Capture of Jericho (1918)
Encyclopedia
The Capture of Jericho occurred between 19–21 February 1918 to the east of Jerusalem during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign
of World War I
. Fighting took place in an area bordered by the Bethlehem
to Nablus
road in the west and the Jordan River in the east and north of a line from Jerusalem to the Dead Sea
. Here a British Empire
force attacked Ottoman
positions forcing them back to Jericho
and eventually across the Jordan River.
During a lull when winter rains put an end to campaigning after the advance
from the Gaza
– Beersheba
line to the capture of Jerusalem in December 1917, the captured territories need consolidation. Extensive developments were also required along the lines of communication
to ensure the front-line troops were adequately supplied, now approximately 150 miles (241.4 km) from their main bases at Moascar and Kantara on the Suez Canal
.
General Allenby
's strategic
plans
were initially concerned with his right flank
which was open and, if attacked with sufficiently large forces, could be outflanked by an attack from the east, unlike his left which rested securely on the Mediterranean Sea
. At the first opportunity his aim was to capture the territory to the east of Jerusalem stretching to the Dead Sea where his right flank could be more secure. At the time the area was garrisoned by Ottoman troops entrenched on hill-tops which the British infantry, Australian light horse and New Zealand mounted rifles brigades attacked. The infantry captured Talat ed Dumm on the main Jerusalem to Jericho
road while the light horse and mounted rifle brigades captured Jericho and the area to the south bordered by the Jordan River and the Dead Sea.
came to a halt in December with the Ottoman army
occupying the rough, barren rocky country between Jerusalem and the Jordan Valley
. On 14 December Allenby reported to the War Cabinet
that the rainy season would prevent any further operations, (after Jerusalem was secured) for at least two months. At this time the Egyptian Expeditionary Force
was paralysed by a breakdown in logistics
and Allenby had to send the Anzac
and Australian Mounted Division
s and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade south of Gaza
to shorten their lines of communication. He wrote: "I can't feed them, with certainty, and even now, a fortnight's heavy rain would bring me near starvation." On 1 January, the Yeomanry
5th Mounted Brigade began moving back through the rain and slush followed by the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance, beginning the Australian Mounted Division
's journey back to Deir el Belah south of Gaza. The Anzac Mounted Division
did not move back quite so far; the 1st
and possibly 2nd Light Horse Brigade
s moved back to Esdud (where Frank Hurley
, the official Australian photographer, took "mud pictures" on 7 January) while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade
bivouacked near Ayun Kara (Rishon LeZion) not far from Jaffa
.
Allenby wrote on 25 January: "I want to extend my right, to include Jericho and the N. of the Dead Sea
." This advance would remove the more serious threat to his right by pushing all the enemy across the Jordan River and securing the Jordan River crossings. It would also prevent raids into the country to the west of the Dead Sea and provide a narrow starting point for operations against the Hedjaz Railway.
General Jan Christiaan Smuts (a member of the Imperial War Cabinet
) was sent to confer with Allenby, regarding the implementation of a French qualification to the War Office
's Joint Note No. 12, that no troops in France
could be redeployed to the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Smuts was still on his way back to London
when the first step was taken to accomplish his suggestion of crossing the Jordan River and capturing the Hedjaz Railway when, in February, the front line was extended eastwards with the successful capture of Jericho.
and Mount Quarantania) the mountains end abruptly in a 1000 feet (304.8 m) cliff. In early spring, wild flowers, especially anemones, tulips, poppies and cyclamen, were just beginning to show, softening the general terrain. At this time Jericho and the Jordan Valley were also pleasantly green where the ground was cultivated and among the trees and scrub on either bank of the Jordan River. From May onwards, this spring idyll gives way to an almost uninhabitable dusty, infernally hot and humid environment which lasts throughout the summer.
In this rough rocky and in parts, beautiful country, most tracks ran along the narrow beds of ravines, where movement forward by infantry and mounted troops was only possible in single file. Sometimes the attacking parties had to haul themselves and each other over abrupt cliffs to be in a position to fight at close quarters at the top.
defended the area on the western edge of the Jordan Valley. They garrisoned a series of hill-tops from Tubk el Kaneiterah, near the Dead Sea through Talat ed Dumm to the Wady Fara where the Ottoman XXth Corps was entrenched at Ras um Deisis and El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim astride the Jericho road. There was also at least one regiment in the Jordan Valley near the Wadi el Auja.
to capture Jericho as soon as the weather cleared.
While the remainder of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force patrolled the front line and garrisoned the captured territories in southern Palestine, Chetwode's force was formed by the 60th (London) Infantry Division
(British Empire XXth Corps) which was to make the attack towards Jericho supported by the 53rd Infantry Division and one brigade of the 74th Infantry Division on the left. They were to move towards the Wady el Auja which flowed eastwards into the Jordan River (not to be confused with the Wadi el Auja which flowed westwards into the Mediterranean Sea, from the same watershed). At the same time, the 1st Light Horse
and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade
s of Desert Mounted Corps
' Anzac Mounted Division
on the right were to advance towards Rujm el Bahr on the Dead Sea.The 2nd Light Horse Brigade remained on the maritime plain, near the Mediterranean Sea, holding a portion of the front line. [Powles 1922 p. 173]
The plan was for the 60th (London) Infantry Division to advance to Mukhmas 8 miles (12.9 km) north north east of Jerusalem, then advance forward 6 miles (9.7 km) east through El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim and Ras et Tawil. Their left flank was to be covered by the 53rd Infantry Division which was to capture the high ground at Rammun 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Mukhmas while their right was covered by the Anzac Mounted Division. The second stage required the 60th (London) Infantry Division to advance to a point yet to be decided, in three brigade columns; the right to Jebil Ekteif south of the main Jericho road, the centre to Talat ed Dumm, and the left column moving along the "Ancient Road" running east from Mukhmas. Their final advance would take them to the edge of the ridge overlooking Jericho and the Jordan Valley; there was no plan for them to enter the valley. Each infantry column was to be supported by a 60-pounder or 6-inch battery, a Field artillery
brigade and a field company of Royal Engineers
.
On 14 February preliminary operations were carried out by the 60th (London) Infantry Division which advanced to Mukhmas 8 miles (12.9 km) north north east of Jerusalem, while on their left flank the 53rd Infantry Division captured the village of Deir Diwan. At this time the 1st Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades were at Ayun Kara; they marched out for Bethlehem
arriving there on 17 and 18 February. While the infantry attacks were progressing along the road between Jerusalem and Jericho on 19 February, the two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division were to move in a flanking movement towards Nebi Musa, and make their way down into the Jordan Valley towards Rujm el Bahr to cut off enemy retreat from Jericho and drive the remaining Ottoman defenders to the eastern side of the Jordan River.
On 10 January, as part of the preparations for the attack on Jericho, six aircraft dropped 48 bombs on Amman and Kissir (a Hedjaz railway station 6 miles (9.7 km) to the south) resulting in several direct hits on rolling stock, station buildings and troops. Aircraft patrols were then directed to fly over Jericho and Shunet Nimrin on the western and eastern sectors of the Jordan Valley on alternate days. These patrols closely watched and all tactical details, including the number of tents, camps, the state of supply dumps, conditions of roads and tracks and traffic on the railway, were reported.
covering their right flank. At Ras et Tawil, the 2/23rd London (181st Brigade) suffered 50 casualties in attacking some 300 entrenched Ottomans, capturing 25 prisoners and two machine guns; the Ottomans abandoning their position soon after. To the north east of El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim, during a further advance by the 2/20th London along a narrow ridge on the south bank of the Wadi Fara, they captured the high ground suffering 66 casualties. Meanwhile on the left flank of the 60th (London) Infantry Division the 160th Brigade (53rd Infantry Division) captured Rammun (where the 2/10 Middlesex had some hard fighting) and the heights to the south. The Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment moved from Bethlehem to the Greek monastery of Mar Saba and onto the El Buqeia plateau where Ottoman forces were entrenched astride the Mar Saba to Jericho road south of Nebi Musa while the remainder of the 1st Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades moved from Bethlehem towards El Muntar.
Chetwode and Chauvel watched these operations begin from the Mount of Olives more than 2000 feet (609.6 m) above sea level; by the time the light horse and mounted rifles brigades reached Jericho, on 21 February they were nearly 1200 feet (365.8 m) below sea level.
of the 383rd Siege Battery. The village was captured after an hour's bombardment. On the left, the 181st Brigade was slowed in their advance by small rearguards which showed skills in manoeuvre; the brigade was only able to advance 2.5 miles (4 km) to be about half way between Ras et Tawil and Jebel Qruntul (also known as Jebel Kuruntul, the Mount of Temptation and Mount Quarantania) by nightfall with the 231st Brigade (74th Infantry Division) forming a reserve.
On the right, the 179th Brigade column marched towards Jebel Ekteif (to the south of Talat ed Dumm), the 2/13th London (179th Brigade, 60th (London) Infantry Division) was, however, faced a sheer drop of over 20 feet (6.1 m) and had to proceed across intervening ridges into parallel wadis arriving too late for the attack. Meanwhile, two companies of the 2/16th were ordered to support an attack on Jebel Ekteif by the 2/15th London and by 08:15 they had captured the advanced trenches, three companies then fought their way up into the firing line on the summit of the hill. At 10:00 the British infantry were reported to have captured this dominating position on the Jerusalem to Jericho road but a strong counterattack drove them off. Jebel Ektief was finally captured at about 12:30 when heavy artillery assisted the desperate infantry attackers to secure their objective.Falls states it was captured at 11:25. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Part II p. 307]
Meanwhile the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade (with the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment which had returned from the 179th Brigade) led the 1st Light Horse Brigade at 03:30 in their advanced on El Muntar. The advance guard formed by the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment moved from Bethlehem along an ancient road down the Wadi en Nar to the valley near El Muntar hill followed by their brigade and the 1st Light Horse Brigade. In 3 miles (4.8 km) they zig-zagged down to the valley floor while Ottoman soldiers on the height of El Muntar 1250 feet (381 m) above watched their approach. Because of the terrain they moved in single file; the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade strung out to about 5 – and it was some hours before the long column could deploy for the attack.
By 06:00 all the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was in the valley and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment was attacking Hill 306 while the Canterbury and Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment
s attacked Hill 288. Shortly after 12:00 a mounted advance by an Auckland squadron took Hill 288 and Hill 306 was captured soon after. They attacked Ottoman positions from Tibq el Quneitra to Jebel el Kahmum astride the Mar Saba to Jericho road; these were eventually both occupied soon after 14:00; forcing the Ottoman defenders to fall back to Nebi Musa. But Nebi Musa was strongly held by entrenched Ottoman soldiers supported by artillery which made it impossible to move on; the attack was postponed until the next day.
Meanwhile, at dusk, the 1st Light Horse Brigade began its descent moving down the Wadi Qumran to the Jordan Valley following a goat track which fell 1300 feet (396.2 m) in 2 miles (3.2 km) to get into position to attack Nebi Musa from the rear. This journey was successfully completed by midnight.
occupied Neby Musa at daylight after crossing the gorge on foot to find the Ottoman garrison had withdrawn with their guns.
When the 1st Light Horse Brigade reached the floor of the Jordan Valley near the Dead Sea, 400 metres (1,312.3 ft) below sea level it turned north towards Jericho. A single troop of 3rd Light Horse Regiment entered Jericho about 08:00 to find the Ottoman garrison had withdrawn. The remainder of the brigade advanced up the Jordan Valley as far as the Wady el Auja while the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment (New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade) occupied Rujm el Bahr on the north shore of the Dead Sea. Meanwhile the 60th (London) Infantry Division moved to the top of the cliff overlooking Jericho and the Jordan Valley from Neby Musa to Jebel Qruntul.
Divisional Headquarters Staff set up their report centre about 1 miles (1.6 km) behind Jericho and when they were sitting down to a morning cup of tea, Chetwode and Chauvel joined them. Chaytor was sitting on the step of his car, when shells fired from the other side of the Jordan River, started to explode; one hitting the front of his car and he only narrowly escaped injury. This gun continued shelling the area at a range of over 10000 yards (9,144 m); the British 13-pounders could get no further than 6000 yards (5,486.4 m).
The infantry and mounted units of Chetwode's force suffered 510 casualties during these operations.
Ottoman troops on the western bank of the Jordan River were holding a strong bridgehead at Ghoraniyeh protecting the old stone bridge there on the main Jerusalem to Es Salt road. There was also a smaller detachment, down stream, covering the ford at Makhadet Hijlah (the traditional site of Christ's baptism).
The Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment patrolled the Jordan River and valley area under enemy observation, attracting artillery shelling from Ottoman field guns. The patrols monitored the Ottoman positions at Ghoraniyeh and Makhadet Hajlah until 25 February when all Ottoman troops, guns and a pontoon bridge were found to have been removed to the east bank of the river. At the same time Shunet Nimrin was rapidly being entrenched by the Ottoman 7th Army and was soon held in force.
Ottoman army garrisons continued to hold the Hedjaz railway from Deraa to Medina
(although the line was harassed and cut by insurgent Arab units) and Cemal's VIII and XII Corps guarded the northern Levant
ine coast with four infantry divisions. The Ottoman Empire
's War Minister, Enver Pasa had lost confidence in the commander of the Ottoman forces in Palestine, German General von Falkenhayn
and on 1 March 1918 replaced him with General Otto Liman von Sanders
.
On 6 March the War Cabinet
gave Allenby leave to advance "to the maximum extent possible, consistent with the safety of the force under his orders" and he decided to create a third infantry corps to be called the XXIIth, commanded by Barrow with Wavell
as his chief of staff.This corps was not formed due to the Spring Offensive draining Allenby's force. On 21 March an attempt to cut the Hedjaz railway at Amman
began; this coincided with the launch of the Spring Offensive
by Ludendorff
against the Allies
on the Western Front
.Bruce claims that although the occupation of Jericho protected Jerusalem from Ottoman attack from the east, it did not provide the hoped for secure base to mount operations on the Hedjaz railway. [Bruce 2002, p. 188]
Sinai and Palestine Campaign
The Sinai and Palestine Campaigns took place in the Middle Eastern Theatre of World War I. A series of battles were fought between British Empire, German Empire and Ottoman Empire forces from 26 January 1915 to 31 October 1918, when the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Ottoman Empire and...
of World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
. Fighting took place in an area bordered by the Bethlehem
Bethlehem
Bethlehem is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank of the Jordan River, near Israel and approximately south of Jerusalem, with a population of about 30,000 people. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate of the Palestinian National Authority and a hub of Palestinian culture and tourism...
to Nablus
Nablus
Nablus is a Palestinian city in the northern West Bank, approximately north of Jerusalem, with a population of 126,132. Located in a strategic position between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim, it is the capital of the Nablus Governorate and a Palestinian commercial and cultural center.Founded by the...
road in the west and the Jordan River in the east and north of a line from Jerusalem to the Dead Sea
Dead Sea
The Dead Sea , also called the Salt Sea, is a salt lake bordering Jordan to the east and Israel and the West Bank to the west. Its surface and shores are below sea level, the lowest elevation on the Earth's surface. The Dead Sea is deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world...
. Here a British Empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
force attacked Ottoman
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
positions forcing them back to Jericho
Jericho
Jericho ; is a city located near the Jordan River in the West Bank of the Palestinian territories. It is the capital of the Jericho Governorate and has a population of more than 20,000. Situated well below sea level on an east-west route north of the Dead Sea, Jericho is the lowest permanently...
and eventually across the Jordan River.
During a lull when winter rains put an end to campaigning after the advance
Battle of Mughar Ridge
The Battle of El Mughar Ridge , took place on 13 November 1917 during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War...
from the Gaza
Gaza
Gaza , also referred to as Gaza City, is a Palestinian city in the Gaza Strip, with a population of about 450,000, making it the largest city in the Palestinian territories.Inhabited since at least the 15th century BC,...
– Beersheba
Beersheba
Beersheba is the largest city in the Negev desert of southern Israel. Often referred to as the "Capital of the Negev", it is the seventh-largest city in Israel with a population of 194,300....
line to the capture of Jerusalem in December 1917, the captured territories need consolidation. Extensive developments were also required along the lines of communication
Lines of Communication
"Lines of Communication" is an episode from the fourth season of the science-fiction television series Babylon 5.-Synopsis:Franklin and Marcus attempt to persuade the Mars resistance to assist Sheridan in opposing President Clark...
to ensure the front-line troops were adequately supplied, now approximately 150 miles (241.4 km) from their main bases at Moascar and Kantara on the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
.
General Allenby
Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby
Field Marshal Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby GCB, GCMG, GCVO was a British soldier and administrator most famous for his role during the First World War, in which he led the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in the conquest of Palestine and Syria in 1917 and 1918.Allenby, nicknamed...
's strategic
Strategy
Strategy, a word of military origin, refers to a plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal. In military usage strategy is distinct from tactics, which are concerned with the conduct of an engagement, while strategy is concerned with how different engagements are linked...
plans
Strategic planning
Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy. In order to determine the direction of the organization, it is necessary to understand its current position and the possible avenues...
were initially concerned with his right flank
Flanking maneuver
In military tactics, a flanking maneuver, also called a flank attack, is an attack on the sides of an opposing force. If a flanking maneuver succeeds, the opposing force would be surrounded from two or more directions, which significantly reduces the maneuverability of the outflanked force and its...
which was open and, if attacked with sufficiently large forces, could be outflanked by an attack from the east, unlike his left which rested securely on the Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant...
. At the first opportunity his aim was to capture the territory to the east of Jerusalem stretching to the Dead Sea where his right flank could be more secure. At the time the area was garrisoned by Ottoman troops entrenched on hill-tops which the British infantry, Australian light horse and New Zealand mounted rifles brigades attacked. The infantry captured Talat ed Dumm on the main Jerusalem to Jericho
Jericho
Jericho ; is a city located near the Jordan River in the West Bank of the Palestinian territories. It is the capital of the Jericho Governorate and has a population of more than 20,000. Situated well below sea level on an east-west route north of the Dead Sea, Jericho is the lowest permanently...
road while the light horse and mounted rifle brigades captured Jericho and the area to the south bordered by the Jordan River and the Dead Sea.
Background
The advance from BeershebaBeersheba
Beersheba is the largest city in the Negev desert of southern Israel. Often referred to as the "Capital of the Negev", it is the seventh-largest city in Israel with a population of 194,300....
came to a halt in December with the Ottoman army
Military of the Ottoman Empire
The history of military of the Ottoman Empire can be divided in five main periods. The foundation era covers the years between 1300 and 1453 , the classical period covers the years between 1451 and 1606 , the reformation period covers the years between 1606 and 1826 ,...
occupying the rough, barren rocky country between Jerusalem and the Jordan Valley
Jordan Valley (Middle East)
The Jordan Valley forms part of the larger Jordan Rift Valley. It is 120 kilometers long and 15 kilometers wide, where it runs from Lake Tiberias in the north to northern Dead Sea in the south. It runs for an additional 155 kilometer south of the Dead Sea to Aqaba, an area also known as Wadi...
. On 14 December Allenby reported to the War Cabinet
War Cabinet
A War Cabinet is a committee formed by a government in a time of war. It is usually a subset of the full executive cabinet of ministers. It is also quite common for a War Cabinet to have senior military officers and opposition politicians as members....
that the rainy season would prevent any further operations, (after Jerusalem was secured) for at least two months. At this time the Egyptian Expeditionary Force
Egyptian Expeditionary Force
The Egyptian Expeditionary Force was formed in March 1916 to command the British and British Empire military forces in Egypt during World War I. Originally known as the 'Force in Egypt' it had been commanded by General Maxwell who was recalled to England...
was paralysed by a breakdown in logistics
Logistics
Logistics is the management of the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of destination in order to meet the requirements of customers or corporations. Logistics involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material handling, and packaging, and...
and Allenby had to send the Anzac
Anzac Mounted Division
The ANZAC Mounted Division was a mounted infantry and mounted rifles division formed in March 1916 in Egypt during World War I following the Battle of Gallipoli when the Australian and New Zealand regiments returned from fighting dismounted as infantry...
and Australian Mounted Division
Australian Mounted Division
The Australian Mounted Division was a mounted infantry division formed in Egypt during World War I. When the British forces in the Middle East expanded in late 1916, a second mounted division was created called the Imperial Mounted Division...
s and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade south of Gaza
Gaza
Gaza , also referred to as Gaza City, is a Palestinian city in the Gaza Strip, with a population of about 450,000, making it the largest city in the Palestinian territories.Inhabited since at least the 15th century BC,...
to shorten their lines of communication. He wrote: "I can't feed them, with certainty, and even now, a fortnight's heavy rain would bring me near starvation." On 1 January, the Yeomanry
Yeomanry
Yeomanry is a designation used by a number of units or sub-units of the British Territorial Army, descended from volunteer cavalry regiments. Today, Yeomanry units may serve in a variety of different military roles.-History:...
5th Mounted Brigade began moving back through the rain and slush followed by the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance, beginning the Australian Mounted Division
Australian Mounted Division
The Australian Mounted Division was a mounted infantry division formed in Egypt during World War I. When the British forces in the Middle East expanded in late 1916, a second mounted division was created called the Imperial Mounted Division...
's journey back to Deir el Belah south of Gaza. The Anzac Mounted Division
Anzac Mounted Division
The ANZAC Mounted Division was a mounted infantry and mounted rifles division formed in March 1916 in Egypt during World War I following the Battle of Gallipoli when the Australian and New Zealand regiments returned from fighting dismounted as infantry...
did not move back quite so far; the 1st
1st Light Horse Brigade
The 1st Light Horse Brigade was a mounted infantry brigade of the First Australian Imperial Force which served in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. The brigade first saw action during the Dardanelles Campaign in the Battle of Gallipoli. After being withdrawn to Egypt in February 1916 they...
and possibly 2nd Light Horse Brigade
2nd Light Horse Brigade
The 2nd Light Horse Brigade was a mounted infantry brigade of the First Australian Imperial Force which served in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. The brigade first saw action during the Dardanelles Campaign in the Battle of Gallipoli. After being withdrawn to Egypt in February 1916 they...
s moved back to Esdud (where Frank Hurley
Frank Hurley
James Francis "Frank" Hurley, OBE was an Australian photographer and adventurer. He participated in a number of expeditions to Antarctica and served as an official photographer with Australian forces during both world wars.His artistic style produced many memorable images but he also used staged...
, the official Australian photographer, took "mud pictures" on 7 January) while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade
New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade
The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, consisting usually of four units of mounted infantry, fought in World War I and World War II. Initially a milita, under the instruction of Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Henry Banks they formed the core of the New Zealand Army following successful service in the...
bivouacked near Ayun Kara (Rishon LeZion) not far from Jaffa
Jaffa
Jaffa is an ancient port city believed to be one of the oldest in the world. Jaffa was incorporated with Tel Aviv creating the city of Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel. Jaffa is famous for its association with the biblical story of the prophet Jonah.-Etymology:...
.
Dead Sea
The Dead Sea , also called the Salt Sea, is a salt lake bordering Jordan to the east and Israel and the West Bank to the west. Its surface and shores are below sea level, the lowest elevation on the Earth's surface. The Dead Sea is deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world...
." This advance would remove the more serious threat to his right by pushing all the enemy across the Jordan River and securing the Jordan River crossings. It would also prevent raids into the country to the west of the Dead Sea and provide a narrow starting point for operations against the Hedjaz Railway.
General Jan Christiaan Smuts (a member of the Imperial War Cabinet
Imperial War Cabinet
The Imperial War Cabinet was created by British Prime Minister David Lloyd George in the spring of 1917 as a means of co-ordinating the British Empire's military policy during the First World War...
) was sent to confer with Allenby, regarding the implementation of a French qualification to the War Office
War Office
The War Office was a department of the British Government, responsible for the administration of the British Army between the 17th century and 1964, when its functions were transferred to the Ministry of Defence...
's Joint Note No. 12, that no troops in France
Western Front
Western Front was a term used during the First and Second World Wars to describe the contested armed frontier between lands controlled by Germany to the east and the Allies to the west...
could be redeployed to the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Smuts was still on his way back to London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
when the first step was taken to accomplish his suggestion of crossing the Jordan River and capturing the Hedjaz Railway when, in February, the front line was extended eastwards with the successful capture of Jericho.
Prelude
The country on the eastern side of the Judean Hills falls into the Jordan Valley in a tangle of stony ridges and deep narrow gorges. All the main wadis run from west to east often with steep high banks making crossing them almost impossible in this precipitous descending terrain. Joining from all directions, the wadis' tributaries break up the ridges into a tumbled mass of hills. Further north at Jebel Kuruntul (also known as Jebel Qruntul, the Mount of TemptationMount of Temptation
The Mount of Temptation was the hill in the Judean Desert where Jesus was tempted by the devil . The exact location is unknown, and impossible to determine. It is generally identified with Mount Quarantania, a mountain approximately 366 m high, located about north-west of the West Bank town of...
and Mount Quarantania) the mountains end abruptly in a 1000 feet (304.8 m) cliff. In early spring, wild flowers, especially anemones, tulips, poppies and cyclamen, were just beginning to show, softening the general terrain. At this time Jericho and the Jordan Valley were also pleasantly green where the ground was cultivated and among the trees and scrub on either bank of the Jordan River. From May onwards, this spring idyll gives way to an almost uninhabitable dusty, infernally hot and humid environment which lasts throughout the summer.
In this rough rocky and in parts, beautiful country, most tracks ran along the narrow beds of ravines, where movement forward by infantry and mounted troops was only possible in single file. Sometimes the attacking parties had to haul themselves and each other over abrupt cliffs to be in a position to fight at close quarters at the top.
Ottoman force
Three Ottoman armies were at this time deployed to defend their front line; the 8th Army (headquartered at Tul Keram) defended the Mediterranean section, the 7th Army (headquartered at Nablus) defended the Judean Hills sector and the 4th Army (headquartered at Amman), defended the eastern Transjordan section of the line. Between 3,000 and 5,000 Ottoman troops from the 26th and 53rd Infantry Divisions XX CorpsXX Corps (Ottoman Empire)
The XX Corps of the Ottoman Empire was one of the corps of the Ottoman Army. It was formed during the World War I.- Order of Battle, December 1916 :In December 1916, the corps was structured as follows:...
defended the area on the western edge of the Jordan Valley. They garrisoned a series of hill-tops from Tubk el Kaneiterah, near the Dead Sea through Talat ed Dumm to the Wady Fara where the Ottoman XXth Corps was entrenched at Ras um Deisis and El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim astride the Jericho road. There was also at least one regiment in the Jordan Valley near the Wadi el Auja.
Chetwode's force
By February, logistics had sufficiently developed to support the advance towards Jericho and Allenby ordered Lieutenant General ChetwodePhilip Chetwode, 1st Baron Chetwode
Field Marshal Philip Walhouse Chetwode, 1st Baron Chetwode, 7th Baronet of Oakley, GCB, OM, GCSI, KCMG, DSO was a British cavalry officer who became Commander in Chief in India.-Early life and education:...
to capture Jericho as soon as the weather cleared.
While the remainder of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force patrolled the front line and garrisoned the captured territories in southern Palestine, Chetwode's force was formed by the 60th (London) Infantry Division
60th (2/2nd London) Division
The British 60th Division was the second of two second-line Territorial Force divisions formed from the surplus of London recruits in 1914. Originally the division merely supplied the first-line Territorial divisions with drafts to replace losses through casualties...
(British Empire XXth Corps) which was to make the attack towards Jericho supported by the 53rd Infantry Division and one brigade of the 74th Infantry Division on the left. They were to move towards the Wady el Auja which flowed eastwards into the Jordan River (not to be confused with the Wadi el Auja which flowed westwards into the Mediterranean Sea, from the same watershed). At the same time, the 1st Light Horse
1st Light Horse Brigade
The 1st Light Horse Brigade was a mounted infantry brigade of the First Australian Imperial Force which served in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. The brigade first saw action during the Dardanelles Campaign in the Battle of Gallipoli. After being withdrawn to Egypt in February 1916 they...
and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade
New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade
The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, consisting usually of four units of mounted infantry, fought in World War I and World War II. Initially a milita, under the instruction of Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Henry Banks they formed the core of the New Zealand Army following successful service in the...
s of Desert Mounted Corps
Desert Mounted Corps
The Desert Mounted Corps was a World War I Allied army corps that operated in the Middle East during 1917 and 1918.Originally formed on 15 March 1916 as the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division under the command of Major General Harry Chauvel The Desert Mounted Corps was a World War I...
' Anzac Mounted Division
Anzac Mounted Division
The ANZAC Mounted Division was a mounted infantry and mounted rifles division formed in March 1916 in Egypt during World War I following the Battle of Gallipoli when the Australian and New Zealand regiments returned from fighting dismounted as infantry...
on the right were to advance towards Rujm el Bahr on the Dead Sea.The 2nd Light Horse Brigade remained on the maritime plain, near the Mediterranean Sea, holding a portion of the front line. [Powles 1922 p. 173]
The plan was for the 60th (London) Infantry Division to advance to Mukhmas 8 miles (12.9 km) north north east of Jerusalem, then advance forward 6 miles (9.7 km) east through El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim and Ras et Tawil. Their left flank was to be covered by the 53rd Infantry Division which was to capture the high ground at Rammun 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Mukhmas while their right was covered by the Anzac Mounted Division. The second stage required the 60th (London) Infantry Division to advance to a point yet to be decided, in three brigade columns; the right to Jebil Ekteif south of the main Jericho road, the centre to Talat ed Dumm, and the left column moving along the "Ancient Road" running east from Mukhmas. Their final advance would take them to the edge of the ridge overlooking Jericho and the Jordan Valley; there was no plan for them to enter the valley. Each infantry column was to be supported by a 60-pounder or 6-inch battery, a Field artillery
Field artillery
Field artillery is a category of mobile artillery used to support armies in the field. These weapons are specialized for mobility, tactical proficiency, long range, short range and extremely long range target engagement....
brigade and a field company of Royal Engineers
Royal Engineers
The Corps of Royal Engineers, usually just called the Royal Engineers , and commonly known as the Sappers, is one of the corps of the British Army....
.
On 14 February preliminary operations were carried out by the 60th (London) Infantry Division which advanced to Mukhmas 8 miles (12.9 km) north north east of Jerusalem, while on their left flank the 53rd Infantry Division captured the village of Deir Diwan. At this time the 1st Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades were at Ayun Kara; they marched out for Bethlehem
Bethlehem
Bethlehem is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank of the Jordan River, near Israel and approximately south of Jerusalem, with a population of about 30,000 people. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate of the Palestinian National Authority and a hub of Palestinian culture and tourism...
arriving there on 17 and 18 February. While the infantry attacks were progressing along the road between Jerusalem and Jericho on 19 February, the two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division were to move in a flanking movement towards Nebi Musa, and make their way down into the Jordan Valley towards Rujm el Bahr to cut off enemy retreat from Jericho and drive the remaining Ottoman defenders to the eastern side of the Jordan River.
Air support
On 3 January two Australian aircraft had discovered boats carrying corn and hay moving from Ghor el Hadit (behind Point Costigan) and Rujm el Bahr at the northern end of the Dead Sea. These were bombed and sprayed with bullets by the aircraft which returned again and again until the boat service stopped.On 10 January, as part of the preparations for the attack on Jericho, six aircraft dropped 48 bombs on Amman and Kissir (a Hedjaz railway station 6 miles (9.7 km) to the south) resulting in several direct hits on rolling stock, station buildings and troops. Aircraft patrols were then directed to fly over Jericho and Shunet Nimrin on the western and eastern sectors of the Jordan Valley on alternate days. These patrols closely watched and all tactical details, including the number of tents, camps, the state of supply dumps, conditions of roads and tracks and traffic on the railway, were reported.
19 February
The 60th (London) Infantry Division advanced with the 180th Brigade in the centre, the 181st Brigade on the left and the 179th Brigade with the Wellington Mounted Rifles RegimentWellington Mounted Rifle Regiment
The Wellington Mounted Regiment was a New Zealand Mounted Regiment formed for service during the Great War. It was formed from units of the Territorial Force consisting of the Queen Alexandra's 2nd Mounted Rifles the 6th Mounted Rifles and 9th Mounted Rifles.They served in the Middle Eastern...
covering their right flank. At Ras et Tawil, the 2/23rd London (181st Brigade) suffered 50 casualties in attacking some 300 entrenched Ottomans, capturing 25 prisoners and two machine guns; the Ottomans abandoning their position soon after. To the north east of El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim, during a further advance by the 2/20th London along a narrow ridge on the south bank of the Wadi Fara, they captured the high ground suffering 66 casualties. Meanwhile on the left flank of the 60th (London) Infantry Division the 160th Brigade (53rd Infantry Division) captured Rammun (where the 2/10 Middlesex had some hard fighting) and the heights to the south. The Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment moved from Bethlehem to the Greek monastery of Mar Saba and onto the El Buqeia plateau where Ottoman forces were entrenched astride the Mar Saba to Jericho road south of Nebi Musa while the remainder of the 1st Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades moved from Bethlehem towards El Muntar.
Chetwode and Chauvel watched these operations begin from the Mount of Olives more than 2000 feet (609.6 m) above sea level; by the time the light horse and mounted rifles brigades reached Jericho, on 21 February they were nearly 1200 feet (365.8 m) below sea level.
20 February
The three infantry columns advanced; the column in the centre; the 180th Brigade captured their objective of Talat ed Dumm on the main road from Jerusalem to Jericho. This brigade moved along the Jerusalem to Jericho road towards Talat ed Dumm; they were supported by the 10th Heavy Battery and one 6-inch HowitzerHowitzer
A howitzer is a type of artillery piece characterized by a relatively short barrel and the use of comparatively small propellant charges to propel projectiles at relatively high trajectories, with a steep angle of descent...
of the 383rd Siege Battery. The village was captured after an hour's bombardment. On the left, the 181st Brigade was slowed in their advance by small rearguards which showed skills in manoeuvre; the brigade was only able to advance 2.5 miles (4 km) to be about half way between Ras et Tawil and Jebel Qruntul (also known as Jebel Kuruntul, the Mount of Temptation and Mount Quarantania) by nightfall with the 231st Brigade (74th Infantry Division) forming a reserve.
On the right, the 179th Brigade column marched towards Jebel Ekteif (to the south of Talat ed Dumm), the 2/13th London (179th Brigade, 60th (London) Infantry Division) was, however, faced a sheer drop of over 20 feet (6.1 m) and had to proceed across intervening ridges into parallel wadis arriving too late for the attack. Meanwhile, two companies of the 2/16th were ordered to support an attack on Jebel Ekteif by the 2/15th London and by 08:15 they had captured the advanced trenches, three companies then fought their way up into the firing line on the summit of the hill. At 10:00 the British infantry were reported to have captured this dominating position on the Jerusalem to Jericho road but a strong counterattack drove them off. Jebel Ektief was finally captured at about 12:30 when heavy artillery assisted the desperate infantry attackers to secure their objective.Falls states it was captured at 11:25. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Part II p. 307]
Meanwhile the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade (with the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment which had returned from the 179th Brigade) led the 1st Light Horse Brigade at 03:30 in their advanced on El Muntar. The advance guard formed by the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment moved from Bethlehem along an ancient road down the Wadi en Nar to the valley near El Muntar hill followed by their brigade and the 1st Light Horse Brigade. In 3 miles (4.8 km) they zig-zagged down to the valley floor while Ottoman soldiers on the height of El Muntar 1250 feet (381 m) above watched their approach. Because of the terrain they moved in single file; the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade strung out to about 5 – and it was some hours before the long column could deploy for the attack.
By 06:00 all the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was in the valley and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment was attacking Hill 306 while the Canterbury and Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment
Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment
The Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment was a New Zealand Mounted Regiment formed for service during World War I. It was formed from units of the Territorial Foirce consisting of the 3rd Mounted Rifles the 4th Mounted Rifles and the 11th Mounted Rifles.They served in the Middle Eastern theatre of...
s attacked Hill 288. Shortly after 12:00 a mounted advance by an Auckland squadron took Hill 288 and Hill 306 was captured soon after. They attacked Ottoman positions from Tibq el Quneitra to Jebel el Kahmum astride the Mar Saba to Jericho road; these were eventually both occupied soon after 14:00; forcing the Ottoman defenders to fall back to Nebi Musa. But Nebi Musa was strongly held by entrenched Ottoman soldiers supported by artillery which made it impossible to move on; the attack was postponed until the next day.
Meanwhile, at dusk, the 1st Light Horse Brigade began its descent moving down the Wadi Qumran to the Jordan Valley following a goat track which fell 1300 feet (396.2 m) in 2 miles (3.2 km) to get into position to attack Nebi Musa from the rear. This journey was successfully completed by midnight.
21 February
Under cover of darkness, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade advanced north along a very rough track and by daylight had reached just east of the Neby Musa position. They made a dismounted attack while British infantry attacked Neby Musa from the rear. The Canterbury Mounted Rifles RegimentCanterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment
The Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment was a New Zealand Mounted Regiment formed for service during World War I.It was formed from Units of the Territorial Force consisting of one squadron each from the 1st Mounted Rifles , the 8th Mounted Rifles and the 10th Mounted Rifles.They served in the...
occupied Neby Musa at daylight after crossing the gorge on foot to find the Ottoman garrison had withdrawn with their guns.
When the 1st Light Horse Brigade reached the floor of the Jordan Valley near the Dead Sea, 400 metres (1,312.3 ft) below sea level it turned north towards Jericho. A single troop of 3rd Light Horse Regiment entered Jericho about 08:00 to find the Ottoman garrison had withdrawn. The remainder of the brigade advanced up the Jordan Valley as far as the Wady el Auja while the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment (New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade) occupied Rujm el Bahr on the north shore of the Dead Sea. Meanwhile the 60th (London) Infantry Division moved to the top of the cliff overlooking Jericho and the Jordan Valley from Neby Musa to Jebel Qruntul.
Divisional Headquarters Staff set up their report centre about 1 miles (1.6 km) behind Jericho and when they were sitting down to a morning cup of tea, Chetwode and Chauvel joined them. Chaytor was sitting on the step of his car, when shells fired from the other side of the Jordan River, started to explode; one hitting the front of his car and he only narrowly escaped injury. This gun continued shelling the area at a range of over 10000 yards (9,144 m); the British 13-pounders could get no further than 6000 yards (5,486.4 m).
The infantry and mounted units of Chetwode's force suffered 510 casualties during these operations.
Air support
During these three days of operations; No. 1 Squadron's aircraft completely dominated all enemy aircraft, bombing and machine gunning Ottoman positions, and reporting to headquarters on progress and estimates of Ottoman dispositions and strength. Messages were also dropped on troops in the front line with urgent news. Considerable Ottoman reinforcements were seen to arrive at Shunet Nimrin on the eastern side of the Jordan River and an aerial raiding formation from No. 1 Squadron bombed troop tents, marquees and a supply dump in the area.Aftermath
On 22 February the 60th (London) Infantry Division withdrew its main line to Jebel Ekteif–Talat ed Dumm–Ras et Tawil leaving outposts on the cliffs above the Jordan Valley. On the same day the Anzac Mounted Division started their journey back to Richon LeZion via Bethlehem leaving the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment, a subsection of machine guns and an artillery battery (under orders of the 60th (London) Infantry Division's commander Shea) in a strong position where the road from Jerusalem falls into the Jordan Valley.Ottoman troops on the western bank of the Jordan River were holding a strong bridgehead at Ghoraniyeh protecting the old stone bridge there on the main Jerusalem to Es Salt road. There was also a smaller detachment, down stream, covering the ford at Makhadet Hijlah (the traditional site of Christ's baptism).
The Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment patrolled the Jordan River and valley area under enemy observation, attracting artillery shelling from Ottoman field guns. The patrols monitored the Ottoman positions at Ghoraniyeh and Makhadet Hajlah until 25 February when all Ottoman troops, guns and a pontoon bridge were found to have been removed to the east bank of the river. At the same time Shunet Nimrin was rapidly being entrenched by the Ottoman 7th Army and was soon held in force.
Ottoman army garrisons continued to hold the Hedjaz railway from Deraa to Medina
Medina
Medina , or ; also transliterated as Madinah, or madinat al-nabi "the city of the prophet") is a city in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, and serves as the capital of the Al Madinah Province. It is the second holiest city in Islam, and the burial place of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, and...
(although the line was harassed and cut by insurgent Arab units) and Cemal's VIII and XII Corps guarded the northern Levant
Levant
The Levant or ) is the geographic region and culture zone of the "eastern Mediterranean littoral between Anatolia and Egypt" . The Levant includes most of modern Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian territories, and sometimes parts of Turkey and Iraq, and corresponds roughly to the...
ine coast with four infantry divisions. The Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
's War Minister, Enver Pasa had lost confidence in the commander of the Ottoman forces in Palestine, German General von Falkenhayn
Erich von Falkenhayn
Erich von Falkenhayn was a German soldier and Chief of the General Staff during World War I. He became a military writer after World War I.-Early life:...
and on 1 March 1918 replaced him with General Otto Liman von Sanders
Otto Liman von Sanders
Generalleutnant Otto Liman von Sanders was a German general who served as adviser and military commander for the Ottoman Empire during World War I.-Biography:...
.
On 6 March the War Cabinet
War Cabinet
A War Cabinet is a committee formed by a government in a time of war. It is usually a subset of the full executive cabinet of ministers. It is also quite common for a War Cabinet to have senior military officers and opposition politicians as members....
gave Allenby leave to advance "to the maximum extent possible, consistent with the safety of the force under his orders" and he decided to create a third infantry corps to be called the XXIIth, commanded by Barrow with Wavell
Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell
Field Marshal Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell GCB, GCSI, GCIE, CMG, MC, PC was a British field marshal and the commander of British Army forces in the Middle East during the Second World War. He led British forces to victory over the Italians, only to be defeated by the German army...
as his chief of staff.This corps was not formed due to the Spring Offensive draining Allenby's force. On 21 March an attempt to cut the Hedjaz railway at Amman
First Transjordan attack on Amman (1918)
The First Transjordan attack on Amman was part of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I. Between 21 and 30 March 1918, three separate engagements occurred which together form the First Transjordan attack...
began; this coincided with the launch of the Spring Offensive
Spring Offensive
The 1918 Spring Offensive or Kaiserschlacht , also known as the Ludendorff Offensive, was a series of German attacks along the Western Front during World War I, beginning on 21 March 1918, which marked the deepest advances by either side since 1914...
by Ludendorff
Erich Ludendorff
Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff was a German general, victor of Liège and of the Battle of Tannenberg...
against the Allies
Allies of World War I
The Entente Powers were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire; Italy entered the war on their side in 1915...
on the Western Front
Western Front
Western Front was a term used during the First and Second World Wars to describe the contested armed frontier between lands controlled by Germany to the east and the Allies to the west...
.Bruce claims that although the occupation of Jericho protected Jerusalem from Ottoman attack from the east, it did not provide the hoped for secure base to mount operations on the Hedjaz railway. [Bruce 2002, p. 188]