History of the Kurdistan Workers Party
Encyclopedia
The history of the Kurdistan Workers' Party
(PKK recognized as a terrorist organization by U.N., U.S. and Turkey
) began in 1974 as a Marxist-Leninist organization under the leadership of Abdullah Öcalan
. In 1978 the organization adapted the name "Kurdistan Workers Party" and waged Urban War
between 1978-1980. The organization restructured itself and moved the organization structure to Syria between 1980-1984 just after the 1980 Turkish coup d'état. The campaign of armed violence began in 1984. The rural-based insurgency
lasted between 1984-1992. The PKK shifted its activities to include urban terrorism between 1993–1995 and later 1996–1999. The leader of the party captured in Kenya in the early 1999. After a "self declared peace initiative of 1999," returned to active stage in February 2004. Since 1974, it had been able to evolve, adapt, gone through a metamorphosis, which became the main factor in its survival. It had gradually grown from a handful of political students to a radical organization became part of targets of War on Terrorism.
What made Apacus, later PKK, different was that it decided to move its activities from Ankara, capital city, to southern border towns of Turkey. Unlike most Kurdish political parties, which adopted a rather conservative outlook and were organized around tribal leaders and structures, they had fierce stance, strong convictions, and disciplined but decentralized organization which contributed to a steady rise and growing effectiveness Transferring to southern border towns with a radical left rhetoric gave this group initial resources during a time which Turkey had problems with the Syria and was a pawn in the proxy war
s of the Cold War
.
Although originally based in Ankara, Öcalan decided that there was a better base in south-east Turkey. Öcalan recognized that he can organize and build a secure base to perform activities by using the tribal system in the region. He focused on tribes that are not historically coexisting peacefully with the government. Thus, Öcalan focused much of his attention from 1976-78 to building a PKK structure in that region. It was a secret organization, but deciphered by Turkish Intelligence in 1977.
On May 18, 1977, Hakî Karer, who belonged to small group of confidants, a housemate of Öcalan, not a Kurd but a Turk from Ordu, was dispatched to Gaziantep to recruit new members. He was involved in a political discussion with another left Kurdish faction called “Sterka Sor” (Red Star) in a coffee shop. He was killed in Gaziantep
, allegedly by members of a rival Kurdish group. This was the first resistance against APOcular by a rival Kurdish group. From that moment APOcular become more careful, strict and violent. In the party’s historiography, the death of Haki Karer is related to the decision to deepen and strengthen the struggle. Haki Karer's brother Baki Karer (co-founder) later claimed his brother had been killed after a disagreement with Öcalan.
On October 27, 1978, in a village called Fis
, in the district of Lice, north of Diyarbakir
, APOCUS became Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK). The ideological footprints during this period was detailed in the proclamation. The official release of the "Proclamation of Independence of PKK", a document, stated that primary objective was to foster a communist revolution
in Turkey. The group did not claimed to be secessionist in this document. They wanted a proletarian revolution inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aims to replace capitalism with communism.
In 1979 Mehmet Celal Bucak a high-ranking member of the conservative Justice Party
was condemned for "exploiting the peasants," and "collaborating with government". PKK decided to use fighting against the landlords in Hilvan and Siverek to make a name. PKK failed in its attempted to assassinate Mehmet Celal Bucak. This was the first known activity by the PKK. The planned assassination was an example of propaganda-of-the-deed.
On 28 November 1979 the first response of the government was performed . Turkey did not know the name PKK but listed the organization with its old name Apocular. 242 members of this organization were captured at Hilvan and Siverek residences. Bucak tribe became an enemy to PKK and from 1979 to 1991, the Bucak tribe lost 140 members to clashes with PKK. Besides the Bucak tribe, PKK fought against the Revolutionary Unity of the People, the Liberation of the People, the Revolutionary Democratic Cultural Association, and National Liberation of Kurdistan.
In two years, the country turned into a battleground. From 1978 to 1982, the Turkish National Security Council recorded approximately 43,000 incidents it described as terrorism. The overall death-toll of the terror of the 1970s is estimated at 5,000, with nearly ten assassinations per day.
All through this time, Öcalan eluded capture and remained in control. He fled the country in 1979. Even before the coup, Öcalan knew that he had to restructure PKK to continue its activities. In 1979, Öcalan moved to Bekaa valley, he had chance to develop his connection from where dev-genç left. His initial accommodations were covered through already established ASALA
structure and Fatah camps, in part of ex-Syria
n-controlled Lebanon
. Until 1999 Syria had provided valuable safe havens to the organization in the region of Beqaa Valley.
, the discovery of gun depots, civil disorder, political indecision (parliament was unable to select a president) and, most importantly, the Iran–Iraq War, a coup took place, initiating a series of trials. In the central trial, against the left-wing organization Devrimci Yol
(Revolutionary Path) at Ankara Military Court, the defendants listed 5,388 political killings before the military coup. Among the victims were 1,296 rightwingers and 2,109 left-wingers. The others could not clearly be related. In this period, the number of deaths attributed to the PKK was approximately 240. The military tribunals of the 1980 coup which tried 7,000 people revealed a recorded 5,241 dead and 14,152 wounded from 1979 to 1980. The PKK made up 21% of the total 5,241 caseload.
Following imprisonment, the captured PKK members set up an elaborate resistance organization that would operate even behind bars. This organization became famous for their hunger strike
s. They also smuggled in guns and communication equipment into prison. Recruitment and training became commonplace for imprisoned PKK members.
On August 20–25, 1982, PKK's second congress was held in Lebanon's Ain al-Hilweh
region. Second congress established by the remaining PKK members and Turkish left-wing militants who fled before they were imprisoned by the coup. Öcalan consolidated his resources at the training camps in Bekaa valley. PKK build up a new power base. This marked the beginning of the second stage of PKK's efforts to establish control of southeastern Turkey.
At Ain al-Hilweh near to the largest Palestinian refugee camp located on the outskirts of the port of Sidon in Lebanon, the organization developed links with paramilitary groups among other ethnic groups which has harbored historic grievances against Turkey such as the ethnic Armenian ASALA
. The links extended to groups which shared its left-wing nationalist ideology such as the Palestine Liberation Organisation, ETA
, and, to a lesser degree, the Provisional Irish Republican Army
. During this period, through the large Kurdish immigration in Germany, it has also formed close contacts with violent left-wing political groups in that country. The link with German violent left-wing political groups extended to supply of militants, such as Eva Juhnke.
On April 8, 1980 at Sidon PKK and ASALA held a press conference declaring that they have common grounds to work. On 9 November 1980, ASALA and PKK developed the Strasbourg incident. On 19 November 1980, ASALA and PKK developed Rome incident. July 1983, ASALA disappeared in the Lebanese valley where PKK was established. It was alleged that Soviet Armenian
KGB
officer Karen Brutents was behind the militant structure that was adapted by PKK and methods used by ASALA. Since pro-Soviet Armenians had participated in the founding of an anti-Turkish
Kurdish party already in 1927, the theories, arguments, propaganda methods and activity structures were well established. According to the former KGB-FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko
, who was assassinated in 2006, PKK's Ocalan trained by KGB-FSB.
On the December 15, 1984 the organization and other left-oriented groups including Workers Party of Turkey
, Communist Labour Party of Turkey
, Communist Party of Turkey, Socialist Party of Turkish Kurdistan and Socialist Workers Party of Turkey signed a protocol to work together.
, as well as civilian
targets. As a means to this end, the Kurdish National Liberation Front (ERNK) was formed in 1985. Eventually, military operations were handed over from the ERNK to the Kurdistan Popular Liberation Army (ARGK). The ERNK remained, but largely as a front for the ARGK.
In 1988, Tehran gave permission to open PKK camps close to Iran's border.
In 1989, the organization concluded an alliance with a number of extreme left wing guerrilla groups to exchange ability and methods to strike in big cities.
towards the organization members through cross border into northern Iraq. The cross border incidents were archived with the approval of the then-Iraqi government under president
Saddam Hussein
.
The organisation reached an all-time highest operational activity during the Gulf War
(August 1990 – February 1991). Turkey opened its Iraqi border for the Iraqi refugess. This allowed Kurdish and Iraqi refugees, including PKK members, to enter Turkey. The Gulf War also extensively undermined Baghdad’s control over the Kurds in Iraq and Barzani and Talabani have controlled the area. A power vacuum was created in the north of 36th. Parallel and this enabled the PKK to establish bases and training camps in the northern Iraq.
In 1992, Turkey decided to change their operational functionality at the hot pursuits to take action against the organization's camps, launching major operations commencing at the end of 1992.
In 1993 the organization was banned in Germany.
With the increase of Turkey's activities to cope with the PKK, 10 percent of income was spent on fighting against the PKK. One year the military spent $8,000,000,000 in operational expenses, and PKK's activity was not curbed.
Later in 1993, the PKK launched coordinated attacks involving firebombs and vandalism on Turkish diplomatic and commercial offices in six West European countries.
On March 19, 1993, PKK put an end to the long-standing PKK vendetta against the other Kurdish parties through an agreement with the Kurdistan Socialist Party. In a turning point in the organizations structure, during 1995 30% of the captured or killed PKK members were Syrian nationals of Armenian origin or other Syrians.
The Gulf War
changed the political situation. Turkey passively supported the war. The border with Iraq became the worst border. There was an authority that Turkey could communicate with in Syria and Iran, but the Gulf War left North Iraq with what Turkey has called a "vacuum of control". Also, Iraq assisted the organization as a retaliation for the passive support. The aid was meant to serve as a retaliation against Turkey due to its anti-Iraq policy. Later Operation Provide Comfort
used Incirlik air base in Turkey to create an autonomous area for Iraq Kurds.
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During 1988 after the Halabja poison gas attack
36,000 Kurdish refugees were located in Diyarbakir. Iraq began to spread out its problems to Turkey. After the Gulf War of 1991, the problem was not just PKK insurgency. It was a humanitarian problem that can turn into a regional war.
The "vacuum of power in North Iraq" refers to a security concept related to creation of a "safe haven" in North Iraq.
its first use was attributed to Turgut Özal. The goal has been stated as stabilization of economical, social, and cultural the conditions of Kurds under "Unified Iraq." The "Unified Iraq" has been the dominant position for Turkish foreign policy. Turkey wanted to have positive and constructive relations to all ethnic and religious groups in Iraq. This sentiments was apparent during the "1 March" incident, in which Kurdish origin representatives prevented Turkey's participation to 2003 invasion of Iraq
. Turkey with its Kurdish population is sensitive to the short term and long term problems of Iraqi Kurds.
On May 1995 Suleyman Demirel proposed moving the border from the heights to stop the insurgency:
This proposal was rejected by Iraq and consequently Iran and Arab countries. Turkey decided to mark the Iraq-Turkey border and eliminate the free movement of the organization in this region. There were ten southeastern provinces located in the mountains boarder. On the Turkish side of the border 3000 residential units which had 378,335 villagers were displaced. Thermal cameras were located on the border.
On June 3, 1997 the Commission on Internal Migration was established to study the controversial loss of residential units.
While marking the Turkey-Iraq border, Turkey was seeking a way to eliminate the "vacuum of power" created within the north Iraq no-fly zone.
In April 1991, Iraqi no-fly zones
created during the Gulf War
by the enforcing powers related to United Nations Security Council Resolution 688
as authorising the operations, which Boutros Boutros-Ghali
called the no-fly zones "illegal" in a later interview with John Pilger
. Turkey supported US-led coalition that formed Iraqi no-fly zones. No-fly zones generated a control vacuum which later used by PKK. Iran did not want to have the no-fly zone that can be easily influenced by US-led coalition.
Iran's response to these activities was also shaped by supporting PKK. In order to adapt to the end of the Soviet System (1991) and gain Iran's support the organization amended or abandoned its communist secular ideology to better accommodate and accept Islamic beliefs. Beginning in 1993, PKK members launched attacks from Iranian soil. Heat-seeking SA-7 missiles were given by Iran to prevent Turkish operations in Iraq. Organization used SA-7 missiles effectively against Turkey during Turkey's involvement in Iraqi Kurdish Civil War. During the 1990s, Greece and Iran provided PKK with supplies in the form of weapons and funds.
On October 4, 1992, the Kurdish government in Erbil announed that "PKK should either withdraw from the border bases or be expelled." On March 17, 1993, Öcalan from Lebanon announced a cease-fire from March 20 to April 15 to Jalal Talabani
. He declared that the PKK did not intend "to separate immediately from Turkey." The organization moved its military camps to Northern Iraq. Syria had only ideological training, intelligence, health and recreation installations.
International discussions were going on about a new state in North Iraq, based on the concept of Iraq Federation. UN channelled money to Iraq Federation. With inclusion of the solution for elimination of the PKK's ability to use North Iraq, Turkey joined the US-led coalition to bring truce among the Iraqi Kurds. Two sets of negotiations were tried. US-brokered Drogheda talks on August 9–11, 1995 appeared to be leading to a settlement of the KDP-PUK fight as well as to security guarantees in the form of the KDP controlling the Turkish border.
Turkey feared that the KDP-PUK conflict would create a power vacuum in northern lraq that would facilitate the organization. Turkey performed Operation Steel
between 20 March and 4 May 1995 before the official negotiations began. Some 35,000 Turkish troops moved into northern Iraq attempting to clean out PKK strongholds during the period March 20-May 2, 1995. This activity was aimed at giving the conditions of Drogheda talks a chance by eliminating the PKK's infrastructure from the region. Operation Steel gave the chance of Iraqi Kurds building their own control system, and prevent the PKK extending its infrastructure again. Drogheda negotiations were killed because of the regional effects on Syria and Iran. To derail this unification, just after the Drogheda Talks II September 12, 1995, PKK launched attacks (September 25, 1995) against the KDP. PKK was saying it can not be ignored.
During 1995 Öcalan declared his intention to form a "National United Front." National United Front summarized its political objective as a "total national democratic liberation war against the escalating total warfare." By establishing some type of government-in-exile or Kurdish federation, PKK was responding to a US-led coalition which was trying to unite Iraqi Kurds.
A second set of failed negotiations among Kurdish groups in Iraq were performed during October 1996 which was called Ankara Peace Process.
On December, 1998, Öcalan told the Kurdish satellite television channel Med-TV that his own militants are "no better than murderers".
took place between rival Kurdish
factions in the mid 1990s
. Over the course of the conflict, the various factions drew Kurdish factions from Iran
and Turkey
, as well as Iran
ian, Iraq
i, American
forces into the fighting. On friendly terms with the PUK, the PKK began attacking ethnic Assyrians
and civilians who supported the KDP.
Some of the heaviest fighting of the entire KDP-PUK civil war ensued starting October 13, 1997. Hundreds were killed and thousands displaced. PUK used six GRAD missiles in Suleymaniye. The International community had to do something under these conditions. There were no negotiations to bring a truce. Same missiles were used against villages in Turkey. From Turkey's perspective PUK was trying to push PKK out of North Iraq and KDP was getting support from PKK which was supported by Syria, Iran and Saddam. Turkey intervened on the side of PUK and warned the Talaban not to cooperate with PKK.
On May 12, 1997, Turkish forces launched Operation Hammer
in May, in an attempt to root out the PKK from northern Iraq. The operation inflicted heavy casualties, however the organization continued to operate in northern Iraq. The Operation Hammer cost $300 million. Nearly 2000 militants were killed, with a further 132 being captured. This contrasted with 113 fatalities and 325 injured among the Turkish forces.
On September 25, 1997, Turkish forces engaged with Operation Dawn (1997)
in northern Iraq. This time they were allied with the KDP and attacked PUK and PKK positions in an attempt to force a cease-fire between the factions. The operation once again resulted in heavy PKK casualties, and a cease-fire was negotiated between the PUK and KDP.
Despite the cease-fire, renewed fighting broke out along the armistice line between the KDP and PUK in October and November. In this round of fighting, 1,200 combatants were killed on both sides and 10,000 civilians fled their homes. A lasting cease-fire was finally established on November 24. Saddam's response to Turkey's help in negotiations between Iraq Kurds was shaped by increasingly assisting the organization.
During the year of 1997, the 3,302 PKK operatives, of whom 484 were captured, 415 surrendered, and 303 arrested, in various operations including those in northern Iraq. During the same period, security forces lost 192 soldiers and 95 others were wounded; in addition, 49 village guards were killed and 14 wounded. Turkish military claimed it gained enough operational structure in the region to monitor organizational movements, but not control or stop them.
In October 1997, Eva Juhnke a German guerrilla fighter from the armed wing of organization captured during a military operation by KDP forces in Nort Iraq. KDP gave this operative to Turkey.
Began on 30 June 1995 and phased out on 5 July 1999, the campaign of suicide attacks included fourteen incidents. Most of the attacks clustered between 1998-199, non exclusive list is: November 17, 1998, December 1, 1998, December 24, 1998, April 9, 1999 and June 7, 1999.
by taking a new position facing Syria and Iran.
One of the first contacts with Syria about the PKK was in 1987. Turgut Özal
personally conducted the negotiations. At the end, there was a protocol which however showed the differences between the countries. Syria did not even admit Öcalan was in Syria.
After the Gulf War
, in April 1992, a security agreement was reached between the two states. Both countries agreed on preventing crossing, organization, training or distributing propaganda of outlawed organizations in respective countries. If an agent is captured, he will be exchanged. Marking the border between Turkey and Syria was considered. Every three months security officials were to meet and exchange information on both sides. From international policy perspective, this was the first time Syria accepted that the PKK was a terrorist organization. The public reaction came on November 19–20, 1993, when the Syrian state minister stated that "Öcalan and other terrorists would not be allowed." But besides these exchanges, Syria did not significantly change its attitude toward PKK.
The next development was on August 23, 1994, when Syria officially linked the water issue to the PKK in the summit between Turkey, Syria and Iran. During this summit another interesting development was the Hatay
issue, which was brought to table. While the summit was going at Damascus
, the PKK was building its structure in Hatay; in July 1995, it performed its first activity there, later using this province as a base to extend its activities to Adana
and Mersin
; the PKK was extending to the East Mediterranean. This region was one of the centers of immigration from the southeast, and also is a temporary summer work area for the southeast region. For Turkey the region was sensitive, not because of the Kurds, but because of the Arab population. Beginning late 1995, Syrian backing of PKK operations at Hatay was perceived by Turkish governments as an active hostile threat from Syria more than the PKK. The PKK's Hatay operations ended with the undeclared war with Syria.
On September 30, 1995 Damascus opened contacts with high ranking German CDU MP Heinrich Lummer and intelligence officials in Damascus. The CDU demanded PKK end its activities and drug trafficking in Germany. The PKK demanded that it should be recognized as a legitimate entity and not as a terrorist organization. The PKK had been banned in Germany in 1993. If the PKK's demand had passed, it would be a big step for Damascus, not just for the water issues and Hatay demands, but also because a Western country was negotiating with a banned organization. How could the West pressure Syria over terrorism? It would be a big blow to Turkey as the inability to stop terrorism in the country could end with balkanization
of the region.
After the Turkish government's decision on the undeclared war with Syria, the military received orders to develop military operational plans, including the worst scenario (regional war: Turkey against Syria, Iran and maybe Greece (1995 military agreement on airbases) and Russia). To counteract a regional war, military agreements with Israel
were signed on February 24 and August 26, 1996. These agreements followed with intelligence cooperation in February 1997. Two diplomatic notes were issued during 1996. The first note was for a truck originating in Iran and carrying military equipment to the PKK in Syria. The second one was regarding Syria being a state sponsor of the PKK. Turkey delinked the two issues of water and the PKK. On December 30, 1996, Turkish National Intelligence Agency (MIT) smuggled Mustafa Duyur out of Syria. Duyur was a DHKP-C agent who was involved with the Özdemir Sabancı
murder. Turkey froze relations as Damascus was harboring PKK and DHKP-C.
Syria expelled Öcalan.
His first short stop was at a Greek airport. This was supposed to be a stop on the way to Stockholm. Instead of Stockholm he was transferred to Russia. Russia did not grant him sanctuary. On November 14, 1999, Öcalan arrived in Rome
, Italy
accompanied by Ramon Mantovani, a member of the Communist Refoundation Party
, from Moscow
. His arrival was a surprise to the Italian government, which had not been notified, and an international crisis began as Turkey requested Öcalan's extradition.
There were mass rallies in Rome by Kurds, and a wave of sympathy for a people that many did not know of. The Italian government of Massimo D'Alema
was not yet able to take a clear stance on whether to satisfy the extradition request. Italian government tried to negotiate a deal with other EU states and try to deal with Interpol's arrest demand. Finally, Öcalan was allowed to leave the country, without revealing his destination, thereby releasing the Italian government from an embarrassing situation. He was apparently sent to Saint Petersburg, Russia, then Athens, Greece. The Greek government moved him to Korfu for a while, then to the Greek
Embassy in Kenya
.
On February 15, 1999, while being transferred from the Greek embassy to Nairobi
international airport, Öcalan was captured in an operation by the Turkish National Intelligence Agency (MIT). American officials admitted that US intelligence and diplomatic efforts aided in Öcalan's eventual capture. He was then flown back to Turkey for trial. His capture led thousands of protesting Kurds to seize Greek embassies around the world. During the flight from Kenya to Turkey, a video recorded by MIT officers. Ocalan stated that his mother is Turkish origin also and he is ready to serve government in any way.
On August 1999, Öcalan from the jail announced his second peace initiative, ordering members to refrain from violence and requesting dialogue with the government of Turkey on all issues. However, in no time, multiple riots broke out throughout the world near Turkish diplomatic facilities such as Greek embassy in London. A PKK/KADEK spokesman stated that its armed wing, The People’s Defense Force, would not disband or surrender its weapons, to maintain its capability of self-defense. PKK/KADEK avowing to not lay down its arms underscores that the organization maintains its capability to carry out terrorist operations.
(the 15 EU governments) decided to update the European Union list of terrorist
organisations to include Kurdistan Workers' Party. This applied to all and any members joining the EU. Turkey also reached an agreement with Tehran in 2002 in which Turkey recognised the Iranian rebel group Mujahideen-e-Khalq as a terrorist organisation in exchange for Iran doing the same for the PKK. However as of 2008, Russia did not list the organization as a terrorist group.
Turkey argued that the Netherlands
and Belgium
supported the organization by allowing training camps to function in their territories. On November 22, 1998, Hanover's criminal police reported that three children had been trained by the PKK for guerrilla warfare in camps in the Netherlands and Belgium. After the death of Theo van Gogh
, with increasing attention on domestic security concerns, the Dutch police raided the 'PKK paramilitary camp' in the Dutch town of Liempde
and arrested 29 people in November 2004.
s, the organization declared that it terminated "Kurdistan Workers Party" and with the same organisational structure formed the (KADEK). The name change to KADEK was claimed as a move towards peaceful politics and co-operation with a wider range of ideologies, but it was pointed that this change was aimed to protect itself from the legal implications of being listed as a terrorist organization. Turkey claimed at the time that KADEK and PKK were identical. Later nations updated their status towards KADEK to be identical to their status towards PKK. From 11 November 2003 to 4 April 2005, the KADEK changed its name and operated under the banner of KGK (KONGRA-GEL). In 2004, the armed wing of PKK, HPG (People's Forces of Defence) announced an end to the unilateral truce they had sustained since the time of Öcalan's capture.
Later in 2004, US Treasury
\amended its regulations to include all the aliases and offshoots of the PKK in its sanctions list maintained by OFAC (Office of Foreign Assets Control
). The list aims at blocking terrorist property. The organisations currently listed under PKK aliases include KADEK (Congress for Freedom and Democracy in Kurdistan), KONGRA-GEL, HSK, KHK and PKK.
On March 11, 2007 statement by Deputy Chief of General Staff General Ergin Saygun stated that organization gathers some USD 615-770 million annually, whereas a 2007 NATO Terrorist Threat Intelligence Unit report puts the number at a more modest, USD 50-100 million annually. Despite growing support from the United States for Turkey's efforts to curb the PKK's activities in Europe, they have not yet had a significant effect, partly owing to European reluctance to effectively target the group.
On 17 July 2005, a member of the chief executive of the PKK, Hasan Özen who wished to leave the organization, was murdered in Austria. In Diyarbakir, on 6 July 2005, the PKK killed Hikmet Fidan
the former founder of the People’s Democratic Party (HADEP), a legal branch of the PKK, after he split from the PKK and formed an alternative organization called PWD with Osman Ocalan
. The PKK has a policy of killing dissident members within its ranks.
During the Turkish general election, 2007
a death threat was mailed by organization to CHP
, MHP
, DYP
and AKP
to withdraw their Van
and Hakkâri
candidates allowing a DTP
dominance.
Kurdistan Workers' Party
The Kurdistan Workers' Party , commonly known as PKK, also known as KGK and formerly known as KADEK or KONGRA-GEL , is a Kurdish organization which has since 1984 been fighting an armed struggle against the Turkish state for an autonomous Kurdistan and greater cultural and political rights...
(PKK recognized as a terrorist organization by U.N., U.S. and Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
) began in 1974 as a Marxist-Leninist organization under the leadership of Abdullah Öcalan
Abdullah Öcalan
Abdullah Öcalan , Kurdish founder of the terrorist organization called Kurdistan Workers' Party in 1978.Öcalan was captured in Nairobi and extradited to the Turkish security force, and sentenced to death under Article 125 of the Turkish Penal Code, which concerns the formation of armed gangs...
. In 1978 the organization adapted the name "Kurdistan Workers Party" and waged Urban War
Urban warfare
Urban warfare is combat conducted in urban areas such as towns and cities. Urban combat is very different from combat in the open at both the operational and tactical level...
between 1978-1980. The organization restructured itself and moved the organization structure to Syria between 1980-1984 just after the 1980 Turkish coup d'état. The campaign of armed violence began in 1984. The rural-based insurgency
Insurgency
An insurgency is an armed rebellion against a constituted authority when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents...
lasted between 1984-1992. The PKK shifted its activities to include urban terrorism between 1993–1995 and later 1996–1999. The leader of the party captured in Kenya in the early 1999. After a "self declared peace initiative of 1999," returned to active stage in February 2004. Since 1974, it had been able to evolve, adapt, gone through a metamorphosis, which became the main factor in its survival. It had gradually grown from a handful of political students to a radical organization became part of targets of War on Terrorism.
Origin
The PKK's origins is traced back to 1974 when Öcalan and a small group of radicals out of Revolutionary Youth "Dev-Genç" decided to develop Kurdish based left wing organization. Dev-Genç was originated in the 1970s from the radical left in Turkey and drew its leaders, members and militants from the disenfranchised. Following Turkey's rapid industrial development during the 1950s and 60s, there were numerous official and spontaneous strikes and factory occupations between 1968 and 1971. Violent confrontations with the police were common. Numerous groups and organizations arose which in one way or another regarded themselves as socialist. "Dev-Genç" also arose from a rebellion against the leadership of the newly-founded social democratic TIP (Workers Party) in the mid 1960s. Most of these organization were crushed by the security establishment. The members of this new small organization was actively participated different branches of Dev-Genç. In 1971 Abdullah Öcalan joined the underground movements trying to overthrow Turkey's parliamentary system while he was student at the Ankara University Political Sciences Faculty. Öcalan was also sympathetic with the People’s Liberation Party of Turkey (THKO). Öcalan used the skills and the social network that he developed during this period to become the leader. Like "Dev-Genç", Apocus was a splinter organization.What made Apacus, later PKK, different was that it decided to move its activities from Ankara, capital city, to southern border towns of Turkey. Unlike most Kurdish political parties, which adopted a rather conservative outlook and were organized around tribal leaders and structures, they had fierce stance, strong convictions, and disciplined but decentralized organization which contributed to a steady rise and growing effectiveness Transferring to southern border towns with a radical left rhetoric gave this group initial resources during a time which Turkey had problems with the Syria and was a pawn in the proxy war
Proxy war
A proxy war or proxy warfare is a war that results when opposing powers use third parties as substitutes for fighting each other directly. While powers have sometimes used governments as proxies, violent non-state actors, mercenaries, or other third parties are more often employed...
s of the Cold War
Cold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
.
Apocular (1974-1978)
The core of the organization established with 16 members, led by political science student Öcalan, later to be his wife Kesire Yildirim, Cemil Bayik, Baki Karer, Kemal Pir, Mehmet Sevgat, Mehmet Karasungur and ten other members with the name Ankara Democratic Association of Higher Education (ADYÖD). The organization was located in Ankara. During this period, Öcalan and his supporters were generally known as APOCUS, in Turkish "Apocular". Today, there are only a few still living or following the cause, a result of a combination of factors, including disputes internal to the PKK.Although originally based in Ankara, Öcalan decided that there was a better base in south-east Turkey. Öcalan recognized that he can organize and build a secure base to perform activities by using the tribal system in the region. He focused on tribes that are not historically coexisting peacefully with the government. Thus, Öcalan focused much of his attention from 1976-78 to building a PKK structure in that region. It was a secret organization, but deciphered by Turkish Intelligence in 1977.
On May 18, 1977, Hakî Karer, who belonged to small group of confidants, a housemate of Öcalan, not a Kurd but a Turk from Ordu, was dispatched to Gaziantep to recruit new members. He was involved in a political discussion with another left Kurdish faction called “Sterka Sor” (Red Star) in a coffee shop. He was killed in Gaziantep
Gaziantep
Gaziantep , Ottoman Turkish: Ayintab) previously and still informally called Antep; ʻayn tāb is a city in southeast Turkey and amongst the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world. The city is located 185 kilometres northeast of Adana and 127 kilometres by road north of Aleppo, Syria...
, allegedly by members of a rival Kurdish group. This was the first resistance against APOcular by a rival Kurdish group. From that moment APOcular become more careful, strict and violent. In the party’s historiography, the death of Haki Karer is related to the decision to deepen and strengthen the struggle. Haki Karer's brother Baki Karer (co-founder) later claimed his brother had been killed after a disagreement with Öcalan.
On October 27, 1978, in a village called Fis
Fis
fis is the E. coli gene encoding FIS protein. The regulation of this gene is more complex than most other genes in the E. coli genome, as FIS is an important protein which regulates expression of other genes. It is supposed that fis is regulated by H-NS, IHF and CRP...
, in the district of Lice, north of Diyarbakir
Diyarbakir
Diyarbakır is one of the largest cities in southeastern Turkey...
, APOCUS became Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK). The ideological footprints during this period was detailed in the proclamation. The official release of the "Proclamation of Independence of PKK", a document, stated that primary objective was to foster a communist revolution
Communist revolution
A communist revolution is a proletarian revolution inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aims to replace capitalism with communism, typically with socialism as an intermediate stage...
in Turkey. The group did not claimed to be secessionist in this document. They wanted a proletarian revolution inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aims to replace capitalism with communism.
Urban War (1978-1980)
Starting in 1978, the organization attacked groups that they perceived as "fascist." PKK focused its violence primarily against perceived state collaborators, and Kurdish tribes that had historically coexisted peacefully with the government.In 1979 Mehmet Celal Bucak a high-ranking member of the conservative Justice Party
Justice Party (Turkey)
The Justice Party was a Turkish political party prominent in the 1960s and 1970s. A descendant of the Democrat Party, the AP was dominated by Süleyman Demirel, who served six times as prime minister, and was in office at the time of the military coup on September 12, 1980...
was condemned for "exploiting the peasants," and "collaborating with government". PKK decided to use fighting against the landlords in Hilvan and Siverek to make a name. PKK failed in its attempted to assassinate Mehmet Celal Bucak. This was the first known activity by the PKK. The planned assassination was an example of propaganda-of-the-deed.
On 28 November 1979 the first response of the government was performed . Turkey did not know the name PKK but listed the organization with its old name Apocular. 242 members of this organization were captured at Hilvan and Siverek residences. Bucak tribe became an enemy to PKK and from 1979 to 1991, the Bucak tribe lost 140 members to clashes with PKK. Besides the Bucak tribe, PKK fought against the Revolutionary Unity of the People, the Liberation of the People, the Revolutionary Democratic Cultural Association, and National Liberation of Kurdistan.
In two years, the country turned into a battleground. From 1978 to 1982, the Turkish National Security Council recorded approximately 43,000 incidents it described as terrorism. The overall death-toll of the terror of the 1970s is estimated at 5,000, with nearly ten assassinations per day.
All through this time, Öcalan eluded capture and remained in control. He fled the country in 1979. Even before the coup, Öcalan knew that he had to restructure PKK to continue its activities. In 1979, Öcalan moved to Bekaa valley, he had chance to develop his connection from where dev-genç left. His initial accommodations were covered through already established ASALA
Asala
Asala may refer to:* Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia, a Marxist-Leninist guerrilla organization.* Asalah Nasri, Syrian singer* Al Asalah, a Salafist political party in Bahrain...
structure and Fatah camps, in part of ex-Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
n-controlled Lebanon
Lebanon
Lebanon , officially the Republic of LebanonRepublic of Lebanon is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies. The term Lebanese Republic, a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names that is not used in today's world. Arabic is the most common language spoken among...
. Until 1999 Syria had provided valuable safe havens to the organization in the region of Beqaa Valley.
Syria (1980-1984)
With the 1980 assassination of a former prime minister, Nihat ErimNihat Erim
Ismail Nihat Erim was a Turkish politician and jurist. Nihat Erim was born in Kandıra to Raif Erim and Macide Erim. He served as the prime minister of Turkey from 1971 until 1972, for almost 14 months...
, the discovery of gun depots, civil disorder, political indecision (parliament was unable to select a president) and, most importantly, the Iran–Iraq War, a coup took place, initiating a series of trials. In the central trial, against the left-wing organization Devrimci Yol
Devrimci Yol
Devrimci Yol was a movement rather than a tightly structured organization, with many supporters in trade unions and other professional institutions. Its ideology was based on Marxism-Leninism but rejected both the Soviet and the Chinese model. Devrimci Yol entered the political scene in Turkey on...
(Revolutionary Path) at Ankara Military Court, the defendants listed 5,388 political killings before the military coup. Among the victims were 1,296 rightwingers and 2,109 left-wingers. The others could not clearly be related. In this period, the number of deaths attributed to the PKK was approximately 240. The military tribunals of the 1980 coup which tried 7,000 people revealed a recorded 5,241 dead and 14,152 wounded from 1979 to 1980. The PKK made up 21% of the total 5,241 caseload.
Following imprisonment, the captured PKK members set up an elaborate resistance organization that would operate even behind bars. This organization became famous for their hunger strike
Hunger strike
A hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance or pressure in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke feelings of guilt in others, usually with the objective to achieve a specific goal, such as a policy change. Most hunger strikers will take liquids but not...
s. They also smuggled in guns and communication equipment into prison. Recruitment and training became commonplace for imprisoned PKK members.
On August 20–25, 1982, PKK's second congress was held in Lebanon's Ain al-Hilweh
Ain al-Hilweh
Ain al-Hilweh is the largest Palestinian refugee camp in Lebanon with over 70,000 refugees, located on the outskirts of the port of Sidon. Because Lebanese Armed Forces are not allowed to enter the camp Ain al-Hilweh has been called a "zone of unlaw" by the Lebanese media...
region. Second congress established by the remaining PKK members and Turkish left-wing militants who fled before they were imprisoned by the coup. Öcalan consolidated his resources at the training camps in Bekaa valley. PKK build up a new power base. This marked the beginning of the second stage of PKK's efforts to establish control of southeastern Turkey.
At Ain al-Hilweh near to the largest Palestinian refugee camp located on the outskirts of the port of Sidon in Lebanon, the organization developed links with paramilitary groups among other ethnic groups which has harbored historic grievances against Turkey such as the ethnic Armenian ASALA
Asala
Asala may refer to:* Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia, a Marxist-Leninist guerrilla organization.* Asalah Nasri, Syrian singer* Al Asalah, a Salafist political party in Bahrain...
. The links extended to groups which shared its left-wing nationalist ideology such as the Palestine Liberation Organisation, ETA
ETA
ETA , an acronym for Euskadi Ta Askatasuna is an armed Basque nationalist and separatist organization. The group was founded in 1959 and has since evolved from a group promoting traditional Basque culture to a paramilitary group with the goal of gaining independence for the Greater Basque Country...
, and, to a lesser degree, the Provisional Irish Republican Army
Provisional Irish Republican Army
The Provisional Irish Republican Army is an Irish republican paramilitary organisation whose aim was to remove Northern Ireland from the United Kingdom and bring about a socialist republic within a united Ireland by force of arms and political persuasion...
. During this period, through the large Kurdish immigration in Germany, it has also formed close contacts with violent left-wing political groups in that country. The link with German violent left-wing political groups extended to supply of militants, such as Eva Juhnke.
On April 8, 1980 at Sidon PKK and ASALA held a press conference declaring that they have common grounds to work. On 9 November 1980, ASALA and PKK developed the Strasbourg incident. On 19 November 1980, ASALA and PKK developed Rome incident. July 1983, ASALA disappeared in the Lebanese valley where PKK was established. It was alleged that Soviet Armenian
Armenian SSR
The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic The Armenian Soviet...
KGB
KGB
The KGB was the commonly used acronym for the . It was the national security agency of the Soviet Union from 1954 until 1991, and was the premier internal security, intelligence, and secret police organization during that time.The State Security Agency of the Republic of Belarus currently uses the...
officer Karen Brutents was behind the militant structure that was adapted by PKK and methods used by ASALA. Since pro-Soviet Armenians had participated in the founding of an anti-Turkish
Anti-Turkism
Anti-Turkism, also known as Turcophobia or anti-Turkish sentiment, is the hostility, intolerance or racism against the Turkish people, Turkish culture, or Turkey ....
Kurdish party already in 1927, the theories, arguments, propaganda methods and activity structures were well established. According to the former KGB-FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko
Alexander Litvinenko
Alexander Valterovich Litvinenko was an officer who served in the Soviet KGB and its Russian successor, the Federal Security Service ....
, who was assassinated in 2006, PKK's Ocalan trained by KGB-FSB.
On the December 15, 1984 the organization and other left-oriented groups including Workers Party of Turkey
Workers Party of Turkey
Workers Party of Turkey was a Turkish political party, founded in 1961. It became the first socialist party in Turkey to win representation in the national parliament. It was banned twice and eventually merged with the Communist Party of Turkey in 1988.TİP was founded by a group of labor union...
, Communist Labour Party of Turkey
Communist Labour Party of Turkey
Communist Labour Party of Turkey is an illegal communist party in Turkey. TKEP was founded on May 1, 1980 by the People's Liberation Army of Turkey-Unity in Struggle . THKO-MB was the pro-Soviet faction that developed out of the crumbles of the original THKO.The general secretary of TKEP was...
, Communist Party of Turkey, Socialist Party of Turkish Kurdistan and Socialist Workers Party of Turkey signed a protocol to work together.
Paramilitary I (1984-1992)
1984 marked the beginning of sustained paramilitary action by the PKK, attacking government mainly personnel and infrastructure associated with Southeastern Anatolia ProjectSoutheastern Anatolia Project
The Southeastern Anatolia Project is a multi-sector integrated regional development project based on the concept of sustainable development for the 9 million people living in the Southeastern Anatolia region of Turkey...
, as well as civilian
Civilian
A civilian under international humanitarian law is a person who is not a member of his or her country's armed forces or other militia. Civilians are distinct from combatants. They are afforded a degree of legal protection from the effects of war and military occupation...
targets. As a means to this end, the Kurdish National Liberation Front (ERNK) was formed in 1985. Eventually, military operations were handed over from the ERNK to the Kurdistan Popular Liberation Army (ARGK). The ERNK remained, but largely as a front for the ARGK.
In 1988, Tehran gave permission to open PKK camps close to Iran's border.
In 1989, the organization concluded an alliance with a number of extreme left wing guerrilla groups to exchange ability and methods to strike in big cities.
Hot pursuit
From 1982 onwards, the Iran-Iraq war gave Kurdish organisations in Northern Iraq, a free hand, because Iraq needed and moved its troops to the front in the South. The organization used this to develop cross border attacks from Iraq. The relations between the Marxist PKK and Barzani’s conservative KDP were never cordial, but the latter nevertheless allowed organization to operate from the KDP controlled areas and in the south of the Iraqi-Turkish border. This gave the PKK two routes of penetration into Turkey, directly from Syria and over Iraq From 1986 -1987, Turkey engaged with Hot pursuitHot pursuit
In law enforcement and international law, hot pursuit can refer to:*An immediate pursuit by the police such as a car chase.*In international treaty law, laws of federal states, or other legal rules governing cross-border police operations when law enforcement officers and agents of one...
towards the organization members through cross border into northern Iraq. The cross border incidents were archived with the approval of the then-Iraqi government under president
President of Iraq
The President of Iraq is the head of state of Iraq and "safeguards the commitment to the Constitution and the preservation of Iraq's independence, sovereignty, unity, the security of its territories in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution." The President is elected by the Council of...
Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti was the fifth President of Iraq, serving in this capacity from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003...
.
The organisation reached an all-time highest operational activity during the Gulf War
Gulf War
The Persian Gulf War , commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a U.N.-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by the United States, against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.The war is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf...
(August 1990 – February 1991). Turkey opened its Iraqi border for the Iraqi refugess. This allowed Kurdish and Iraqi refugees, including PKK members, to enter Turkey. The Gulf War also extensively undermined Baghdad’s control over the Kurds in Iraq and Barzani and Talabani have controlled the area. A power vacuum was created in the north of 36th. Parallel and this enabled the PKK to establish bases and training camps in the northern Iraq.
In 1992, Turkey decided to change their operational functionality at the hot pursuits to take action against the organization's camps, launching major operations commencing at the end of 1992.
Trans-nationalization
During this period, organization develeloped branches in nonexclusively Greece, Cyprus, Syria, Russia. It was effectively working in a wide range of countries and able to effect the local policies. The organization became a case of transnational ethnic nationalism. The hunger strikes, protest marches and terrorist bombings in Germany were cases of transnationalized movement. Germany faced with the challenge of developing policies towards their Kurdish residents as well as towards Turkey.In 1993 the organization was banned in Germany.
Paramilitary II (1993-1995)
Turkey recognized it was impossible to eliminate the organization as a fighting force as long as it could retreat to Syria, Iraq and Iran. The organization's revenues have been estimated by various countries at USD 200-500 million annually during the 1990s. After state support, an important source of income became drug trafficking as substantial amounts of heroin formerly transiting Iran werenow re-routed through Iraq after the war in Iraq (Gulf War). The organization had been working on developing methods of drug-trafficking and according to Interpol's records, 298 people connected with the organization were arrested for drug trafficking between 1984 and 1993.With the increase of Turkey's activities to cope with the PKK, 10 percent of income was spent on fighting against the PKK. One year the military spent $8,000,000,000 in operational expenses, and PKK's activity was not curbed.
Later in 1993, the PKK launched coordinated attacks involving firebombs and vandalism on Turkish diplomatic and commercial offices in six West European countries.
On March 19, 1993, PKK put an end to the long-standing PKK vendetta against the other Kurdish parties through an agreement with the Kurdistan Socialist Party. In a turning point in the organizations structure, during 1995 30% of the captured or killed PKK members were Syrian nationals of Armenian origin or other Syrians.
The Gulf War
Gulf War
The Persian Gulf War , commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a U.N.-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by the United States, against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.The war is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf...
changed the political situation. Turkey passively supported the war. The border with Iraq became the worst border. There was an authority that Turkey could communicate with in Syria and Iran, but the Gulf War left North Iraq with what Turkey has called a "vacuum of control". Also, Iraq assisted the organization as a retaliation for the passive support. The aid was meant to serve as a retaliation against Turkey due to its anti-Iraq policy. Later Operation Provide Comfort
Operation Provide Comfort
Operation Provide Comfort and Provide Comfort II were military operations by the United States and some of its Gulf War allies, starting in April 1991, to defend Kurds fleeing their homes in northern Iraq in the aftermath of the Persian Gulf War and deliver humanitarian aid to them.-Operation...
used Incirlik air base in Turkey to create an autonomous area for Iraq Kurds.
Marking the border
Halabja poison gas attack
The Halabja poison gas attack , also known as Halabja massacre or Bloody Friday, was a genocidal massacre against the Kurdish people that took place on March 16, 1988, during the closing days of the Iran–Iraq War, when chemical weapons were used by the Iraqi government forces in the Kurdish town of...
36,000 Kurdish refugees were located in Diyarbakir. Iraq began to spread out its problems to Turkey. After the Gulf War of 1991, the problem was not just PKK insurgency. It was a humanitarian problem that can turn into a regional war.
The "vacuum of power in North Iraq" refers to a security concept related to creation of a "safe haven" in North Iraq.
its first use was attributed to Turgut Özal. The goal has been stated as stabilization of economical, social, and cultural the conditions of Kurds under "Unified Iraq." The "Unified Iraq" has been the dominant position for Turkish foreign policy. Turkey wanted to have positive and constructive relations to all ethnic and religious groups in Iraq. This sentiments was apparent during the "1 March" incident, in which Kurdish origin representatives prevented Turkey's participation to 2003 invasion of Iraq
2003 invasion of Iraq
The 2003 invasion of Iraq , was the start of the conflict known as the Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, in which a combined force of troops from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Poland invaded Iraq and toppled the regime of Saddam Hussein in 21 days of major combat operations...
. Turkey with its Kurdish population is sensitive to the short term and long term problems of Iraqi Kurds.
On May 1995 Suleyman Demirel proposed moving the border from the heights to stop the insurgency:
This proposal was rejected by Iraq and consequently Iran and Arab countries. Turkey decided to mark the Iraq-Turkey border and eliminate the free movement of the organization in this region. There were ten southeastern provinces located in the mountains boarder. On the Turkish side of the border 3000 residential units which had 378,335 villagers were displaced. Thermal cameras were located on the border.
On June 3, 1997 the Commission on Internal Migration was established to study the controversial loss of residential units.
While marking the Turkey-Iraq border, Turkey was seeking a way to eliminate the "vacuum of power" created within the north Iraq no-fly zone.
Vacuum of power
Iraqi no-fly zones
The Iraqi no-fly zones were a set of two separate no-fly zones , and were proclaimed by the United States, United Kingdom and France after the Gulf War of 1991 to protect the Kurdish people in northern Iraq and Shiite Muslims in the south. Iraqi aircraft were forbidden from flying inside the zones...
created during the Gulf War
Gulf War
The Persian Gulf War , commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a U.N.-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by the United States, against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.The war is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf...
by the enforcing powers related to United Nations Security Council Resolution 688
United Nations Security Council Resolution 688
United Nations Security Council Resolution 688, adopted on April 5, 1991, after receiving letters from the representatives of France, Iran and Turkey and expressing its concern over repression of the Iraqi people, including those in Iraqi Kurdistan, the Council condemned the repression and...
as authorising the operations, which Boutros Boutros-Ghali
Boutros Boutros-Ghali
Boutros Boutros-Ghali is an Egyptian politician and diplomat who was the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 1992 to December 1996...
called the no-fly zones "illegal" in a later interview with John Pilger
John Pilger
John Richard Pilger is an Australian journalist and documentary maker, based in London. He has twice won Britain's Journalist of the Year Award, and his documentaries have received academy awards in Britain and the US....
. Turkey supported US-led coalition that formed Iraqi no-fly zones. No-fly zones generated a control vacuum which later used by PKK. Iran did not want to have the no-fly zone that can be easily influenced by US-led coalition.
Iran's response to these activities was also shaped by supporting PKK. In order to adapt to the end of the Soviet System (1991) and gain Iran's support the organization amended or abandoned its communist secular ideology to better accommodate and accept Islamic beliefs. Beginning in 1993, PKK members launched attacks from Iranian soil. Heat-seeking SA-7 missiles were given by Iran to prevent Turkish operations in Iraq. Organization used SA-7 missiles effectively against Turkey during Turkey's involvement in Iraqi Kurdish Civil War. During the 1990s, Greece and Iran provided PKK with supplies in the form of weapons and funds.
On October 4, 1992, the Kurdish government in Erbil announed that "PKK should either withdraw from the border bases or be expelled." On March 17, 1993, Öcalan from Lebanon announced a cease-fire from March 20 to April 15 to Jalal Talabani
Jalal Talabani
Jalal Talabani is the sixth and current President of Iraq, a leading Kurdish politician. He is the first non-Arab president of Iraq, although Abdul Kareem Qasim was half Kurdish....
. He declared that the PKK did not intend "to separate immediately from Turkey." The organization moved its military camps to Northern Iraq. Syria had only ideological training, intelligence, health and recreation installations.
International discussions were going on about a new state in North Iraq, based on the concept of Iraq Federation. UN channelled money to Iraq Federation. With inclusion of the solution for elimination of the PKK's ability to use North Iraq, Turkey joined the US-led coalition to bring truce among the Iraqi Kurds. Two sets of negotiations were tried. US-brokered Drogheda talks on August 9–11, 1995 appeared to be leading to a settlement of the KDP-PUK fight as well as to security guarantees in the form of the KDP controlling the Turkish border.
Turkey feared that the KDP-PUK conflict would create a power vacuum in northern lraq that would facilitate the organization. Turkey performed Operation Steel
Operation Steel
Operation Steel was a cross-border operation by the Turkish Armed Forces into northern Iraq between 20 March and 4 May 1995 against the Kurdistan Workers' Party.- The battle :...
between 20 March and 4 May 1995 before the official negotiations began. Some 35,000 Turkish troops moved into northern Iraq attempting to clean out PKK strongholds during the period March 20-May 2, 1995. This activity was aimed at giving the conditions of Drogheda talks a chance by eliminating the PKK's infrastructure from the region. Operation Steel gave the chance of Iraqi Kurds building their own control system, and prevent the PKK extending its infrastructure again. Drogheda negotiations were killed because of the regional effects on Syria and Iran. To derail this unification, just after the Drogheda Talks II September 12, 1995, PKK launched attacks (September 25, 1995) against the KDP. PKK was saying it can not be ignored.
During 1995 Öcalan declared his intention to form a "National United Front." National United Front summarized its political objective as a "total national democratic liberation war against the escalating total warfare." By establishing some type of government-in-exile or Kurdish federation, PKK was responding to a US-led coalition which was trying to unite Iraqi Kurds.
A second set of failed negotiations among Kurdish groups in Iraq were performed during October 1996 which was called Ankara Peace Process.
Paramilitary III (1996–1999)
On May 27, 1996 PKK ordered a hunger strike for its members in the jails. In July , 314 prisoners in 43 prisons in 38 provinces were on fasting to the death and over 2,070 were on hunger strike. Beginning with 1996 organization abandoned its previous strategy of attacking Kurdish civilians which it claimed to be government pupets. It focused on governmental and tourist targets. At the end of 1996, the PKK leader Öcalan signed a cooperation protocol with the Revolutionary People's Liberation Party-Front (DHKP-C).On December, 1998, Öcalan told the Kurdish satellite television channel Med-TV that his own militants are "no better than murderers".
Iraqi Kurdish Civil War (1997)
The Iraqi Kurdish Civil WarIraqi Kurdish Civil War
The Iraqi Kurdish Civil War was a military conflict which took place between rival Kurdish factions in Iraqi Kurdistan in the mid 1990s...
took place between rival Kurdish
Kurdish people
The Kurdish people, or Kurds , are an Iranian people native to the Middle East, mostly inhabiting a region known as Kurdistan, which includes adjacent parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey...
factions in the mid 1990s
1990s
File:1990s decade montage.png|From left, clockwise: The Hubble Space Telescope floats in space after it was taken up in 1990; American F-16s and F-15s fly over burning oil fields and the USA Lexie in Operation Desert Storm, also known as the 1991 Gulf War; The signing of the Oslo Accords on...
. Over the course of the conflict, the various factions drew Kurdish factions from Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
and Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
, as well as Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
ian, Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
i, American
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
forces into the fighting. On friendly terms with the PUK, the PKK began attacking ethnic Assyrians
Assyrian people
The Assyrian people are a distinct ethnic group whose origins lie in ancient Mesopotamia...
and civilians who supported the KDP.
Some of the heaviest fighting of the entire KDP-PUK civil war ensued starting October 13, 1997. Hundreds were killed and thousands displaced. PUK used six GRAD missiles in Suleymaniye. The International community had to do something under these conditions. There were no negotiations to bring a truce. Same missiles were used against villages in Turkey. From Turkey's perspective PUK was trying to push PKK out of North Iraq and KDP was getting support from PKK which was supported by Syria, Iran and Saddam. Turkey intervened on the side of PUK and warned the Talaban not to cooperate with PKK.
On May 12, 1997, Turkish forces launched Operation Hammer
Operation Hammer (1997)
Operation Hammer was a cross-border operation by the Turkish Armed Forces into northern Iraq between 12 May and 7 July 1997 against the Kurdistan Workers' Party ....
in May, in an attempt to root out the PKK from northern Iraq. The operation inflicted heavy casualties, however the organization continued to operate in northern Iraq. The Operation Hammer cost $300 million. Nearly 2000 militants were killed, with a further 132 being captured. This contrasted with 113 fatalities and 325 injured among the Turkish forces.
On September 25, 1997, Turkish forces engaged with Operation Dawn (1997)
Operation Dawn (1997)
Operation Dawn was a cross-border operation by the Turkish Armed Forces into northern Iraq between 25 September and 15 October 1997 against the Kurdistan Workers' Party.- Casualties :...
in northern Iraq. This time they were allied with the KDP and attacked PUK and PKK positions in an attempt to force a cease-fire between the factions. The operation once again resulted in heavy PKK casualties, and a cease-fire was negotiated between the PUK and KDP.
Despite the cease-fire, renewed fighting broke out along the armistice line between the KDP and PUK in October and November. In this round of fighting, 1,200 combatants were killed on both sides and 10,000 civilians fled their homes. A lasting cease-fire was finally established on November 24. Saddam's response to Turkey's help in negotiations between Iraq Kurds was shaped by increasingly assisting the organization.
During the year of 1997, the 3,302 PKK operatives, of whom 484 were captured, 415 surrendered, and 303 arrested, in various operations including those in northern Iraq. During the same period, security forces lost 192 soldiers and 95 others were wounded; in addition, 49 village guards were killed and 14 wounded. Turkish military claimed it gained enough operational structure in the region to monitor organizational movements, but not control or stop them.
In October 1997, Eva Juhnke a German guerrilla fighter from the armed wing of organization captured during a military operation by KDP forces in Nort Iraq. KDP gave this operative to Turkey.
Suicide bombings (1998-1999)
The PKK began using suicide bombings. PKK targets were carefully selected. Large majority of bombers were selected by the organization's leadership. The ones who rejected were killed or turned over to the Turkish police. In eleven out of a total of fifteen attacks were performed by women. Turkey questioned how PKK managed to persuade women to engage. Although Islam clearly forbade suicide, women from conservative rural areas were successfully recruited by the PKK for these suicide bombings. Professor Dogu Ergil points out the women attackers ranged in age from 17 to 27. They came from traditional Kurdish families. The organization at that time was using the argument that the Turkish government is a colonial regime, and that PKK's struggle was in the name of liberation, which is comparable to jihad.Began on 30 June 1995 and phased out on 5 July 1999, the campaign of suicide attacks included fourteen incidents. Most of the attacks clustered between 1998-199, non exclusive list is: November 17, 1998, December 1, 1998, December 24, 1998, April 9, 1999 and June 7, 1999.
The undeclared war
The undeclared war was the response of Turkey to Syria for its continued assistance to PKK. In its messages about the undeclared war, Turkey claimed that it is ready to perform any necessary activity to destroy the PKK's operational bases. It ended with the capture of Öcalan and the repositioning of Turkey in relation to the Arab LeagueArab League
The Arab League , officially called the League of Arab States , is a regional organisation of Arab states in North and Northeast Africa, and Southwest Asia . It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members: Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan , Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Yemen joined as a...
by taking a new position facing Syria and Iran.
One of the first contacts with Syria about the PKK was in 1987. Turgut Özal
Turgut Özal
Halil Turgut Özal was Prime Minister of Turkey and President of Turkey . As Prime Minister, he transformed the economy of Turkey by paving the way for the privatization of many state enterprises.-Early life and career:...
personally conducted the negotiations. At the end, there was a protocol which however showed the differences between the countries. Syria did not even admit Öcalan was in Syria.
After the Gulf War
Gulf War
The Persian Gulf War , commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a U.N.-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by the United States, against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.The war is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf...
, in April 1992, a security agreement was reached between the two states. Both countries agreed on preventing crossing, organization, training or distributing propaganda of outlawed organizations in respective countries. If an agent is captured, he will be exchanged. Marking the border between Turkey and Syria was considered. Every three months security officials were to meet and exchange information on both sides. From international policy perspective, this was the first time Syria accepted that the PKK was a terrorist organization. The public reaction came on November 19–20, 1993, when the Syrian state minister stated that "Öcalan and other terrorists would not be allowed." But besides these exchanges, Syria did not significantly change its attitude toward PKK.
The next development was on August 23, 1994, when Syria officially linked the water issue to the PKK in the summit between Turkey, Syria and Iran. During this summit another interesting development was the Hatay
Hatay Province
Hatay Province is a province in southern Turkey, on the Mediterranean coast. It is bordered by Syria to the south and east and the Turkish provinces of Adana and Osmaniye to the north. The province is part of Çukurova, a geographical, economical and cultural region that covers the provinces of...
issue, which was brought to table. While the summit was going at Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
, the PKK was building its structure in Hatay; in July 1995, it performed its first activity there, later using this province as a base to extend its activities to Adana
Adana
Adana is a city in southern Turkey and a major agricultural and commercial center. The city is situated on the Seyhan River, 30 kilometres inland from the Mediterranean, in south-central Anatolia...
and Mersin
Mersin
-Mersin today:Today, Mersin is a large city spreading out along the coast, with Turkey's second tallest skyscraper , huge hotels, an opera house, expensive real estate near the sea or up in the hills, and many other modern urban...
; the PKK was extending to the East Mediterranean. This region was one of the centers of immigration from the southeast, and also is a temporary summer work area for the southeast region. For Turkey the region was sensitive, not because of the Kurds, but because of the Arab population. Beginning late 1995, Syrian backing of PKK operations at Hatay was perceived by Turkish governments as an active hostile threat from Syria more than the PKK. The PKK's Hatay operations ended with the undeclared war with Syria.
On September 30, 1995 Damascus opened contacts with high ranking German CDU MP Heinrich Lummer and intelligence officials in Damascus. The CDU demanded PKK end its activities and drug trafficking in Germany. The PKK demanded that it should be recognized as a legitimate entity and not as a terrorist organization. The PKK had been banned in Germany in 1993. If the PKK's demand had passed, it would be a big step for Damascus, not just for the water issues and Hatay demands, but also because a Western country was negotiating with a banned organization. How could the West pressure Syria over terrorism? It would be a big blow to Turkey as the inability to stop terrorism in the country could end with balkanization
Balkanization
Balkanization, or Balkanisation, is a geopolitical term, originally used to describe the process of fragmentation or division of a region or state into smaller regions or states that are often hostile or non-cooperative with each other, and it is considered pejorative.The term refers to the...
of the region.
After the Turkish government's decision on the undeclared war with Syria, the military received orders to develop military operational plans, including the worst scenario (regional war: Turkey against Syria, Iran and maybe Greece (1995 military agreement on airbases) and Russia). To counteract a regional war, military agreements with Israel
Israel
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
were signed on February 24 and August 26, 1996. These agreements followed with intelligence cooperation in February 1997. Two diplomatic notes were issued during 1996. The first note was for a truck originating in Iran and carrying military equipment to the PKK in Syria. The second one was regarding Syria being a state sponsor of the PKK. Turkey delinked the two issues of water and the PKK. On December 30, 1996, Turkish National Intelligence Agency (MIT) smuggled Mustafa Duyur out of Syria. Duyur was a DHKP-C agent who was involved with the Özdemir Sabancı
Özdemir Sabanci
Özdemir Sabancı was a Turkish businessman and a second generation member of the Sabancı family.-Biography:He was born in Adana, Turkey. After finishing the high school at the Tarsus American College in Tarsus, province Mersin, he received his B.A...
murder. Turkey froze relations as Damascus was harboring PKK and DHKP-C.
Syria expelled Öcalan.
Capture of Öcalan (1999)
After Syria deported PKK guerrilla leader Öcalan, he passed through various European countries which caused diplomatic crises with Turkey, who sought his extradition on terrorism charges, including involvement in murdering Turkish civilians, troops and police.His first short stop was at a Greek airport. This was supposed to be a stop on the way to Stockholm. Instead of Stockholm he was transferred to Russia. Russia did not grant him sanctuary. On November 14, 1999, Öcalan arrived in Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
, Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
accompanied by Ramon Mantovani, a member of the Communist Refoundation Party
Communist Refoundation Party
The Communist Refoundation Party is a communist Italian political party. Its current secretary is Paolo Ferrero....
, from Moscow
Moscow
Moscow is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the continent...
. His arrival was a surprise to the Italian government, which had not been notified, and an international crisis began as Turkey requested Öcalan's extradition.
There were mass rallies in Rome by Kurds, and a wave of sympathy for a people that many did not know of. The Italian government of Massimo D'Alema
Massimo D'Alema
Massimo D'Alema is an Italian politician. He is also a journalist and a former national secretary of the Democratic Party of the Left...
was not yet able to take a clear stance on whether to satisfy the extradition request. Italian government tried to negotiate a deal with other EU states and try to deal with Interpol's arrest demand. Finally, Öcalan was allowed to leave the country, without revealing his destination, thereby releasing the Italian government from an embarrassing situation. He was apparently sent to Saint Petersburg, Russia, then Athens, Greece. The Greek government moved him to Korfu for a while, then to the Greek
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
Embassy in Kenya
Kenya
Kenya , officially known as the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator, with the Indian Ocean to its south-east...
.
On February 15, 1999, while being transferred from the Greek embassy to Nairobi
Nairobi
Nairobi is the capital and largest city of Kenya. The city and its surrounding area also forms the Nairobi County. The name "Nairobi" comes from the Maasai phrase Enkare Nyirobi, which translates to "the place of cool waters". However, it is popularly known as the "Green City in the Sun" and is...
international airport, Öcalan was captured in an operation by the Turkish National Intelligence Agency (MIT). American officials admitted that US intelligence and diplomatic efforts aided in Öcalan's eventual capture. He was then flown back to Turkey for trial. His capture led thousands of protesting Kurds to seize Greek embassies around the world. During the flight from Kenya to Turkey, a video recorded by MIT officers. Ocalan stated that his mother is Turkish origin also and he is ready to serve government in any way.
On August 1999, Öcalan from the jail announced his second peace initiative, ordering members to refrain from violence and requesting dialogue with the government of Turkey on all issues. However, in no time, multiple riots broke out throughout the world near Turkish diplomatic facilities such as Greek embassy in London. A PKK/KADEK spokesman stated that its armed wing, The People’s Defense Force, would not disband or surrender its weapons, to maintain its capability of self-defense. PKK/KADEK avowing to not lay down its arms underscores that the organization maintains its capability to carry out terrorist operations.
2000-current
Turkey decided that the termination of PKK could only be archived by termination of their operational grounds. Turkey engaged with strong foreign relations campaign to get international support. On 2 April 2004, The Council of the European UnionCouncil of the European Union
The Council of the European Union is the institution in the legislature of the European Union representing the executives of member states, the other legislative body being the European Parliament. The Council is composed of twenty-seven national ministers...
(the 15 EU governments) decided to update the European Union list of terrorist
Terrorism
Terrorism is the systematic use of terror, especially as a means of coercion. In the international community, however, terrorism has no universally agreed, legally binding, criminal law definition...
organisations to include Kurdistan Workers' Party. This applied to all and any members joining the EU. Turkey also reached an agreement with Tehran in 2002 in which Turkey recognised the Iranian rebel group Mujahideen-e-Khalq as a terrorist organisation in exchange for Iran doing the same for the PKK. However as of 2008, Russia did not list the organization as a terrorist group.
Turkey argued that the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
and Belgium
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
supported the organization by allowing training camps to function in their territories. On November 22, 1998, Hanover's criminal police reported that three children had been trained by the PKK for guerrilla warfare in camps in the Netherlands and Belgium. After the death of Theo van Gogh
Theo van Gogh (film director)
Theodoor "Theo" van Gogh was a Dutch film director, film producer, columnist, author and actor.Van Gogh worked with the Somali-born writer Ayaan Hirsi Ali to produce the film Submission, which criticized the treatment of women in Islam and aroused controversy among Muslims...
, with increasing attention on domestic security concerns, the Dutch police raided the 'PKK paramilitary camp' in the Dutch town of Liempde
Liempde
Liempde is a village in the Netherlands in the municipality Boxtel. Annually the Flevo Christian music festival is held here. In 2005 the event What the Hack took place in Liempde....
and arrested 29 people in November 2004.
The changing names
From April 2, 2002 to November 11, 2003, the same day as the European Union updated its list of terroristTerrorism
Terrorism is the systematic use of terror, especially as a means of coercion. In the international community, however, terrorism has no universally agreed, legally binding, criminal law definition...
s, the organization declared that it terminated "Kurdistan Workers Party" and with the same organisational structure formed the (KADEK). The name change to KADEK was claimed as a move towards peaceful politics and co-operation with a wider range of ideologies, but it was pointed that this change was aimed to protect itself from the legal implications of being listed as a terrorist organization. Turkey claimed at the time that KADEK and PKK were identical. Later nations updated their status towards KADEK to be identical to their status towards PKK. From 11 November 2003 to 4 April 2005, the KADEK changed its name and operated under the banner of KGK (KONGRA-GEL). In 2004, the armed wing of PKK, HPG (People's Forces of Defence) announced an end to the unilateral truce they had sustained since the time of Öcalan's capture.
Later in 2004, US Treasury
United States Department of the Treasury
The Department of the Treasury is an executive department and the treasury of the United States federal government. It was established by an Act of Congress in 1789 to manage government revenue...
\amended its regulations to include all the aliases and offshoots of the PKK in its sanctions list maintained by OFAC (Office of Foreign Assets Control
Office of Foreign Assets Control
The Office of Foreign Assets Control is an agency of the United States Department of the Treasury under the auspices of the Under Secretary of the Treasury for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence. OFAC administers and enforces economic and trade sanctions based on U.S...
). The list aims at blocking terrorist property. The organisations currently listed under PKK aliases include KADEK (Congress for Freedom and Democracy in Kurdistan), KONGRA-GEL, HSK, KHK and PKK.
Changes in financial structure
During this period organization's main sources of financing have shifted, from an extensive state support mainly by Syria and other states interested in weakening Turkey, most of the group's finance originate Kurdish diaspora in Europe and revenue derived from drug trafficking. During 2007 organization controlled around 40 per cent of the total amount of heroin entering Europe from the east cited from British intelligence estimate.On March 11, 2007 statement by Deputy Chief of General Staff General Ergin Saygun stated that organization gathers some USD 615-770 million annually, whereas a 2007 NATO Terrorist Threat Intelligence Unit report puts the number at a more modest, USD 50-100 million annually. Despite growing support from the United States for Turkey's efforts to curb the PKK's activities in Europe, they have not yet had a significant effect, partly owing to European reluctance to effectively target the group.
Democratization and elections
Organization claimed that it has plans to move towards peaceful politics and co-operation with a wider range of ideologies.On 17 July 2005, a member of the chief executive of the PKK, Hasan Özen who wished to leave the organization, was murdered in Austria. In Diyarbakir, on 6 July 2005, the PKK killed Hikmet Fidan
Hikmet Fidan
Hikmet Fidan , a Kurdish-born Turkish politician, was the former deputy leader of the Democratic People's Party until it was banned by the Constitutional Court in 2003....
the former founder of the People’s Democratic Party (HADEP), a legal branch of the PKK, after he split from the PKK and formed an alternative organization called PWD with Osman Ocalan
Osman Ocalan
Osman Öcalan is a former Kurdish militant leader.The younger brother of Abdullah Öcalan, Osman studied at teachers’ training college before joining the PKK when it was founded in 1978 and spending two years in Libya...
. The PKK has a policy of killing dissident members within its ranks.
During the Turkish general election, 2007
Turkish general election, 2007
Turkey's 16th general election was held on July 22, 2007 and resulted in a resounding victory for the incumbent Justice and Development Party...
a death threat was mailed by organization to CHP
Republican People's Party (Turkey)
The Republican People's Party is a centre-left Kemalist political party in Turkey. It is the oldest political party of Turkey and is currently Main Opposition in the Grand National Assembly. The Republican People's Party describes itself as "a modern social-democratic party, which is faithful to...
, MHP
Nationalist Movement Party
The Nationalist Movement Party , is a far-right political party in Turkey.In the 2002 general elections, the party had lost its 129 seats as it had won only 8.34% of the national vote...
, DYP
True Path Party
The Democratic Party , abbreviated to DP, is a centre-right, conservative Turkish political party, established by Suleyman Demirel in 1983 as the Right Path Party...
and AKP
Justice and Development Party (Turkey)
The Justice and Development Party , abbreviated JDP in English and AK PARTİ or AKP in Turkish, is a centre-right political party in Turkey. The party is the largest in Turkey, with 327 members of parliament...
to withdraw their Van
Van, Turkey
Van is a city in southeastern Turkey and the seat of the Kurdish-majority Van Province, and is located on the eastern shore of Lake Van. The city's official population in 2010 was 367,419, but many estimates put this as much higher with a 1996 estimate stating 500,000 and former Mayor Burhan...
and Hakkâri
Hakkari
Hakkâri , is a city and the capital of the Hakkâri Province of Turkey. The name Hakkâri is derived from the Syriac word, Akkare, meaning farmers...
candidates allowing a DTP
Democratic Society Party
The Democratic Society Party was a Kurdish Kurdish nationalist political party in Turkey. The party considered itself social democratic, and had observer status in the Socialist International. It was considered to be the successor of the Democratic People's Party...
dominance.