Buddhism in Myanmar
Encyclopedia
Buddhism in Burma is predominantly of the Theravada
tradition, practised by 89% of the country's population It is the most religious Buddhist country in terms of the proportion of monks in the population and proportion of income spent on religion. Adherents are most likely found among the dominant ethnic Bamar
(or Burmans), Shan, Rakhine
(Arakanese), Mon
, Karen
, and Chinese
who are well integrated into Burmese society. Monks, collectively known as the Sangha
, are venerated members of Burmese society. Among many ethnic groups in Myanmar, including the Bamar
and Shan, Theravada Buddhism is practiced in conjunction with nat worship
, which involves the placation of spirits who can intercede in worldly affairs.
With regard to "salvation" in the Buddhist sense, there are three primary paths in Burmese Buddhism: merit-making, vipassana
(insight meditation), and the weizza
path (an esoteric form of Buddhism that involves the occult
). Merit-making is the most common path undertaken by Burmese Buddhists. This path involves the observance of the Five Precepts and accumulation of good merit
through charity and good deeds (dana
) in order to obtain a favorable rebirth. The vipassana path, which has gained ground since the early 1900s, is a form of insight meditation believed to lead to enlightenment
. The third and least common route, the weizza path, is an esoteric system of occult practices (such as recitation of spells, samatha meditation
, and alchemy) and believed to lead to life as a weizza (also spelt weikza), a semi-immortal and supernatural being who awaits the appearance of the future Buddha, Maitreya
(Arimeitaya).
, written by Pinyasami in 1834, summarises much of the history of Buddhism in Burma. According to many historians, Sohn Uttar Sthavira (one of the royal monks) to Ashoka the Great came to Burma (Suvarnabhumi or Suvannabhumi) around 228 BC with other monks and sacred texts, including books.
The Ari Buddhism
era included the worship of Bodhisattas and nagas, and also was known for corrupt monks. King Anawrahta
of Bagan was converted by Shin Arahan
, a monk from Thaton
to Theravada Buddhism. In 1057 AD, Anawrahta sent an army to conquer the Mon
city of Thaton
in order to obtain theTipitaka
Buddhist canon
. Mon culture, from that point, came to be largely assimilated into the Bamar culture based in Bagan
. Despite attempts at reform, certain features of Ari Buddhism and traditional nat worship
continued, such as reverence of Avalokiteśvara
(Lawka nat), a Boddhisatta. Successive kings of Bagan continued to build large numbers of monuments, temples, and pagodas in honour of Buddhism. Burmese rule at Bagan continued until the invasion of the Mongols
in 1287.
The Shan, meanwhile, established themselves as rulers throughout the region now known as Burma. Thihathu, a Shan king, established rule in Bagan, by patronising and building many monasteries and pagodas. Bhikkus continued to be influential, particularly in Burmese literature and politics.
The Mon
kingdoms, often ruled by Shan chieftains, fostered Theravada Buddhism in the 14th century. Wareru, who became king of Mottama (a Mon city kingdom), patronised Buddhism, and established a code of law (Dhammathat) compiled by Buddhist monks. King Dhammazedi, formerly a Mon monk, established rule in the late 15th century at Innwa
and unified the Sangha
in Mon territories. He also standardised ordination of monks set out in the Kalyani Inscriptions. Dhammazedi moved the capital back to Hanthawaddy (Bago). His mother-in-law Queen Shin Sawbu
of Pegu was also a great patron of Buddhism. She is credited for expanding and gilding the Shwedagon Pagoda giving her own weight in gold.
The Bamar, who had fled to Taungoo
before the invading Shan, established a kingdom there under the reigns of Tabinshwehti
and Bayinnaung
who conquered and unified most of modern Burma. These monarchs also embraced Mon culture and patronised Theravada Buddhism.
In the reigns of succeeding kings, the Taungoo kingdom became increasingly volatile and was overthrown by the Mon. In the mid- 18th century, King Alaungpaya
defeated the Mon, expanded the Bamar kingdoms, and established the Konbaung dynasty
. Under the rule of King Bodawpaya
, a son of Alaungpaya, a unified sect of monks (Thudhamma) was created within the kingdom. Bodawpaya restored ties with Sri Lanka
started by Anawrahta
, allowing for mutual influence in religious affairs. In the reigns of the Konbaung kings that followed, both secular and religious literary works were created. King Mindon Min
moved his capital to Mandalay
. After Lower Burma
had been conquered by the British, Christianity
began to gain acceptance. Many monks from Lower Burma had resettled in Mandalay, but by decree of Mindon Min, they returned to serve the Buddhist laypeople. However, schisms arose among the Sangha
, which were resolved during the Fifth Buddhist Synod
, held in Mandalay in 1871. From 1860 to 1868, the Tipitaka was engraved on 729 marble slabs and assembled in the Kuthodaw Pagoda
. In 1871, a new hti (the gold umbrella that crowns a stupa
) encrusted with jewels from the crown was also donated by Mindon Min for the Shwedagon now in British Burma.
During the British administration of Lower
and Upper Burma
, also known as Burma Proper, government policies were secular which meant monks were not protected by law. Nor was Buddhism patronised by the colonial government. This resulted in tensions between the colonised Buddhists and their European rulers. There was much opposition (including by the Irish monk U Dhammaloka
) to the efforts by Christian missionaries to convert the Burmese people, Bamar, Shan, Mon, Rakhine and plains Karen, with one exception - the hill tribes. Today, Christianity is most commonly practised by the Chin
, Kachin, and the Kayin
. Notwithstanding traditional avoidance of political activity, monks often participated in politics and in the struggle for independence.
Since 1948 when the country gained its independence from Great Britain
, both civil and military governments have supported Theravada Buddhism. The 1947 Constitution states, "The State recognizes the special position of Buddhism as the faith professed by the great majority of the citizens of the Union." The Ministry of Religious Affairs, created in 1948, was responsible for administering Buddhist affairs in Burma. In 1954, the prime minister, U Nu
, convened the Sixth Buddhist Synod
at Kaba Aye Pagoda in Rangoon
(Yangon), which was attended by 2,500 monks, and established the World Buddhist University.
During the military rule of Ne Win
(1962–1988), he attempted to reform Burma under the Burmese Way to Socialism
which contained elements of Buddhism. In the 8888 Uprising
, many monks participated and were killed by Tatmadaw soldiers. The current military regime, the State Peace and Development Council
(SPDC) patronises Buddhism, although persecution of Buddhists contrary to the regime, as well as persons of other religions, namely Islam and Christianity, continues.
. The Burmese New Year, Thingyan
, also known as the water festival
, has its origins in Hindu
tradition, but it is also a time when many Burmese boys celebrate shinbyu
, a special rite of passage
by which a boy enters the monastery
for a short time as a novice monk.
It is the most important duty of all Burmese parents to make sure their sons are admitted to the Buddhist Sangha
by performing a shinbyu ceremony once they have reached the age of seven or older. A symbolic procession and ceremony of exchanging princely attire with that of an ascetic follows the example of the historical Buddha
. He was born a royal prince called Siddartha Gautama, but left his palace on horse-back followed by his groom Chanda , in search of the Four Noble Truths
and to attain Nirvana, after he found out that life is made up of suffering (dukkha
) and the notion of self is merely an illusion (anatta
or non-self) when one day he saw the 'Four Great Signs' - the old, the sick, the dead, and the ascetic - in the royal gardens.
All Buddhists are required to keep the basic Five Precepts , and novices are expected to keep the Ten Precepts . Parent would expect them to stay at the monastery immersed in the teachings of the Buddha as members of the Sangha for a few weeks or longer, at least for the duration of Thingyan. They will have another opportunity to join the Sangha at the age of 20, taking the upasampada
ordination, to become a fully fledged monk, keeping the 220 precepts of the full monastic rules (Patimokkha
), and perhaps remain a monk for life.
Thingyan usually falls in mid-April and tops the list of public holidays in Burma. The full moon in May (Kason)
is however the most sacred of all as the Buddha was born, became the Enlightened One
, and entered Parinirvana
(died) on the same day, celebrated by watering the Bodhi tree
.
Pagoda festivals ( Paya pwè) held throughout the country also usually fall on full moon days and most of them will be on the full moon of Tabaung (February/March) including the Shwedagon pagoda. They attract not only crowds of pilgrims from near and far, often in caravans of bullock carts, but they also double as great market fairs where both local and itinerant traders set up their stalls and shops among food stalls, restaurants,and free open-air stage performances as well as theatre halls.
months from mid-July to mid-October coincide with the Buddhist Lent or Wa-dwin , a time when people are busy tilling their land and planting the paddyfields, and monks will not travel but stay at their monasteries ( Wa-kup or the rains retreat). Waso robes are offered at the beginning of lent, the end of which is marked by the Thadingyut Light Festival. The harvest is now in and robes ( thingan) are again offered at the Kathina
Festival usually held during October and November. Uposatha
or sabbath days are observed keeping the Eight Precepts by most during Thingyan and Lent, and by devout Buddhists all the year round.
Parents and elders also receive obeisance from younger members of the family at the beginning as well as the end of lent, after the tradition established by the Buddha himself. It was during lent that he ascended to the Tavatimsa Heaven in order to preach a sermon, as an act of gratitude, to his mother who had become a celestial being
, and he was welcomed back to earth with a great festival of lights. Teachers receive the same obeisance, a tradition started by National Schools founded in defiance of the colonial administration and continued after independence by state schools.
Wedding ceremonies - nothing to do with religion and not conducted by the Sangha - are not held during the three months of lent, a custom which has resulted in a spate of weddings after Thadingyut or Wa-kyut, awaited impatiently by couples wanting to tie the knot.
, the life story of Gautama Buddha ( Buddhawin), the 550 Jataka tales
( Nga-ya nga-ze nipattaw) - most importantly the Ten Great Incarnations ( Zatkyi sebwè), and the 38 Buddhist Beatitudes
( Thonzeshi hpya mingala) as soon as they have a good grounding of the three Rs
. Monks were the traditional teachers of the young and old alike until secular and missionary schools came into being during the British colonial administration. The Burmese word kyaung for school is derived from Hpongyi kyaung (monastery).
There has been a revival of monastic schools since the 1990s with the deepening economic crisis. Children from poor families that can ill afford fees, uniforms and books have renewed the demand for a free monastic education, and ethnic minorities such as the Shan, Pa-O
, Palaung, Lahu
and Wa
are benefitting from this revival.
(88% of Buddhist monks) and the more orthodox Shwegyin Nikaya
(7% of Buddhist monks). It is important to note that Burmese monastic orders do not differ in doctrine, but in monastic practice, lineage and organizational structure.
Other minor monastic orders include the Dwara Nikaya
in Lower Burma, and Hngettwin Nikaya
in Mandalay, both of which have a few thousand member monks. There are a total of 9 legally-recognized monastic orders in Burma today, under the 1990 Law Concerning Sangha Organizations. There are also a number of esoteric
Buddhist sects that are not recognized by any authority and incorporate non-Buddhist elements like alchemy
, magic
and occultism.
The overwhelming majority of Burmese monks wear maroon
-colored robes (sometimes ochre
), unlike in neighboring countries like Thailand, Laos and Sri Lanka, where monks commonly wear saffron
-colored robes.
Buddhism made major contributions in the development of Burmese politics. Burmese nationalism first began with the formation of the Young Men's Buddhist Association
s (YMBA) - modelled on the YMCA
- which started to appear all over the country at the turn of the century. Buddhist monks along with students had been in the forefront of the struggle for independence and later for democracy, the best known leaders in history being U Ottama and U Seinda in Rakhine State
, and U Wisara who died after a protracted hunger strike in Yangon
prison. A major thoroughfare in Yangon is named after U Wisara. The League of Young Monks ( Yahanpyo) based in Mandalay
is a well known activist organisation. The Burmese
word for boycott is thabeik hmauk , which literally means to turn the monk's alms bowl upside down - declining to accept alms in protest.
Civilian governments, after the country gained independence, patronised Buddhism donating large sums to fund the upkeep and building of Buddhist monuments. In addition, leaders of political parties and parliamentarians, in particular U Nu
, passed legislation influenced by Buddhism. He declared Buddhism the state religion which alienated minority groups, especially the Kachin
. This added yet another group to the growing number of ethnic insurgencies. The present military government has been so keen to be seen as patrons of Buddhism that it has become a joke- "Burmese TV has only two colours, green and yellow" - describing the military green uniforms and monk's yellow robes or golden pagodas which dominate the screen.
Shwedagon Pagoda has been an important venue for large public meetings where both Aung San
and his daughter Aung San Suu Kyi
had made their famous speeches. During the second university strike in history of 1936 the students camped out on the Shwedagon terraces.
Aung San Suu Kyi returned from London to lead the National League for Democracy
which was founded during the 1988 popular uprising
, but was placed under house arrest in 1989; since she is a devout Buddhist and leader of the opposition, she is considered a socially engaged Buddhist.
In September 2007, Buddhists again took to the streets in mass protest
against the military government. Thousand of junta military and police forces poured into Yangon
to try to control the situation, which rapidly deteriorated. A curfew was imposed and on the 25th of September troops surrounded Sule Pagoda. The protest continued to grow with regular citizens joining to support and defend the Buddhists. Over night junta forces invaded all the Buddhist monasteries in the country and imprisoned thousands of monks. Also, it was reported that Nobel prize winning human rights activist and Buddhist Aung San Suu Kyi
was removed from her home where she languished under house arrest and moved to the infamous Insein Prison
. Mass protests erupted over this and junta troops began firing on monks, civilians, and demonstrators in the largest clash since 1988, which left thousands injured and hundreds dead. Images of the brutality were aired worldwide. Leaders around the world condemned the junta's actions and many nations imposed economic sanctions on Burma in protest. President of the United States
George W. Bush
addressed the United Nations
, stating, "Every civilized nation has a responsibility to stand up for people suffering under a brutal military regime like the one that has ruled Burma for so long." The Burmese junta responded by trying to control media coverage, curtail travel, censor news stories, and shut down access to the Internet.
In November 2008, U Gambira
, a leader of the All Burma Monks' Alliance was sentenced to 68 years in prison, at least 12 years of which will be hard labor; other charges against him are still pending. In early 2009, his sentence was reduced to 63 years. His sentence was protested by Human Rights Watch, and Amnesty International
considers him a prisoner of conscience
. Both groups have called for his immediate release.
Daily News, South Utah, July 10, 2008
Theravada
Theravada ; literally, "the Teaching of the Elders" or "the Ancient Teaching", is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It was founded in India...
tradition, practised by 89% of the country's population It is the most religious Buddhist country in terms of the proportion of monks in the population and proportion of income spent on religion. Adherents are most likely found among the dominant ethnic Bamar
Bamar
The Bamar are the dominant ethnic group of Burma , constituting approximately two-thirds of the population. The Bamar live primarily in the Irrawaddy basin, and speak the Burmese language, which is also the official language of Burma. Bamar customs and identity are closely intertwined with general...
(or Burmans), Shan, Rakhine
Rakhine people
The Rakhine , is a nationality in Myanmar forming the majority along the coastal region of present day Rakhine State or Arakan State. They possibly constitute 5.53% or more of Myanmar's total population but no accurate census figures exist. Rakhine people also live in the southeastern parts of...
(Arakanese), Mon
Mon people
The Mon are an ethnic group from Burma , living mostly in Mon State, Bago Division, the Irrawaddy Delta, and along the southern Thai–Burmese border. One of the earliest peoples to reside in Southeast Asia, the Mon were responsible for the spread of Theravada Buddhism in Burma and Thailand...
, Karen
Karen people
The Karen or Kayin people , are a Sino-Tibetan language speaking ethnic group which resides primarily in southern and southeastern Burma . The Karen make up approximately 7 percent of the total Burmese population of approximately 50 million people...
, and Chinese
Burmese Chinese
The Burmese Chinese or Chinese Burmese are a group of overseas Chinese born or raised in Burma . Although the Chinese officially make up three percent of the population, the actual figure is believed to be much higher...
who are well integrated into Burmese society. Monks, collectively known as the Sangha
Sangha
Sangha is a word in Pali or Sanskrit that can be translated roughly as "association" or "assembly," "company" or "community" with common goal, vision or purpose...
, are venerated members of Burmese society. Among many ethnic groups in Myanmar, including the Bamar
Bamar
The Bamar are the dominant ethnic group of Burma , constituting approximately two-thirds of the population. The Bamar live primarily in the Irrawaddy basin, and speak the Burmese language, which is also the official language of Burma. Bamar customs and identity are closely intertwined with general...
and Shan, Theravada Buddhism is practiced in conjunction with nat worship
Nat (spirit)
The nats are spirits worshipped in Burma in conjunction with Buddhism. They are divided between the 37 Great Nats and all the rest . Almost all of the 37 Great Nats were human beings who met violent deaths . They may thus also be called nat sein...
, which involves the placation of spirits who can intercede in worldly affairs.
With regard to "salvation" in the Buddhist sense, there are three primary paths in Burmese Buddhism: merit-making, vipassana
Vipassana
Vipassanā or vipaśyanā in the Buddhist tradition means insight into the true nature of reality. A regular practitioner of Vipassana is known as a Vipassi . Vipassana is one of the world's most ancient techniques of meditation, the inception of which is attributed to Gautama Buddha...
(insight meditation), and the weizza
Weizza
Weizza, also known as Weikza, is one of the three primary paths in Burmese Buddhism, the others being merit-making and vipassana...
path (an esoteric form of Buddhism that involves the occult
Occult
The word occult comes from the Latin word occultus , referring to "knowledge of the hidden". In the medical sense it is used to refer to a structure or process that is hidden, e.g...
). Merit-making is the most common path undertaken by Burmese Buddhists. This path involves the observance of the Five Precepts and accumulation of good merit
Merit (Buddhism)
Merit is a concept in Buddhism. It is that which accumulates as a result of good deeds, acts or thoughts and that carries over to later in life or to a person's next life. Such merit contributes to a person's growth towards liberation. Merit can be gained in a number of ways...
through charity and good deeds (dana
Dana
-Singers:Some singers are popularly known only by the name, Dana:* Dana Rosemary Scallon , Irish-American singer and politician* Dana , Korean pop singer* Dana International , Israeli pop singer-In fiction:...
) in order to obtain a favorable rebirth. The vipassana path, which has gained ground since the early 1900s, is a form of insight meditation believed to lead to enlightenment
Enlightenment (spiritual)
Enlightenment in a secular context often means the "full comprehension of a situation", but in spiritual terms the word alludes to a spiritual revelation or deep insight into the meaning and purpose of all things, communication with or understanding of the mind of God, profound spiritual...
. The third and least common route, the weizza path, is an esoteric system of occult practices (such as recitation of spells, samatha meditation
Samatha
Samatha , śamatha "calm abiding," comprises a suite, type or style of Buddhist meditation or concentration practices designed to enhance sustained voluntary attention, and culminates in an attention that can be sustained effortlessly for hours on end...
, and alchemy) and believed to lead to life as a weizza (also spelt weikza), a semi-immortal and supernatural being who awaits the appearance of the future Buddha, Maitreya
Maitreya
Maitreya , Metteyya , or Jampa , is foretold as a future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. In some Buddhist literature, such as the Amitabha Sutra and the Lotus Sutra, he or she is referred to as Ajita Bodhisattva.Maitreya is a bodhisattva who in the Buddhist tradition is to appear on...
(Arimeitaya).
History
The history of Buddhism in Burma extends nearly a millennium. The Sasana VamsaSasana Vamsa
The Sāsana Vaṃsa is a history of the Buddhist order in Burma, composed by the Burmese monk Panng-sami in 1851. It is written in Pali prose, and based on earlier documents in Pali and Burmese, still extant, but not yet edited....
, written by Pinyasami in 1834, summarises much of the history of Buddhism in Burma. According to many historians, Sohn Uttar Sthavira (one of the royal monks) to Ashoka the Great came to Burma (Suvarnabhumi or Suvannabhumi) around 228 BC with other monks and sacred texts, including books.
The Ari Buddhism
Ari Buddhism
Ari Buddhism is the name given to the religious practice common in Burma, prior to Anawrahta's rise and the subsequent conversion of Bagan to Theravada Buddhism in the eleventh century. It was introduced in the 7th century, possibly through trade contact from India or Tibet...
era included the worship of Bodhisattas and nagas, and also was known for corrupt monks. King Anawrahta
Anawrahta
Anawrahta Minsaw was the founder of the Pagan Empire. Considered the father of the Burmese nation, Anawrahta turned a small principality in the dry zone of Upper Burma into the first Burmese Empire that formed the basis of modern-day Burma...
of Bagan was converted by Shin Arahan
Shin Arahan
The Venerable Shin Arahan was primate of Pagan Kingdom from 1056 to 1115. The monk, a native of Thaton Kingdom, was the religious adviser to four Pagan kings from Anawrahta to Alaungsithu. He is credited with converting Anawrahta to Theravada Buddhism, and overseeing the subsequent reformation of...
, a monk from Thaton
Thaton
Thaton is a town in Mon State, in southern Myanmar on the Tenasserim plains. Thaton lies along the National Highway 8 and is also connected by the National Road 85.-Etymology:...
to Theravada Buddhism. In 1057 AD, Anawrahta sent an army to conquer the Mon
Mon people
The Mon are an ethnic group from Burma , living mostly in Mon State, Bago Division, the Irrawaddy Delta, and along the southern Thai–Burmese border. One of the earliest peoples to reside in Southeast Asia, the Mon were responsible for the spread of Theravada Buddhism in Burma and Thailand...
city of Thaton
Thaton
Thaton is a town in Mon State, in southern Myanmar on the Tenasserim plains. Thaton lies along the National Highway 8 and is also connected by the National Road 85.-Etymology:...
in order to obtain theTipitaka
Tripiṭaka
' is a traditional term used by various Buddhist sects to describe their various canons of scriptures. As the name suggests, a traditionally contains three "baskets" of teachings: a , a and an .-The three categories:Tripitaka is the three main categories of texts that make up the...
Buddhist canon
Canonical
Canonical is an adjective derived from canon. Canon comes from the greek word κανών kanon, "rule" or "measuring stick" , and is used in various meanings....
. Mon culture, from that point, came to be largely assimilated into the Bamar culture based in Bagan
Bagan
Bagan , formerly Pagan, is an ancient city in the Mandalay Region of Burma. Formally titled Arimaddanapura or Arimaddana and also known as Tambadipa or Tassadessa , it was the capital of several ancient kingdoms in Burma...
. Despite attempts at reform, certain features of Ari Buddhism and traditional nat worship
Nat (spirit)
The nats are spirits worshipped in Burma in conjunction with Buddhism. They are divided between the 37 Great Nats and all the rest . Almost all of the 37 Great Nats were human beings who met violent deaths . They may thus also be called nat sein...
continued, such as reverence of Avalokiteśvara
Avalokitesvara
Avalokiteśvara is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He is one of the more widely revered bodhisattvas in mainstream Mahayana Buddhism....
(Lawka nat), a Boddhisatta. Successive kings of Bagan continued to build large numbers of monuments, temples, and pagodas in honour of Buddhism. Burmese rule at Bagan continued until the invasion of the Mongols
Mongols
Mongols ) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia...
in 1287.
The Shan, meanwhile, established themselves as rulers throughout the region now known as Burma. Thihathu, a Shan king, established rule in Bagan, by patronising and building many monasteries and pagodas. Bhikkus continued to be influential, particularly in Burmese literature and politics.
The Mon
Mon people
The Mon are an ethnic group from Burma , living mostly in Mon State, Bago Division, the Irrawaddy Delta, and along the southern Thai–Burmese border. One of the earliest peoples to reside in Southeast Asia, the Mon were responsible for the spread of Theravada Buddhism in Burma and Thailand...
kingdoms, often ruled by Shan chieftains, fostered Theravada Buddhism in the 14th century. Wareru, who became king of Mottama (a Mon city kingdom), patronised Buddhism, and established a code of law (Dhammathat) compiled by Buddhist monks. King Dhammazedi, formerly a Mon monk, established rule in the late 15th century at Innwa
Ava
Innwa is a city in the Mandalay Division of Burma , situated just to the south of Amarapura on the Ayeyarwady River. Its formal title is Ratanapura , which means City of Gems in Pali. The name Innwa means mouth of the lake, which comes from in , meaning lake, and wa , which means mouth...
and unified the Sangha
Sangha
Sangha is a word in Pali or Sanskrit that can be translated roughly as "association" or "assembly," "company" or "community" with common goal, vision or purpose...
in Mon territories. He also standardised ordination of monks set out in the Kalyani Inscriptions. Dhammazedi moved the capital back to Hanthawaddy (Bago). His mother-in-law Queen Shin Sawbu
Shin Sawbu
Shin Sawbu was the queen of Hanthawaddy from 1453 to 1472. Queen Shin Sawbu was also known as Binnya Thau or Old Queen in Mon. Queen Shin Sawbu and Queen Jamadevi of Haripunjaya are the two most famous queens among the small number of queens who ruled in mainland Southeast Asia...
of Pegu was also a great patron of Buddhism. She is credited for expanding and gilding the Shwedagon Pagoda giving her own weight in gold.
The Bamar, who had fled to Taungoo
Taungoo
-Administration:*Taungoo District Peace and Development Council - List of Six Townships*Taungoo Township Peace and Development Council*Taungoo Ward Peace and Development Council - 22 Wards*Taungoo Municipal*District and Township Immigration Dept...
before the invading Shan, established a kingdom there under the reigns of Tabinshwehti
Tabinshwehti
Tabinshwehti was a king who unified Burma in 1539 and known as the founder of the Second Burmese Empire.Tabinshwehti succeeded his father Mingyinyo as ruler of the Toungoo dynasty in 1530...
and Bayinnaung
Bayinnaung
Bayinnaung Kyawhtin Nawrahta was the third king of the Toungoo dynasty of Burma . During his 30-year reign, which has been called the "greatest explosion of human energy ever seen in Burma", Bayinnaung assembled the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia, which included much of modern day...
who conquered and unified most of modern Burma. These monarchs also embraced Mon culture and patronised Theravada Buddhism.
Alaungpaya
Alaungpaya was king of Burma from 1752 to 1760, and the founder of the Konbaung Dynasty. By his death in 1760, the former chief of a small village in Upper Burma had reunified all of Burma, subdued Manipur, recovered Lan Na, and driven out the French and the English who had given help to the...
defeated the Mon, expanded the Bamar kingdoms, and established the Konbaung dynasty
Konbaung dynasty
The Konbaung Dynasty was the last dynasty that ruled Burma from 1752 to 1885. The dynasty created the second largest empire in Burmese history, and continued the administrative reforms begun by the Toungoo dynasty, laying the foundations of modern state of Burma...
. Under the rule of King Bodawpaya
Bodawpaya
Bodawpaya was the sixth king of the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma. Born Maung Shwe Waing and later Badon Min, he was the fourth son of Alaungpaya, founder of the dynasty and the Third Burmese Empire. He was proclaimed king after deposing his nephew Phaungkaza Maung Maung, son of his oldest brother...
, a son of Alaungpaya, a unified sect of monks (Thudhamma) was created within the kingdom. Bodawpaya restored ties with Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Known until 1972 as Ceylon , Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the...
started by Anawrahta
Anawrahta
Anawrahta Minsaw was the founder of the Pagan Empire. Considered the father of the Burmese nation, Anawrahta turned a small principality in the dry zone of Upper Burma into the first Burmese Empire that formed the basis of modern-day Burma...
, allowing for mutual influence in religious affairs. In the reigns of the Konbaung kings that followed, both secular and religious literary works were created. King Mindon Min
Mindon Min
Mindon Min was the penultimate king of Burma from 1853 to 1878. He was one of the most popular and revered kings of Burma. Under his half brother King Pagan, the Second Anglo-Burmese War in 1852 ended with the annexation of Lower Burma by the British Empire. Mindon and his younger brother Kanaung...
moved his capital to Mandalay
Mandalay
Mandalay is the second-largest city and the last royal capital of Burma. Located north of Yangon on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River, the city has a population of one million, and is the capital of Mandalay Region ....
. After Lower Burma
Lower Burma
Lower Burma is a geographic region of Burma and includes the low-lying Irrawaddy delta , as well as coastal regions of the country ....
had been conquered by the British, Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
began to gain acceptance. Many monks from Lower Burma had resettled in Mandalay, but by decree of Mindon Min, they returned to serve the Buddhist laypeople. However, schisms arose among the Sangha
Sangha
Sangha is a word in Pali or Sanskrit that can be translated roughly as "association" or "assembly," "company" or "community" with common goal, vision or purpose...
, which were resolved during the Fifth Buddhist Synod
Fifth Buddhist council
The Fifth Buddhist council took place in Mandalay, Burma in 1871 AD in the reign of King Mindon. The chief objective of this meeting was to recite all the teachings of the Buddha according to the Theravada Pali Canon and examine them in minute detail to see if any of them had been altered,...
, held in Mandalay in 1871. From 1860 to 1868, the Tipitaka was engraved on 729 marble slabs and assembled in the Kuthodaw Pagoda
Kuthodaw Pagoda
Kuthodaw Pagoda is a Buddhist stupa, located in Mandalay, Burma , that contains the world's largest book. It lies at the foot of Mandalay Hill and was built during the reign of King Mindon. The stupa itself, which is gilded above its terraces, is high, and is modelled after the Shwezigon Pagoda...
. In 1871, a new hti (the gold umbrella that crowns a stupa
Stupa
A stupa is a mound-like structure containing Buddhist relics, typically the remains of Buddha, used by Buddhists as a place of worship....
) encrusted with jewels from the crown was also donated by Mindon Min for the Shwedagon now in British Burma.
During the British administration of Lower
Lower Burma
Lower Burma is a geographic region of Burma and includes the low-lying Irrawaddy delta , as well as coastal regions of the country ....
and Upper Burma
Upper Burma
Upper Burma refers to a geographic region of Burma , traditionally encompassing Mandalay and its periphery , or more broadly speaking, Kachin and Shan States....
, also known as Burma Proper, government policies were secular which meant monks were not protected by law. Nor was Buddhism patronised by the colonial government. This resulted in tensions between the colonised Buddhists and their European rulers. There was much opposition (including by the Irish monk U Dhammaloka
U Dhammaloka
U Dhammaloka was an Irish-born hobo turned Buddhist monk, atheist critic of Christian missionaries, and temperance campaigner who took an active role in the Asian Buddhist revival around the turn of the twentieth century....
) to the efforts by Christian missionaries to convert the Burmese people, Bamar, Shan, Mon, Rakhine and plains Karen, with one exception - the hill tribes. Today, Christianity is most commonly practised by the Chin
Chin people
The Chin , known as the Kuki in Assam, are one of the ethnic groups in Burma. The Chins are found mainly in western part of Burma and numbered circa 1.5 million. They also live in nearby Indian states of Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur and Assam. Owing to Mizo influence and Baptist missionaries'...
, Kachin, and the Kayin
Karen people
The Karen or Kayin people , are a Sino-Tibetan language speaking ethnic group which resides primarily in southern and southeastern Burma . The Karen make up approximately 7 percent of the total Burmese population of approximately 50 million people...
. Notwithstanding traditional avoidance of political activity, monks often participated in politics and in the struggle for independence.
Since 1948 when the country gained its independence from Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
, both civil and military governments have supported Theravada Buddhism. The 1947 Constitution states, "The State recognizes the special position of Buddhism as the faith professed by the great majority of the citizens of the Union." The Ministry of Religious Affairs, created in 1948, was responsible for administering Buddhist affairs in Burma. In 1954, the prime minister, U Nu
U Nu
For other people with the Burmese name Nu, see Nu .U Nu was a leading Burmese nationalist and political figure of the 20th century...
, convened the Sixth Buddhist Synod
Sixth Buddhist council
The Sixth Buddhist Council was a general council of Theravada Buddhism, held in a specially built cave and pagoda complex at Kaba Aye Pagoda in Yangon, Burma. The council was attended by 2,500 monastics from eight Theravada Buddhist countries...
at Kaba Aye Pagoda in Rangoon
Yangon
Yangon is a former capital of Burma and the capital of Yangon Region . Although the military government has officially relocated the capital to Naypyidaw since March 2006, Yangon, with a population of over four million, continues to be the country's largest city and the most important commercial...
(Yangon), which was attended by 2,500 monks, and established the World Buddhist University.
During the military rule of Ne Win
Ne Win
Ne Win was Burmese a politician and military commander. He was Prime Minister of Burma from 1958 to 1960 and 1962 to 1974 and also head of state from 1962 to 1981...
(1962–1988), he attempted to reform Burma under the Burmese Way to Socialism
Burmese Way to Socialism
The Burmese Way to Socialism refers to the ideology of the Socialist regime in Burma, from 1962 to 1988, when the 1962 coup d'état was led by Ne Win and the military to remove U Nu from power...
which contained elements of Buddhism. In the 8888 Uprising
8888 Uprising
The 8888 Nationwide Popular Pro-Democracy Protests was a series of marches, demonstrations, protests, and riots in the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma...
, many monks participated and were killed by Tatmadaw soldiers. The current military regime, the State Peace and Development Council
State Peace and Development Council
The State Peace and Development Council was the official name of the military regime of Burma , which seized power in 1988. On 30 March 2011, Senior General Than Shwe signed a decree to officially dissolve the Council....
(SPDC) patronises Buddhism, although persecution of Buddhists contrary to the regime, as well as persons of other religions, namely Islam and Christianity, continues.
Traditions
The culture of Burma is deemed synonymous with its Buddhism. There are many Burmese festivals all through the year, most of them related to BuddhismBuddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
. The Burmese New Year, Thingyan
Thingyan
Thingyan is the Burmese New Year Water Festival and usually falls around mid-April . It is a Buddhist festival celebrated over a period of four to five days culminating in the new year...
, also known as the water festival
Water festival
The Water Festival is the New Year's celebrations that take place in Southeast Asian countries such as Burma, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand as well as Yunnan, China. It is called the 'Water Festival' by Westerners because people pour water at one another as part of the cleansing ritual to welcome...
, has its origins in Hindu
Hinduism
Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Hinduism is known to its followers as , amongst many other expressions...
tradition, but it is also a time when many Burmese boys celebrate shinbyu
Shinbyu
Shinbyu is the Burmese term for a novitiation ceremony in the tradition of Theravada Buddhism, referring to the celebrations marking the samanera ordination of a boy under the age of 20....
, a special rite of passage
Rite of passage
A rite of passage is a ritual event that marks a person's progress from one status to another. It is a universal phenomenon which can show anthropologists what social hierarchies, values and beliefs are important in specific cultures....
by which a boy enters the monastery
Monastery
Monastery denotes the building, or complex of buildings, that houses a room reserved for prayer as well as the domestic quarters and workplace of monastics, whether monks or nuns, and whether living in community or alone .Monasteries may vary greatly in size – a small dwelling accommodating only...
for a short time as a novice monk.
Shinbyu
Sangha
Sangha is a word in Pali or Sanskrit that can be translated roughly as "association" or "assembly," "company" or "community" with common goal, vision or purpose...
by performing a shinbyu ceremony once they have reached the age of seven or older. A symbolic procession and ceremony of exchanging princely attire with that of an ascetic follows the example of the historical Buddha
Gautama Buddha
Siddhārtha Gautama was a spiritual teacher from the Indian subcontinent, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. In most Buddhist traditions, he is regarded as the Supreme Buddha Siddhārtha Gautama (Sanskrit: सिद्धार्थ गौतम; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual teacher from the Indian...
. He was born a royal prince called Siddartha Gautama, but left his palace on horse-back followed by his groom Chanda , in search of the Four Noble Truths
Four Noble Truths
The Four Noble Truths are an important principle in Buddhism, classically taught by the Buddha in the Dharmacakra Pravartana Sūtra....
and to attain Nirvana, after he found out that life is made up of suffering (dukkha
Dukkha
Dukkha is a Pali term roughly corresponding to a number of terms in English including suffering, pain, discontent, unsatisfactoriness, unhappiness, sorrow, affliction, social alienation, anxiety,...
) and the notion of self is merely an illusion (anatta
Anatta
In Buddhism, anattā or anātman refers to the notion of "not-self." In the early texts, the Buddha commonly uses the word in the context of teaching that all things perceived by the senses are not really "I" or "mine," and for this reason one should not cling to them.In the same vein, the Pali...
or non-self) when one day he saw the 'Four Great Signs' - the old, the sick, the dead, and the ascetic - in the royal gardens.
All Buddhists are required to keep the basic Five Precepts , and novices are expected to keep the Ten Precepts . Parent would expect them to stay at the monastery immersed in the teachings of the Buddha as members of the Sangha for a few weeks or longer, at least for the duration of Thingyan. They will have another opportunity to join the Sangha at the age of 20, taking the upasampada
Upasampada
Upasampadā literally means "approaching or nearing the ascetic tradition." In more common parlance it specifically refers to the rite of ordination by which one undertakes the Buddhist monastic life....
ordination, to become a fully fledged monk, keeping the 220 precepts of the full monastic rules (Patimokkha
Patimokkha
In Buddhism, the Patimokkha is the basic Theravada code of monastic discipline, consisting of 227 rules for fully ordained monks and 311 for nuns . It is contained in the Suttavibhanga, a division of the Vinaya Pitaka.- Parajika :...
), and perhaps remain a monk for life.
Buddhist holidays
Vesak
Vesākha is a holiday observed traditionally by Buddhists in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the South East Asian countries of Singapore, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Burma, and Indonesia...
is however the most sacred of all as the Buddha was born, became the Enlightened One
Bodhi
Bodhi is both a Pāli and Sanskrit word traditionally translated into English with the word "enlightenment", but which means awakened. In Buddhism it is the knowledge possessed by a Buddha into the nature of things...
, and entered Parinirvana
Parinirvana
In Buddhism, parinirvana is the final nirvana, which occurs upon the death of the body of someone who has attained complete awakening...
(died) on the same day, celebrated by watering the Bodhi tree
Bodhi tree
The Bodhi Tree, also known as Bo , was a large and very old Sacred Fig tree located in Bodh Gaya , under which Siddhartha Gautama, the spiritual teacher and founder of Buddhism later known as Gautama Buddha, is said to have achieved enlightenment, or Bodhi...
.
Pagoda festivals ( Paya pwè) held throughout the country also usually fall on full moon days and most of them will be on the full moon of Tabaung (February/March) including the Shwedagon pagoda. They attract not only crowds of pilgrims from near and far, often in caravans of bullock carts, but they also double as great market fairs where both local and itinerant traders set up their stalls and shops among food stalls, restaurants,and free open-air stage performances as well as theatre halls.
Buddhist lent
The three monsoonMonsoon
Monsoon is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation, but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea...
months from mid-July to mid-October coincide with the Buddhist Lent or Wa-dwin , a time when people are busy tilling their land and planting the paddyfields, and monks will not travel but stay at their monasteries ( Wa-kup or the rains retreat). Waso robes are offered at the beginning of lent, the end of which is marked by the Thadingyut Light Festival. The harvest is now in and robes ( thingan) are again offered at the Kathina
Kathina
Kathina is a Buddhist festival which comes at the end of Vassa, the three-month rainy season retreat for Theravada Buddhists. The season during which a monastery may hold a Kathina festival is one month long, beginning after the full moon of the eleventh month in the Lunar calendar .It is a time...
Festival usually held during October and November. Uposatha
Uposatha
The Uposatha is Buddhist day of observance, in existence from the Buddha's time , and still being kept today in Buddhist countries. The Buddha taught that the Uposatha day is for "the cleansing of the defiled mind," resulting in inner calm and joy...
or sabbath days are observed keeping the Eight Precepts by most during Thingyan and Lent, and by devout Buddhists all the year round.
Parents and elders also receive obeisance from younger members of the family at the beginning as well as the end of lent, after the tradition established by the Buddha himself. It was during lent that he ascended to the Tavatimsa Heaven in order to preach a sermon, as an act of gratitude, to his mother who had become a celestial being
Deva (Hinduism)
' is the Sanskrit word for god or deity, its related feminine term is devi. In modern Hinduism, it can be loosely interpreted as any benevolent supernatural beings. The devs in Hinduism, also called Suras, are often juxtaposed to the Asuras, their half brothers. Devs are also the maintainers of...
, and he was welcomed back to earth with a great festival of lights. Teachers receive the same obeisance, a tradition started by National Schools founded in defiance of the colonial administration and continued after independence by state schools.
Wedding ceremonies - nothing to do with religion and not conducted by the Sangha - are not held during the three months of lent, a custom which has resulted in a spate of weddings after Thadingyut or Wa-kyut, awaited impatiently by couples wanting to tie the knot.
Buddhist education
Burmese also send their children to the monastery to receive a Buddhist education, learning the Pali CanonPāli Canon
The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the only completely surviving early Buddhist canon, and one of the first to be written down...
, the life story of Gautama Buddha ( Buddhawin), the 550 Jataka tales
Jataka
The Jātakas refer to a voluminous body of literature native to India concerning the previous births of the Buddha....
( Nga-ya nga-ze nipattaw) - most importantly the Ten Great Incarnations ( Zatkyi sebwè), and the 38 Buddhist Beatitudes
Beatitudes
In Christianity, the Beatitudes are a set of teachings by Jesus that appear in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. The term Beatitude comes from the Latin adjective beatus which means happy, fortunate, or blissful....
( Thonzeshi hpya mingala) as soon as they have a good grounding of the three Rs
The three Rs
The three Rs are the foundations of a basic skills-orientated education program within schools: Reading, wRiting and aRithmetic.The phrase is attributed to a toast given by Sir William Curtis around 1825...
. Monks were the traditional teachers of the young and old alike until secular and missionary schools came into being during the British colonial administration. The Burmese word kyaung for school is derived from Hpongyi kyaung (monastery).
There has been a revival of monastic schools since the 1990s with the deepening economic crisis. Children from poor families that can ill afford fees, uniforms and books have renewed the demand for a free monastic education, and ethnic minorities such as the Shan, Pa-O
Pa-O
The Pa-Oh form an ethnic group in Burma, comprising approximately 600,000. The Pa-Oh form the second largest ethnic group in Shan State, and are classified as part of the "Shan National Race" by the government, although they are believed to be of Tibeto-Burman stock, and are ethnolinguistically...
, Palaung, Lahu
Lahu
The Lahu are an ethnic group of Southeast Asia and China.They are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China, where about 450,000 live in Yunnan province. An estimated 150,000 live in Burma. In Thailand, Lahu are one of the six main hill tribes; their...
and Wa
Wa State
Wa State is an unrecognised state in Myanmar and is currently subsumed under the official Wa Special Region 2 of the Northern Shan State. The administrative capital is Pangkham . The name Wa derives from an ethnic group, who speaks a language in the Austroasiatic family of languages...
are benefitting from this revival.
Monasticism
Buddhist monks, who are venerated throughout Burmese society, are approximately 400,000 strong. Nuns form an additional 75,000. Monks belong to one of two primary monastic orders ( gaing:) Thudhamma NikayaThudhamma Nikaya
Thudhamma Nikaya is the largest monastic order of monks in Burma, with 85-90% of Burmese monks belonging to this order. It is one of 9 legally sanctioned monastic orders in the country, under the 1990 Law Concerning Sangha Organizations...
(88% of Buddhist monks) and the more orthodox Shwegyin Nikaya
Shwegyin Nikaya
Shwegyin Nikaya is the name of the second largest monastic order of monks in Burma. Approximately 5% of Burmese monks belong to this order. It is one of 9 legally sanctioned monastic orders in the country, under the 1990 Law Concerning Sangha Organizations...
(7% of Buddhist monks). It is important to note that Burmese monastic orders do not differ in doctrine, but in monastic practice, lineage and organizational structure.
Other minor monastic orders include the Dwara Nikaya
Dwara Nikaya
Maha Dwara Nikaya , numbering a three to four thousand monks, primarily in Lower Myanmar. This order is very conservative with respect to Vinaya regulations. Its founding was inspired by nikaya reforms in Sri Lanka during the 19th century...
in Lower Burma, and Hngettwin Nikaya
Hngettwin Nikaya
Hngettwin Nikaya is the name of a monastic order of monks in Burma, numbering approximately 1,000 monks, primarily in Mandalay. Founded in the mid-19th century by the abbot of the Hngettwin Monastery, it is one of 9 legally sanctioned monastic orders in the country, under the 1990 Law Concerning...
in Mandalay, both of which have a few thousand member monks. There are a total of 9 legally-recognized monastic orders in Burma today, under the 1990 Law Concerning Sangha Organizations. There are also a number of esoteric
Esotericism
Esotericism or Esoterism signifies the holding of esoteric opinions or beliefs, that is, ideas preserved or understood by a small group or those specially initiated, or of rare or unusual interest. The term derives from the Greek , a compound of : "within", thus "pertaining to the more inward",...
Buddhist sects that are not recognized by any authority and incorporate non-Buddhist elements like alchemy
Alchemy
Alchemy is an influential philosophical tradition whose early practitioners’ claims to profound powers were known from antiquity. The defining objectives of alchemy are varied; these include the creation of the fabled philosopher's stone possessing powers including the capability of turning base...
, magic
Magic (paranormal)
Magic is the claimed art of manipulating aspects of reality either by supernatural means or through knowledge of occult laws unknown to science. It is in contrast to science, in that science does not accept anything not subject to either direct or indirect observation, and subject to logical...
and occultism.
The overwhelming majority of Burmese monks wear maroon
Maroon
Maroon, marooning, or marooned may refer to:* Maroon , a dark shade of red* Maroon , runaway slaves, of African origin, in the Americas* Marooning, the act of leaving someone on a deserted island-Music:...
-colored robes (sometimes ochre
Ochre
Ochre is the term for both a golden-yellow or light yellow brown color and for a form of earth pigment which produces the color. The pigment can also be used to create a reddish tint known as "red ochre". The more rarely used terms "purple ochre" and "brown ochre" also exist for variant hues...
), unlike in neighboring countries like Thailand, Laos and Sri Lanka, where monks commonly wear saffron
Saffron
Saffron is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the saffron crocus. Crocus is a genus in the family Iridaceae. Each saffron crocus grows to and bears up to four flowers, each with three vivid crimson stigmas, which are each the distal end of a carpel...
-colored robes.
Politics
Young Men's Buddhist Association
The YMBA, or Young Men's Buddhist Association, was first created in Sri Lanka as part of a bid to provide Buddhist institutions as an alternative to the Young Men's Christian Association, otherwise known as the YMCA. It has had many famous presidents such as the Cambridge-educated Philanthropist...
s (YMBA) - modelled on the YMCA
YMCA
The Young Men's Christian Association is a worldwide organization of more than 45 million members from 125 national federations affiliated through the World Alliance of YMCAs...
- which started to appear all over the country at the turn of the century. Buddhist monks along with students had been in the forefront of the struggle for independence and later for democracy, the best known leaders in history being U Ottama and U Seinda in Rakhine State
Rakhine State
Rakhine State is a Burmese state. Situated on the western coast, it is bordered by Chin State in the north, Magway Region, Bago Region and Ayeyarwady Region in the east, the Bay of Bengal to the west, and the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh to the northwest. It is located approximately between...
, and U Wisara who died after a protracted hunger strike in Yangon
Yangon
Yangon is a former capital of Burma and the capital of Yangon Region . Although the military government has officially relocated the capital to Naypyidaw since March 2006, Yangon, with a population of over four million, continues to be the country's largest city and the most important commercial...
prison. A major thoroughfare in Yangon is named after U Wisara. The League of Young Monks ( Yahanpyo) based in Mandalay
Mandalay
Mandalay is the second-largest city and the last royal capital of Burma. Located north of Yangon on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River, the city has a population of one million, and is the capital of Mandalay Region ....
is a well known activist organisation. The Burmese
Burmese language
The Burmese language is the official language of Burma. Although the constitution officially recognizes it as the Myanmar language, most English speakers continue to refer to the language as Burmese. Burmese is the native language of the Bamar and related sub-ethnic groups of the Bamar, as well as...
word for boycott is thabeik hmauk , which literally means to turn the monk's alms bowl upside down - declining to accept alms in protest.
U Nu
For other people with the Burmese name Nu, see Nu .U Nu was a leading Burmese nationalist and political figure of the 20th century...
, passed legislation influenced by Buddhism. He declared Buddhism the state religion which alienated minority groups, especially the Kachin
Kachin people
The Kachin people are a group of ethnic groups who largely inhabit the Kachin Hills in northern Burma's Kachin State and neighbouring areas of China and India. More than half of the Kachin people identify themselves as Christians - while a significant minority follow Buddhism and some also adhere...
. This added yet another group to the growing number of ethnic insurgencies. The present military government has been so keen to be seen as patrons of Buddhism that it has become a joke- "Burmese TV has only two colours, green and yellow" - describing the military green uniforms and monk's yellow robes or golden pagodas which dominate the screen.
Shwedagon Pagoda has been an important venue for large public meetings where both Aung San
Aung San
Bogyoke Aung San ; 13 February 1915 – 19 July 1947) was a Burmese revolutionary, nationalist, and founder of the modern Burmese army, the Tatmadaw....
and his daughter Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi, AC is a Burmese opposition politician and the General Secretary of the National League for Democracy. In the 1990 general election, her National League for Democracy party won 59% of the national votes and 81% of the seats in Parliament. She had, however, already been detained...
had made their famous speeches. During the second university strike in history of 1936 the students camped out on the Shwedagon terraces.
Aung San Suu Kyi returned from London to lead the National League for Democracy
National League for Democracy
The National League for Democracy is a Burmese political party founded on 27 September 1988. Nobel Peace Prize laureate Aung San Suu Kyi serves as its General Secretary. The party won a substantial parliamentary majority in the 1990 Burmese general election. However, the ruling military junta...
which was founded during the 1988 popular uprising
8888 Uprising
The 8888 Nationwide Popular Pro-Democracy Protests was a series of marches, demonstrations, protests, and riots in the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma...
, but was placed under house arrest in 1989; since she is a devout Buddhist and leader of the opposition, she is considered a socially engaged Buddhist.
In September 2007, Buddhists again took to the streets in mass protest
2007 Burmese anti-government protests
The 2007 Burmese anti-government protests were a series of anti-government protests that started in Burma on 15 August 2007...
against the military government. Thousand of junta military and police forces poured into Yangon
Yangon
Yangon is a former capital of Burma and the capital of Yangon Region . Although the military government has officially relocated the capital to Naypyidaw since March 2006, Yangon, with a population of over four million, continues to be the country's largest city and the most important commercial...
to try to control the situation, which rapidly deteriorated. A curfew was imposed and on the 25th of September troops surrounded Sule Pagoda. The protest continued to grow with regular citizens joining to support and defend the Buddhists. Over night junta forces invaded all the Buddhist monasteries in the country and imprisoned thousands of monks. Also, it was reported that Nobel prize winning human rights activist and Buddhist Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi, AC is a Burmese opposition politician and the General Secretary of the National League for Democracy. In the 1990 general election, her National League for Democracy party won 59% of the national votes and 81% of the seats in Parliament. She had, however, already been detained...
was removed from her home where she languished under house arrest and moved to the infamous Insein Prison
Insein Prison
Insein Prison is located in Yangon Division, near Yangon , the old capital of Myanmar. It is run by the military junta of Myanmar, the State Peace and Development Council, and used largely to repress political dissidents....
. Mass protests erupted over this and junta troops began firing on monks, civilians, and demonstrators in the largest clash since 1988, which left thousands injured and hundreds dead. Images of the brutality were aired worldwide. Leaders around the world condemned the junta's actions and many nations imposed economic sanctions on Burma in protest. President of the United States
President of the United States
The President of the United States of America is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces....
George W. Bush
George W. Bush
George Walker Bush is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States, from 2001 to 2009. Before that, he was the 46th Governor of Texas, having served from 1995 to 2000....
addressed the United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
, stating, "Every civilized nation has a responsibility to stand up for people suffering under a brutal military regime like the one that has ruled Burma for so long." The Burmese junta responded by trying to control media coverage, curtail travel, censor news stories, and shut down access to the Internet.
In November 2008, U Gambira
U Gambira
U Sandawbartha, commonly known by his pseudonym of U Gambira, , is an imprisoned leader of the All-Burma Monks' Alliance, a group which helped lead the 2007 Burmese anti-government protests....
, a leader of the All Burma Monks' Alliance was sentenced to 68 years in prison, at least 12 years of which will be hard labor; other charges against him are still pending. In early 2009, his sentence was reduced to 63 years. His sentence was protested by Human Rights Watch, and Amnesty International
Amnesty International
Amnesty International is an international non-governmental organisation whose stated mission is "to conduct research and generate action to prevent and end grave abuses of human rights, and to demand justice for those whose rights have been violated."Following a publication of Peter Benenson's...
considers him a prisoner of conscience
Prisoner of conscience
Prisoner of conscience is a term defined in Peter Benenson's 1961 article "The Forgotten Prisoners" often used by the human rights group Amnesty International. It can refer to anyone imprisoned because of their race, religion, or political views...
. Both groups have called for his immediate release.
Further reading
- Aung-Thwin, Michael, Pagan: The Origins of Modern Burma, (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, ,1985)
- Bischoff, Roger (1995) (PDF). Buddhism in Myanmar-A Short History. Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 955-24-0127-5.
- Charney, Michael W. (2006) Powerful Learning. Buddhist Literati and the Throne in Burma's Last Dynasty, 1752-1885. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan. http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=225773
- Ferguson, J.P. & Mendelson, E.M. (1981) Masters of the Buddhist Occult: The Burmese Weikzas. Contributions to Asian Studies 16, pp. 62-88.
- Hlaing, Maung Myint (August 1981). The Great Disciples of Buddha. Zeyar Hlaing Literature House. pp. 66–68.
- Matthews, Bruce The Legacy of Tradition and Authority: Buddhism and the Nation in Myanmar, in: Ian Harris (ed.), Buddhism and Politics in Twentieth-Century Asia. Continuum, London/New York 1999, pp. 26–53.
- Pranke, Patrick, "On Becoming a Buddhist Wizard," in Buddhism in Practice, ed. Donald Lopez (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995)
External links
- Buddhism in Myanmar BuddhaNet
- Buddhism in Myanmar G Appleton 1943
- Saddhamma Foundation Information about practicing Buddhist meditation in Burma.
- The Life of the Buddha in 80 Scenes from the Ananda Temple,Bagan,Myanmar
- Buddha's Irresistible Maroon Army Dr Michael W Charney, SOAS, TIMESONLINE, December 14, 2007
- Monks are heroes in Burma Tad Trueblood, The Spectrum &
Daily News, South Utah, July 10, 2008