Occupation of Mongolia
Encyclopedia
The Occupation of Mongolia (later expanded to include Tuva
) by the Beiyang Government
of the Republic of China
began in October 1919 and lasted until early 1921, when Chinese troops in Urga were routed by Baron Ungern's White Russian
and Mongolian forces, who, in turn, were defeated by the Red Army and its Mongolian allies by June, 1921. Although the Beiyang Government abolished the autonomy
of the Bogd Khaanate of Mongolia
, it could not secure its claim over Mongolia for much long afterwards.
took advantage of the Xinhai Revolution
to declare independence from the Qing Dynasty
. The political system of new Mongolia was an absolute theocratic monarchy led by Bogd Khan
. However, the newly-founded Republic of China
considered Mongolia as part of its territory. In the 1915 tripartite Kyakhta agreement, Russia
, which had strategic interests in Mongolian independence, but did not want to completely alienate China; the Republic of China and Mongolia agreed that Mongolia was autonomous under Chinese suzerainty
. However, in the following years Russian influence in Asia waned due to the First World War and, later, the October Revolution
. From 1918 on, Mongolia was threatened by the Russian Civil War
, and in summer 1918 asked for Chinese military assistance, which lead to the deployment of a small force to Urga. Meanwhile, the Mongolian nobility had become more and more dissatisfied with their marginalization on the hands of the theocratic government, and, also provoked by the threat of the Outer Mongolia's independence from the pan-Mongolist movement in Siberia, by 1919, were ready to accept a return to the old Qing system, i.e. to be governed by Beijing
, if that meant the restoration of their old privileges.
. When Duan engineered China's entry into the First World War he took out several large loans from the Japanese government including the Nishihara Loans
. He used the money to create the War Participation Army ostensibly to battle the Central Powers
. His rivals knew the purpose of this army was to crush internal dissent. It existed outside of the Ministry of the Army and was controlled by the War Participation Bureau which the premier led. The Bureau was staffed entirely by Duan's Anhui clique
. President Feng Guozhang
, Duan's rival, had no control despite constitutionally being commander-in-chief. When the war ended without a soldier stepping foot abroad, his critics demanded the disbanding of the War Participation Army. Duan had to find a new purpose for his army. Mongolia was chosen for several reasons:
. They announced the expedition was at the invitation of several Mongolian princes to protect Mongolia from Bolshevik
incursions. It was supposed to begin in July 1919, but the train broke down. In October, Xu led a spearhead group of 4000 that quickly captured Urga
without resistance. Another 10,000 troops followed to occupy the rest of the country. The successful invasion was met with acclaim throughout China, even by Sun Yat-sen
's rival southern government.
In February 1920, Xu presided over a very humiliating ceremony in which Bogd Khan and other leaders were forced to kowtow
before him and the Five Races Under One Union
flag. This event marked the beginning of active resistance against Chinese rule which coalesced into the Mongolian People's Party.
Domestic politics in China soon changed the situation dramatically. The invasion had caused alarm for Zhang Zuolin
, the powerful warlord of Manchuria
, who was upset that such a large army was moved so close to his territory. He joined the chorus of critics such as Cao Kun
and Wu Peifu
calling for the removal of the Anhui clique. In July, they forced President Xu Shichang to remove Xu Shuzheng from his position. In response, Xu Shuzheng moved the bulk of his forces to confront his enemies in China. Both he and Duan Qirui were defeated in the ensuing Zhili-Anhui War
. This left only a few Chinese troops in Mongolia.
In October, the White Russian
Baron R.F. von Ungern-Sternberg
swept into Mongolia from the north and fought many battles with the Chinese garrison stationed in Urga before capturing it on February 1921. There he defeated the Chinese forces and restored Bogd Khan as a monarch. At around the same time, the MPP engaged in its first battle against Chinese troops. A joint MPP-Red Army
expedition led by Soviet Red commanders and Damdin Sükhbaatar defeated the Baron in August. Tensions leading up to the First Zhili-Fengtian War
and the apparent victory of the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War led to the end of China's involvement.
, and would probably not have happened if there were no occupation. After a brief period of constitutional monarchy
, the Mongolian People's Republic was established in 1924 which would last until 1992.
For China, the occupation indirectly led to the permanent breakup of the Beiyang Army
and the fall of strongman Duan Qirui. This marked the period of high warlordism
as the former officers of Yuan Shikai
battled each other for many years to come. Many White Russian guerrilas became mercenaries in China after the occupation. Along with the Siberian Intervention
, it was the only foreign military expedition carried out by the Beiyang government. In 2002, however, the Republic of China
, which is now a small island country, announced that it was administratively recognizing Mongolia as an independent country, even though no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia.
Tuva
The Tyva Republic , or Tuva , is a federal subject of Russia . It lies in the geographical center of Asia, in southern Siberia. The republic borders with the Altai Republic, the Republic of Khakassia, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Irkutsk Oblast, and the Republic of Buryatia in Russia and with Mongolia to the...
) by the Beiyang Government
Beiyang Government
The Beiyang government or warlord government collectively refers to a series of military regimes that ruled from Beijing from 1912 to 1928 at Zhongnanhai. It was internationally recognized as the legitimate Government of the Republic of China. The name comes from the Beiyang Army which dominated...
of the Republic of China
Republic of China (1912–1949)
In 1911, after over two thousand years of imperial rule, a republic was established in China and the monarchy overthrown by a group of revolutionaries. The Qing Dynasty, having just experienced a century of instability, suffered from both internal rebellion and foreign imperialism...
began in October 1919 and lasted until early 1921, when Chinese troops in Urga were routed by Baron Ungern's White Russian
White movement
The White movement and its military arm the White Army - known as the White Guard or the Whites - was a loose confederation of Anti-Communist forces.The movement comprised one of the politico-military Russian forces who fought...
and Mongolian forces, who, in turn, were defeated by the Red Army and its Mongolian allies by June, 1921. Although the Beiyang Government abolished the autonomy
Autonomy
Autonomy is a concept found in moral, political and bioethical philosophy. Within these contexts, it is the capacity of a rational individual to make an informed, un-coerced decision...
of the Bogd Khaanate of Mongolia
Outer Mongolia, 1911-1919
On December 29, 1911 the Khalkhas of Outer Mongolia declared their independence from the Qing Dynasty, and installed a theocratic leader, the 8th Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, as Bogd Khaan or "Holy Ruler". This ushered in the period of the Bogd Khaanate or Theocratic Mongolia.Three historical currents...
, it could not secure its claim over Mongolia for much long afterwards.
Background
In December 1911, Outer MongoliaOuter Mongolia
Outer Mongolia was a territory of the Qing Dynasty = the Manchu Empire. Its area was roughly equivalent to that of the modern state of Mongolia, which is sometimes informally called "Outer Mongolia" today...
took advantage of the Xinhai Revolution
Xinhai Revolution
The Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution, also known as Revolution of 1911 or the Chinese Revolution, was a revolution that overthrew China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing , and established the Republic of China...
to declare independence from the Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
. The political system of new Mongolia was an absolute theocratic monarchy led by Bogd Khan
Bogd Khan
The Bogd Khan was enthroned as the Great Khaan of Mongolia on 29 December 1911, when Outer Mongolia declared independence from the Qing Dynasty after the Xinhai Revolution. He was born in the Kham region of eastern Tibet, today's Sichuan province of the People's Republic of China...
. However, the newly-founded Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
considered Mongolia as part of its territory. In the 1915 tripartite Kyakhta agreement, Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, which had strategic interests in Mongolian independence, but did not want to completely alienate China; the Republic of China and Mongolia agreed that Mongolia was autonomous under Chinese suzerainty
Suzerainty
Suzerainty occurs where a region or people is a tributary to a more powerful entity which controls its foreign affairs while allowing the tributary vassal state some limited domestic autonomy. The dominant entity in the suzerainty relationship, or the more powerful entity itself, is called a...
. However, in the following years Russian influence in Asia waned due to the First World War and, later, the October Revolution
October Revolution
The October Revolution , also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution , Red October, the October Uprising or the Bolshevik Revolution, was a political revolution and a part of the Russian Revolution of 1917...
. From 1918 on, Mongolia was threatened by the Russian Civil War
Russian Civil War
The Russian Civil War was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed to the Soviets, under the domination of the Bolshevik party. Soviet forces first assumed power in Petrograd The Russian Civil War (1917–1923) was a...
, and in summer 1918 asked for Chinese military assistance, which lead to the deployment of a small force to Urga. Meanwhile, the Mongolian nobility had become more and more dissatisfied with their marginalization on the hands of the theocratic government, and, also provoked by the threat of the Outer Mongolia's independence from the pan-Mongolist movement in Siberia, by 1919, were ready to accept a return to the old Qing system, i.e. to be governed by Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
, if that meant the restoration of their old privileges.
Causes
The invasion of Mongolia was the brainchild of Premier Duan QiruiDuan Qirui
Duan Qirui was a Chinese warlord and politician, commander in the Beiyang Army, and the Provisional Chief Executive of Republic of China from November 24, 1924 to April 20, 1926. He was arguably the most powerful man in China from 1916 to 1920.- Early life :Born in Hefei as Duan Qirui , his...
. When Duan engineered China's entry into the First World War he took out several large loans from the Japanese government including the Nishihara Loans
Nishihara Loans
The ' were a series of loans made by the Japanese government under the administration of Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake to the Anhui clique warlord Duan Qirui from January 1917 to September 1918, in exchange for territorial concessions and rights in northern China.In January 1917, Prime Minister...
. He used the money to create the War Participation Army ostensibly to battle the Central Powers
Central Powers
The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...
. His rivals knew the purpose of this army was to crush internal dissent. It existed outside of the Ministry of the Army and was controlled by the War Participation Bureau which the premier led. The Bureau was staffed entirely by Duan's Anhui clique
Anhui clique
The Anhui clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's Warlord era. It was named after Anhui province because several of its generals including its founder, Duan Qirui, was born in Anhui...
. President Feng Guozhang
Feng Guozhang
Féng Guózhāng, was a key Beiyang Army general and politician in early republican China. He held the office of Vice-President and then President of the Republic of China...
, Duan's rival, had no control despite constitutionally being commander-in-chief. When the war ended without a soldier stepping foot abroad, his critics demanded the disbanding of the War Participation Army. Duan had to find a new purpose for his army. Mongolia was chosen for several reasons:
-
- Duan's envoys to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference were unable to prevent the German concession ShandongShandong ProblemThe Shantung Problem refers to the dispute over Article 156 of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which dealt with the concession of the Shandong peninsula....
being transferred to Japan thereby causing the nationalist May Fourth MovementMay Fourth MovementThe May Fourth Movement was an anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement growing out of student demonstrations in Beijing on May 4, 1919, protesting the Chinese government's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, especially the Shandong Problem...
to target his policies. His reputation as a patriot was discredited. Reintegrating Mongolia would reverse that. - The Constitutional Protection War was fought to a bloody standstill in HunanHunan' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting...
. Using his army for another risky attempt to retake southern China from the rebels was undesirable. - The Russian Civil WarRussian Civil WarThe Russian Civil War was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed to the Soviets, under the domination of the Bolshevik party. Soviet forces first assumed power in Petrograd The Russian Civil War (1917–1923) was a...
left Mongolia without a foreign protector. An easy victory would boost Duan's stature. - Mongolia's long running prime ministerPrime Minister of MongoliaThe Prime Minister of Mongolia is the highest member of the Mongolian government's executive arm, and heads the Mongolian cabinet. The Prime Minister is appointed by Parliament, and can be removed by a vote of no confidence.-Powers:...
, Tögs-Ochiryn Namnansüren, died in April 1919 leaving the country's ruling elite deeply divided over a successor. Some of Mongolia's princes as well as the ethnic HanHan ChineseHan Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
community longed reunification.
- Duan's envoys to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference were unable to prevent the German concession Shandong
Invasion
The War Participation Army was renamed the Northwestern Frontier Army. Duan gave control of it to his right-hand, Xu ShuzhengXu Shuzheng
Hsu Seu-Cheng or Xu Shuzheng , was a Chinese warlord in Republican China. A subordinate and right-hand man of Duan Qirui, he was a prominent member of the Anhui Clique....
. They announced the expedition was at the invitation of several Mongolian princes to protect Mongolia from Bolshevik
Bolshevik
The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists , derived from bol'shinstvo, "majority") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903....
incursions. It was supposed to begin in July 1919, but the train broke down. In October, Xu led a spearhead group of 4000 that quickly captured Urga
Urga
Urga may refer to:* Ulan Bator, the capital of the republic of Mongolia* Ürgə, a municipality in Azerbaijan* Urga aka Close to Eden, a film by Nikita Mikhalkov, 1992...
without resistance. Another 10,000 troops followed to occupy the rest of the country. The successful invasion was met with acclaim throughout China, even by Sun Yat-sen
Sun Yat-sen
Sun Yat-sen was a Chinese doctor, revolutionary and political leader. As the foremost pioneer of Nationalist China, Sun is frequently referred to as the "Father of the Nation" , a view agreed upon by both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China...
's rival southern government.
In February 1920, Xu presided over a very humiliating ceremony in which Bogd Khan and other leaders were forced to kowtow
Kowtow
Kowtow is the act of deep respect shown by kneeling and bowing so low as to have one's head touching the ground. An alternative Chinese term is ketou, however the meaning is somewhat altered: kòu originally meant "knock with reverence", whereas kē has the general meaning of "touch upon ".In Han...
before him and the Five Races Under One Union
Five Races Under One Union
Five races under one union was one of the major principles upon which the Republic of China was originally founded in 1911 at the time of the Xinhai Revolution.-Description:...
flag. This event marked the beginning of active resistance against Chinese rule which coalesced into the Mongolian People's Party.
Domestic politics in China soon changed the situation dramatically. The invasion had caused alarm for Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin was the warlord of Manchuria from 1916 to 1928 . He successfully invaded China proper in October 1924 in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War. He gained control of Peking, including China's internationally recognized government, in April 1926...
, the powerful warlord of Manchuria
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
, who was upset that such a large army was moved so close to his territory. He joined the chorus of critics such as Cao Kun
Cao Kun
|-...
and Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu or Wu P'ei-fu , was a major figure in the struggles between the warlords who dominated Republican China from 1916 to 1927.- Early career :...
calling for the removal of the Anhui clique. In July, they forced President Xu Shichang to remove Xu Shuzheng from his position. In response, Xu Shuzheng moved the bulk of his forces to confront his enemies in China. Both he and Duan Qirui were defeated in the ensuing Zhili-Anhui War
Zhili-Anhui War
The Zhili–Anhui War was a 1920 conflict in the Republic of China's Warlord Era between the Zhili clique and Anhui cliques for control of the Beiyang government.-Prelude:...
. This left only a few Chinese troops in Mongolia.
In October, the White Russian
White movement
The White movement and its military arm the White Army - known as the White Guard or the Whites - was a loose confederation of Anti-Communist forces.The movement comprised one of the politico-military Russian forces who fought...
Baron R.F. von Ungern-Sternberg
Roman Ungern von Sternberg
Baron Roman Nikolai Maximilian von Ungern-Sternberg was a Russian Yesaul , Lieutenant-general, and a hero of World War I...
swept into Mongolia from the north and fought many battles with the Chinese garrison stationed in Urga before capturing it on February 1921. There he defeated the Chinese forces and restored Bogd Khan as a monarch. At around the same time, the MPP engaged in its first battle against Chinese troops. A joint MPP-Red Army
Red Army
The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army started out as the Soviet Union's revolutionary communist combat groups during the Russian Civil War of 1918-1922. It grew into the national army of the Soviet Union. By the 1930s the Red Army was among the largest armies in history.The "Red Army" name refers to...
expedition led by Soviet Red commanders and Damdin Sükhbaatar defeated the Baron in August. Tensions leading up to the First Zhili-Fengtian War
First Zhili-Fengtian War
The First Zhili–Fengtian War was a 1922 conflict in the Republic of China's Warlord Era between the Zhili and Fengtian cliques for control of Beijing. The war led to the defeat of the Fengtian clique and the fall of its leader, Zhang Zuolin, from the coalition Zhili-Fengtian government in Beijing...
and the apparent victory of the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War led to the end of China's involvement.
Results
This was the last foreign occupation in Mongolian history. A communism-orientated state such as Mongolia was unexpected in orthodox MarxismMarxism
Marxism is an economic and sociopolitical worldview and method of socioeconomic inquiry that centers upon a materialist interpretation of history, a dialectical view of social change, and an analysis and critique of the development of capitalism. Marxism was pioneered in the early to mid 19th...
, and would probably not have happened if there were no occupation. After a brief period of constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the parameters of a constitution, whether it be a written, uncodified or blended constitution...
, the Mongolian People's Republic was established in 1924 which would last until 1992.
For China, the occupation indirectly led to the permanent breakup of the Beiyang Army
Beiyang Army
The Beiyang Army was a powerful, Western-style Chinese military force created by the Qing Dynasty government in the late 19th century. It was the centerpiece of a general reconstruction of China's military system. The Beiyang Army played a major role in Chinese politics for at least three decades...
and the fall of strongman Duan Qirui. This marked the period of high warlordism
Warlord era
The Chinese Warlord Era was the period in the history of the Republic of China, from 1916 to 1928, when the country was divided among military cliques, a division that continued until the fall of the Nationalist government in the mainland China regions of Sichuan, Shanxi, Qinghai, Ningxia,...
as the former officers of Yuan Shikai
Yuan Shikai
Yuan Shikai was an important Chinese general and politician famous for his influence during the late Qing Dynasty, his role in the events leading up to the abdication of the last Qing Emperor of China, his autocratic rule as the second President of the Republic of China , and his short-lived...
battled each other for many years to come. Many White Russian guerrilas became mercenaries in China after the occupation. Along with the Siberian Intervention
Siberian Intervention
The ', or the Siberian Expedition, of 1918–1922 was the dispatch of troops of the Entente powers to the Russian Maritime Provinces as part of a larger effort by the western powers and Japan to support White Russian forces against the Bolshevik Red Army during the Russian Civil War...
, it was the only foreign military expedition carried out by the Beiyang government. In 2002, however, the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
, which is now a small island country, announced that it was administratively recognizing Mongolia as an independent country, even though no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia.