The
Brazilian Declaration of Independence comprised a series of political events occurred in 1821-1825, most of which involved disputes between
BrazilBrazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, occupying nearly half of South America, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean...
and
PortugalPortugal , officially the Portuguese Republic , is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south and by Spain to the north and east...
regarding the call for independence presented by the Brazilian Kingdom. It is celebrated on
September 7 -
Independence DayThe Independence Day of Brazil , commonly called Sete de Setembro , is a national holiday observed in Brazil on September 7 of every year...
.
Independence movement
For a while colonial Brazil (and later Kingdom of Brazil) was the seat of King
João VIJohn VI, born Don John Mary Joseph Francis Javier of Paula Louis Anthony Dominic Raphael of Braganza , the Clement John VI, born Don John Mary Joseph Francis Javier of Paula Louis Anthony Dominic Raphael of Braganza (in Portuguese:Dom João Maria José Francisco Xavier de Paula Luís António Domingos...
and his government, after they fled from
NapoleonNapoleon Bonaparte later known as Napoleon I, and previously Napoleone di Buonaparte, was a military and political leader of France whose actions shaped European politics in the early 19th century.Born in Corsica and trained as an artillery officer in mainland France, Bonaparte rose to prominence...
's army during the
Napoleonic warsThe Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts declared against Napoleon's French Empire and changing sets of European allies by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionized European armies and played...
in 1808.
The eruption of the
Liberal Revolution of 1820The Liberal Revolution of 1820 was a political revolution that erupted in 1820 and lasted until 1826. It was unchained via a military insurrection in the city of Porto, in northern Portugal, that quickly and peacefully spread to the rest of the country. From 1807 to 1811 Napoleonic French forces...
started in
PortoPorto , also known as Oporto in English, is Portugal's second city and capital of the Norte NUTS II region. The city is located in the estuary of the Douro river in northern Portugal. The largest city in the region, Porto is considered the economic and cultural heart of the entire region...
, led the Royal family to return to Portugal in 1821. After João VI returned to Portugal, his heir-apparent Pedro became regent of the Kingdom of Brazil, with an informal understanding that he was to take the crown if Brazil came to be independent. He meant to rule frugally and started by cutting his own salary, centralizing scattered government offices, and selling off most of the royal horses and mules. He issued decrees that eliminated the royal salt tax, to spur the output of hides and dried beef; he forbade arbitrary seizure of private property, required a judge's
warrantMost often, the term warrant refers to a specific type of authorization; a writ issued by a competent officer, usually a judge or magistrate, which commands an otherwise illegal act that would violate individual rights and affords the person executing the writ protection from damages if the act is...
for arrests of freemen, and banned
secret trialA secret trial is a trial that is not open to the public, nor reported in the news. Generally no official record of the case or the judge's verdict is made available...
s,
tortureTorture, according to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, is:In addition to state-sponsored torture, individuals or groups may be motivated to inflict torture on others for similar reasons to those of a state; however, the motive for torture can also be for the sadistic gratification of...
, and other indignities. He also sent elected deputies to the Portuguese Assembly (
Cortes). However,
slavesSlavery is a form of forced labor in which people are considered to be the property of others. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to receive compensation...
continued to be bought and sold and disciplined with force, despite his assertion that their blood was the same color as his own blood.
In September 1821, the Portuguese Assembly, with only a portion of the Brazilian delegates present, voted to abolish the Kingdom of Brazil and the royal agencies in
Rio de JaneiroRio de Janeiro is the capital city of the State of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, and the third largest metropolitan area and agglomeration in South America. The city was the capital of Brazil for nearly two centuries, from 1763 to 1822 during the Portuguese colonial era, and...
, thus subordinating all provinces of Brazil directly to Lisbon. Accordingly, troops were sent to Brazil, and all Brazilian units were placed under Portuguese command. This marked the beginning of the small-scaled Brazilian War of Independence.
In January 1822, tension between Portuguese troops and the Luso-Brazilians (Brazilians of Portuguese ancestry) turned violent when Pedro, who had been ordered by the Assembly to return to Lisbon, refused to comply and vowed to stay. He had been moved by petitions from Brazilian towns, and by the argument that his departure and the dismantling of the central government would trigger separatist movements.
Pedro formed a new government headed by José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva of
São PauloSão Paulo is a state in Brazil. It is the major industrial and economic powerhouse of the Brazilian economy. It is named after Saint Paul. São Paulo has the largest population, industrial park and economic production of the country. It is the most populous subnational entity in the Western...
. This former royal official and professor of science at the
University of CoimbraThe University of Coimbra is a Portuguese public university in Coimbra, Portugal. It is one of the oldest universities in continuous operation in Europe and the world, the oldest university of Portugal, and one of its largest higher education and research institutions...
was crucial to the subsequent direction of events and is regarded as one of the formative figures of Brazilian
nationalismNationalism is an ideology, a sentiment, a form of culture, or a social movement that focuses on the nation. It is a type of collectivism emphasizing the collective of a specific nation...
, indeed, as the "Patriarch of Independence".
The atmosphere was so charged that Dom Pedro sought assurances of asylum on a British ship in case he lost the looming confrontation; he also sent his family to safety out of the city. In the following days, the Portuguese commander delayed embarcation, hoping that expected reinforcements would arrive. However, the reinforcements that arrived off Rio de Janeiro on March 5, 1822, were not allowed to land. Instead, they were given supplies for the voyage back to Portugal. This round had been won without bloodshed.
Violent insurgency
After Pedro's decision to defy the
Côrtes (The Portuguese Assembly), the "lead feet", as the Brazilians called the Portuguese troops, rioted before concentrating on Cerro Castello, which was soon surrounded by thousands of armed Brazilians. Dom Pedro then "dismissed" the Portuguese commanding general and ordered him to remove his soldiers across the bay to
NiteróiNiterói is a municipality in the state of Rio de Janeiro, southeast region of Brazil. This city was founded on November 22, 1573 by the Tupi Amerindian chief Araribóia...
, where they would await transport to Portugal. On the following days, the Portuguese commander delayed embarkation, hoping that expected reinforcements would arrive. However, the reinforcements that arrived off Rio de Janeiro on March 5, 1822, were not allowed to land. Instead, they were given supplies for the voyage back to Portugal. This round had been won without bloodshed.
Blood had been shed in
RecifeRecife is the 5th largest Metropolitan area in Brazil with 3,768,902 inhabitants, the largest metropolitan area of the North/Northeast Regions, the 4th largest metropolitan influence area in Brazil, and the capital of the state of Pernambuco. The population of the city proper was 1,561,659 in 2009...
in the Province of
PernambucoPernambuco is a state of Brazil, located in the Northeast region of the country. To the north are the states of Paraíba and Ceará, to the west is Piauí, to the south are Alagoas and Bahia, and to the east is the Atlantic Ocean. There are about 187 kilometers of beaches, some of the most...
, when the Portuguese garrison there had been forced to depart in November 1821. In mid-February 1822, Brazilians in
BahiaBahia is one of the 26 states of Brazil, and is located in the northeastern part of the country on the Atlantic coast.It is the fourth most populous Brazilian state after São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro, and the fifth-largest in size...
revolted against the Portuguese forces there, but were driven into the countryside, where they began guerrilla operations, signaling that the struggle in the north would not be without loss of life and property.
To secure
Minas GeraisMinas Gerais is one of the 26 states of Brazil, the second most populous and fourth largest by area in the federation. The capital is the city of Belo Horizonte, located near the central area...
and São Paulo, where there were no Portuguese troops but where there were doubts about independence, Dom Pedro engaged in some royal populism. Towns in Minas Gerais had expressed their loyalty at the time of Pedro's vow to remain, save for the junta in
Ouro PrêtoVila Rica do Ouro Preto is a city in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, a former colonial mining town located in the Serra do Espinhaço mountains and designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO because of its outstanding Baroque architecture.-Important Data:Population: Data from the 2000 Census *...
, the provincial capital. Pedro realized that unless Minas Gerais were solidly with him, he would be unable to broaden his authority to other provinces. With only a few companions and no ceremony or pomp, Pedro plunged into Minas Gerais on horseback in late March 1822, receiving enthusiastic welcomes and allegiances everywhere.
Back in Rio de Janeiro on May 13, he was proclaimed the "Perpetual Defender of Brazil" by the São Paulo legislative assembly and shortly thereafter called a Constituent Assembly (
Assembléia Constituinte) for the next year. To deepen his base of support, he joined the Freemasons, who, led by José Bonifácio Andrada e Silva, were pressing for parliamentary government and independence. More confident, in early August he called on the Brazilian deputies in Lisbon to return, decreed that Portuguese forces in Brazil should be treated as enemies. He had already decreed that no decree from the Government of Lisbon would be carried out by officers in Brazil without his consent.
Proclamation of Independence
Seeking to duplicate his triumph in Minas Gerais, Pedro rode to São Paulo in August to assure himself of support there and began a disastrous affair with Domitila de Castro that would later weaken his government. Returning from an excursion to Santos, Pedro received messages from his wife and from Andrada e Silva that the Côrtes considered his government traitorous and was dispatching more troops. In a famous scene at the shore of the
IpirangaIpiranga is a historical borough located in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, composed by the districts of Ipiranga, Cursino and Sacomã. The name Ipiranga comes from the river of the same name located in the region, which means "red river" in Tupí-Guaraní...
river on September 7, 1822, he had to choose between returning to Portugal in disgrace or opting for independence. He tore the Portuguese blue and white insignia from his uniform, drew his sword, and swore:
"By my blood, by my honour, and by God: I will make Brazil free." Their motto, he said, would be
"Independência ou Morte!" (
"Independence or Death!").
Military consolidation
To consolidate his claim, Pedro — now Emperor Pedro I of Brazil — hired Admiral
Thomas CochraneAdmiral Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald, Marquess do Maranhão, GCB, ODM , styled Lord Cochrane between 1778 and 1831, was a senior British naval flag officer and radical politician...
, one of Britain's most successful naval commanders in the Napoleonic Wars and recently commander of the Chilean naval forces against
SpainSpain , officially the Kingdom of Spain , is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.
[The Spanish constitution does not establish any official denomination of the country, even though España , Estado español and Nación española are used interchangeably...]
. He also hired a number of Admiral Cochrane's officers, and the French General Pierre Labatut, who had fought in Colombia. These men were to lead the fight to drive the Portuguese out of Bahia, Maranhão, and Pará, and to force those areas to replace Lisbon's rule with that of Rio de Janeiro. Money from customs at Rio de Janeiro's port and local donations outfitted the army and the nine-vessel fleet. The use of foreign mercenaries brought needed military skills. The much-feared Cochrane secured
MaranhãoMaranhão is one of the states of Brazil in the north-eastern region. To the north is the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. Neighboring states are Piauí, Tocantins and Pará. The people of Maranhão have a distinctive accent...
with a single warship, despite the Portuguese military's attempt to disrupt the economy and society with a scorched-earth campaign and with promises of freedom for the slaves. By mid-1823 the contending forces numbered between 10,000 and 20,000 Portuguese, some of whom were veterans of the
Napoleonic WarsThe Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts declared against Napoleon's French Empire and changing sets of European allies by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionized European armies and played...
, versus 12,000 to 14,000 Brazilians, mostly in militia units from the Northeast.
In fact, although both sides generally avoided massive set battles, they did engage in guerrilla tactics, demonstrations, and countermoves. There is little information on casualties, but the fighting provided a female martyr in Mother Joana Angélica, who was bayoneted to death by Portuguese troops invading her convent in
BahiaBahia is one of the 26 states of Brazil, and is located in the northeastern part of the country on the Atlantic coast.It is the fourth most populous Brazilian state after São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro, and the fifth-largest in size...
; and an example of female grit in Maria Quitéria de Jesus, who, masquerading as a man, joined the Imperial army and achieved distinction in several battles.
International recognition
Britain and Portugal recognized Brazilian independence by signing a treaty on August 29, 1825. Until then, the Brazilians feared that Portugal would resume its attack. Portuguese retribution, however, came in a financial form. Secret codicils of the treaty with Portugal required that Brazil assume payment of 1.4 million pounds sterling owed to Britain and indemnify Dom
João VIJohn VI, born Don John Mary Joseph Francis Javier of Paula Louis Anthony Dominic Raphael of Braganza , the Clement John VI, born Don John Mary Joseph Francis Javier of Paula Louis Anthony Dominic Raphael of Braganza (in Portuguese:Dom João Maria José Francisco Xavier de Paula Luís António Domingos...
and other Portuguese for losses totaling 600,000 pounds sterling. Brazil also renounced future annexation of Portuguese African colonies, and in a side treaty with Britain, promised to end the slave trade. Neither of these measures pleased the Brazilian slave-holding planters, and
slavery in BrazilSlavery in Brazil shaped the country's social structure and ethnical landscape. During the colonial epoch and for over six decades after the 1822 independence, slavery was a mainstay of the Brazilian economy, especially in mining and sugar cane production....
would continue for several decades after independence.
See also
- Battle of Jenipapo
The Battle of Jenipapo was fought near the river Jenipapo in the then province of Piauí, on 13 March 1823, between the Brazilian Army and the Portuguese Army during the Brazilian War of Independence....
- Battle of Pirajá
The Battle of Pirajá was fought in the then province of Bahia, on 8 November 1822, between the Brazilian Army and the Portuguese Army during the Brazilian War of Independence....
- Battle of Itaparica
The Battle of Itaparica was fought in the then province of Bahia, from 7 January to 9 January 1823, between the Brazilian Army and Armada and the Portuguese Army and Navy during the Brazilian War of Independence....
- Battle of May 4
The Battle of May 4 was fought in open sea near Salvador in the then province of Bahia, on 4 May 1823, between the Brazilian Armada and the Portuguese Navy during the Brazilian War of Independence....
- Siege of Salvador
The Siege of Salvador occurred during the Brazilian War of Independence, during which the Brazilian Army, under Pierre Labatut, attempted to capture the city of Salvador in Bahia from its Portuguese Army defenders. The siege lasted from 2 March 1822 until 2 July 1823, finally ending when the...
- Siege of Montevideo (1823)
The Siege of Montevideo occurred during the Brazilian War of Independence, during which the Brazilian Army under Carlos Frederico Lécor attempted to capture the city of Montevideo in Cisplatine from the Portuguese Army of Álvaro da Costa de Sousa Macedo. The siege lasted from 20 January 1823 until...
- Siege of Recife
- Siege of Caxias
The Siege of Caxias was a siege during the Brazilian War of Independence in which the Brazilian Army under the command of José Pereira Filgueiras attempted to capture the city of Caxias in Maranhão, which was defended by the Portuguese Army of João José da Cunha Fidié...
- Siege of Belém
- History of Brazil
The History of Brazil begins with the arrival of the first indigenous peoples, over 8,000 years ago by crossing the Bering land bridge into Alaska and then entering the rest of North and Central America....
- Colonial Brazil
In the History of Brazil, Colonial Brazil comprises the period from 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese, until 1815, when Brazil was elevated to United Kingdom with Portugal....
- Brazilian Empire
The Empire of Brazil was a political entity that comprised present-day Brazil under the rule of Emperors Pedro I and his son Pedro II. Founded in 1822, it was replaced by a republic in 1889....
- List of wars involving Brazil