
- Joseph Mitchell
Joseph Mitchell was an American writer best known for the work he published in The New Yorker. He is known for his carefully written portraits of eccentrics and people on the fringes of society, especially in and around New York City.Mitchell was born on his maternal grandparents' farm near...
, journalist for The New YorkerThe New Yorker is an American magazine of reportage, commentary, criticism, essays, fiction, satire, cartoons and poetry published by Condé Nast...
.
- Kelvin Sampson
Kelvin Sampson is an assistant coach of the Houston Rockets of the National Basketball Association. He previously was a men's college basketball coach at Montana Tech , Washington State University , the University of Oklahoma and Indiana University .-Early life and coaching:Sampson was born in the...
, former men's basketball coach of the Indiana HoosiersThe Indiana Hoosiers are the athletic teams for the Bloomington campus of Indiana University . Athletic teams sponsored by IU Bloomington include cross country, track, baseball, golf, tennis, rowing, volleyball, soccer, football and basketball...
at Indiana University. He previously held the same position at Montana Tech (1981–86), Washington State UniversityWashington State University is a public research university based in Pullman, Washington, in the Palouse region of the Pacific Northwest. Founded in 1890, WSU is the state's original and largest land-grant university...
(1988–94) and the University of OklahomaThe University of Oklahoma is a coeducational public research university located in Norman, Oklahoma. Founded in 1890, it existed in Oklahoma Territory near Indian Territory for 17 years before the two became the state of Oklahoma. the university had 29,931 students enrolled, most located at its...
(1994–2006).
- Afeni Shakur
Afeni Shakur Davis is an African American music businesswoman, philanthropist, former political activist and ex-Black Panther. She is the mother of the late Tupac Shakur...
is the mother of the deceased rapper Tupac ShakurTupac Amaru Shakur , known by his stage names 2Pac and Makaveli, was an American rapper and actor. Shakur has sold over 75 million albums worldwide as of 2007, making him one of the best-selling music artists in the world...
, and was an early member of the Black Panther PartyThe Black Panther Party wasan African-American revolutionary leftist organization. It was active in the United States from 1966 until 1982....
.
See also
Sources
- Chaffin, Washington Sandford. "February 25 - March 1, 1865", in Diary. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Archives.
- Evans, William McKee. To Die Game: The Story of the Lowry Band: Indian Guerillas of Reconstruction. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971.
- Glatthaar, Joseph T. The March to the Sea and Beyond: Sherman's Troops in the Savannah and Carolinas Campaigns. New York: New York University Press, 1985.
- Gorman, John C. "Recollections." Thomas A. Norment affidavit, December 8, 1865. Superior Court of North Carolina Records: Criminal action papers concerning Henry Berry Lowry, Robeson County, 1862-1865.
- Gragg, Rod. Confederate Goliath: The Battle of Fort Fisher. New York: Harper Collins, 1991.
- Hauptman, Lawrence M. "River Pilots and Swamp Guerillas: Pamunkee and Lumbee Unionists." In Between Two Fires: American Indians in the Civil War. New York: Free Press, 1995.
- McKinnon, Henry A. Jr. Historical Sketches of Robeson County. N.P.: Historic Robeson, Inc., 2001.
- "North Carolina: Indian raid." Newsweek 51 (27 Jan. 1958): 27.
- Swanton, John R. "Probable Identity of the 'Croatan' Indians." [National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. MS 4126].
- Taukchiray, Wesley D., "American Indian References in the South Carolina Gazette and Country Journal, Royal South Carolina Gazette, South Carolina Gazette and Public Advertiser, and State Gazette of South Carolina, 1766–1792", South Carolina Historical Magazine 100 (Oct. 1999), pp. 319–27.
- U.S. Bureau of the Census. The First Census of the U.S.: 1790. Heads of Families at the First Census of the United States: North Carolina. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1908.
- U.S. Bureau of the Census. We the People: http://www.census.gov/main/www/cen2000.html
- William McKee Evans, "To Die Game: The Story of the Lowry Band, Indian Guerrillas of Reconstruction", Syracuse University Press, 1995
- Adolph L. Dial, David K. Eliades, "The Only Land I Know: A History of the Lumbee Indians", Syracuse University Press, 1996
- Karen I. Blu, "The Lumbee Problem: The Making of an American Indian", University of Nebraska Press, 2001
- E. Stanly Godbold, Jr. and Mattie U. Russell, "Confederate Colonel And Cherokee Chief: The Life Of William Holland Thomas", University of Tennessee Press, 1990
External links