Society of True Christians
Encyclopedia
The Society of True Christians (c. 1530-1545), whose original name was Confraternita dei Buoni Cristiani, was a philosophy study group in Malta
which sought freedom of thought and action. It was made up of both clerical and lay persons, and its members were Maltese
as well as foreign. Its area of specialisation in philosophy was chiefly ethics
. It also gave considerable importance to biblical studies
.
, Francis (or François) Gesualdo, and the other Maltese
, Andrew Axac (or Axiak).
, in 1526 when Axac transferred his own school there from Mdina
. Though other private schools were also present, theirs became quickly known for their somewhat unorthodox teachings. Gesualdo’s and Axac’s friendship might have begun during this time.
Axac did not stay long at Birgu
, just a year or less. In 1527 he returned to Mdina
where he continued teaching there for some twenty-five years (up till around 1533). It seems that his school, was quite popular. Gesualdo also moved his school to Mdina
very shortly after Axac’s relocation.
. That was the year in which the Knights Hospitallers were entrusted with the Maltese islands. The society functioned uninterruptedly for some fifteen years under the guidance of the two priests.
The society was made up of many of the students or former students, and friends, of both Gesualdo and Axac. They met regularly to read and share the writings of Martin Luther
, and also of some others, such as Melanchthon and Erasmus. These authors and all their writings were condemned by the Holy See
, and as such were fanatically sought out by the Inquisition
.
writers, the members of the society harboured an alternative view to the current model of the Catholic Church, to which they all belonged. Amongst other matters, they seem to have denied the divine foundation of the sacraments and their supernatural efficacy, the law of celibacy
, the veneration of saints and of sacred images, indulgences, the existence of purgatory
, and the primacy of the Roman pontiff
(the pope
).
Most members of the society were in possession of a copy of the New Testament
in vernacular
, which some had brought over from Sicily
. Though it is not known which was the precise version they possessed, various editions could be found, notably those of Martin Luther
, Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples
, the William Tyndale
, and the Froschau Bible
. This helped them to adhere to, and deepen, their own version of the philosophia Christi (the philosophy of Christ), about which they read in Erasmus’ writings.
The society thus believed in a religion
which was not doctrinal, and had no theology
, but was solely inspired from the spirituality
and morality
of the New Testament
.
caught up with Gesualdo and Axac, and accused them and their associates of heresy
. They were all held prisoners at the palace of the Inquisition
at Birgu
while their lengthy proceedings were ongoing. They were probably also tortured.
Eventually, the larger part of the society members were let off with an admonition. However, Gesualdo and another member, Petit, who were considered to be the most pernicious (perniciosissimus hæreticus). They both refused to reject their beliefs, and were thus condemned to be burned at the stake
(uti pertinax et impœnitens ad ignem vivus damnatus). Their condemnation was publicly read at the church of St. Lawrence at Birgu
on November 5, 1545. The execution was implemented immediately afterwards on that same day at the main square of Birgu
. These were the first and, fortunately, the last execution of the sort ever performed in Malta
.
After Gesualdo’s and Petit’s killing, the society was disbanded forever.
since they were considered the most ‘dangerous’ of all. The students, for instance, of both Gesualdo and Axac were never formally accused of heresy, and thus their names, unfortunately, have been lost.
, the likelihood of any of their writings surviving is next to nil. However, neither is it impossible.
The period of their operation was indeed bleak. Nevertheless, these people dared to entertain a new philosophy and dream a new world-view. Their ruthless destruction only goes on to prove how extraordinary their endeavour was.
The main source of information about the society is practically only that of the annals of the Inquisition
. This not only means that the records are extremely difficult to research (if not by a thorough expert in the field) but also taken with a pinch of salt, since the objective of the archives is not to show its victims favourably or in their true light but, on the contrary, to heap upon them shame and dishonour.
Though the members of the society had the New Testament
as their basic text, this is certainly not the only reading they did. They were thoroughly familiar with the Greek and Latin classics, with major Christian philosophers, and with the new readings of people like Melanchthon and Erasmus, amongst others. Their ultimate objective was, it seems, to develop a kind of ethical philosophy which was innovative and refreshing, leaving behind them the thought categories of old and discovering a philosophy which was at once more authentic and sensible.
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
which sought freedom of thought and action. It was made up of both clerical and lay persons, and its members were Maltese
Maltese people
The Maltese are an ethnic group indigenous to the Southern European nation of Malta, and identified with the Maltese language. Malta is an island in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea...
as well as foreign. Its area of specialisation in philosophy was chiefly ethics
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
. It also gave considerable importance to biblical studies
Biblical studies
Biblical studies is the academic study of the Judeo-Christian Bible and related texts. For Christianity, the Bible traditionally comprises the New Testament and Old Testament, which together are sometimes called the "Scriptures." Judaism recognizes as scripture only the Hebrew Bible, also known as...
.
Life of the Society
The society was basically a joint venture between two priests, one FrenchFrench people
The French are a nation that share a common French culture and speak the French language as a mother tongue. Historically, the French population are descended from peoples of Celtic, Latin and Germanic origin, and are today a mixture of several ethnic groups...
, Francis (or François) Gesualdo, and the other Maltese
Maltese people
The Maltese are an ethnic group indigenous to the Southern European nation of Malta, and identified with the Maltese language. Malta is an island in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea...
, Andrew Axac (or Axiak).
The Founders
Both priests had separate schools of their own. Gesualdo already had an up and running school at BirguBirgu
Birgu is an ancient city in Malta. It played a vital role in the Siege of Malta in 1565. Its population stood at 2,633 in December 2008.-History:...
, in 1526 when Axac transferred his own school there from Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
. Though other private schools were also present, theirs became quickly known for their somewhat unorthodox teachings. Gesualdo’s and Axac’s friendship might have begun during this time.
Axac did not stay long at Birgu
Birgu
Birgu is an ancient city in Malta. It played a vital role in the Siege of Malta in 1565. Its population stood at 2,633 in December 2008.-History:...
, just a year or less. In 1527 he returned to Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
where he continued teaching there for some twenty-five years (up till around 1533). It seems that his school, was quite popular. Gesualdo also moved his school to Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
very shortly after Axac’s relocation.
Proceedings
Around 1530, Gesualdo and Axac together began the Society of True Christians at MdinaMdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
. That was the year in which the Knights Hospitallers were entrusted with the Maltese islands. The society functioned uninterruptedly for some fifteen years under the guidance of the two priests.
The society was made up of many of the students or former students, and friends, of both Gesualdo and Axac. They met regularly to read and share the writings of Martin Luther
Martin Luther
Martin Luther was a German priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517...
, and also of some others, such as Melanchthon and Erasmus. These authors and all their writings were condemned by the Holy See
Holy See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...
, and as such were fanatically sought out by the Inquisition
Inquisition
The Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
.
Beliefs
Inspired by the ReformationReformation
- Movements :* Protestant Reformation, an attempt by Martin Luther to reform the Roman Catholic Church that resulted in a schism, and grew into a wider movement...
writers, the members of the society harboured an alternative view to the current model of the Catholic Church, to which they all belonged. Amongst other matters, they seem to have denied the divine foundation of the sacraments and their supernatural efficacy, the law of celibacy
Celibacy
Celibacy is a personal commitment to avoiding sexual relations, in particular a vow from marriage. Typically celibacy involves avoiding all romantic relationships of any kind. An individual may choose celibacy for religious reasons, such as is the case for priests in some religions, for reasons of...
, the veneration of saints and of sacred images, indulgences, the existence of purgatory
Purgatory
Purgatory is the condition or process of purification or temporary punishment in which, it is believed, the souls of those who die in a state of grace are made ready for Heaven...
, and the primacy of the Roman pontiff
Primacy of the Roman Pontiff
The primacy of the Bishop of Rome is an ecclesiastical doctrine held by some branches of Christianity, most notably the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion. The doctrine concerns the respect and authority that is due to the Bishop of Rome from bishops and their...
(the pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
).
Most members of the society were in possession of a copy of the New Testament
New Testament
The New Testament is the second major division of the Christian biblical canon, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament....
in vernacular
Vernacular
A vernacular is the native language or native dialect of a specific population, as opposed to a language of wider communication that is not native to the population, such as a national language or lingua franca.- Etymology :The term is not a recent one...
, which some had brought over from Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
. Though it is not known which was the precise version they possessed, various editions could be found, notably those of Martin Luther
Luther Bible
The Luther Bible is a German Bible translation by Martin Luther, first printed with both testaments in 1534. This translation became a force in shaping the Modern High German language. The project absorbed Luther's later years. The new translation was very widely disseminated thanks to the printing...
, Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples
Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples
Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples or Jacob Faber Stapulensis was a French theologian and humanist. He was a precursor of the Protestant movement in France. The "d’Étaples" was not part of his name as such, but used to distinguish him from Jacques Lefèvre of Deventer, a less significant contemporary, a...
, the William Tyndale
Tyndale Bible
The Tyndale Bible generally refers to the body of biblical translations by William Tyndale. Tyndale’s Bible is credited with being the first English translation to work directly from Hebrew and Greek texts. Furthermore it was the first English biblical translation that was mass produced as a result...
, and the Froschau Bible
Zürich Bible
The Zürich Bible is a Bible translation historically based on the translation by Huldrych Zwingli. Recent editions have the stated aim of maximal philological exactitude.-Froschau Bible:...
. This helped them to adhere to, and deepen, their own version of the philosophia Christi (the philosophy of Christ), about which they read in Erasmus’ writings.
The society thus believed in a religion
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
which was not doctrinal, and had no theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
, but was solely inspired from the spirituality
Spirituality
Spirituality can refer to an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality; an inner path enabling a person to discover the essence of his/her being; or the “deepest values and meanings by which people live.” Spiritual practices, including meditation, prayer and contemplation, are intended to develop...
and morality
Morality
Morality is the differentiation among intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are good and bad . A moral code is a system of morality and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code...
of the New Testament
New Testament
The New Testament is the second major division of the Christian biblical canon, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament....
.
Termination
In 1545, the InquisitionInquisition
The Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
caught up with Gesualdo and Axac, and accused them and their associates of heresy
Heresy
Heresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
. They were all held prisoners at the palace of the Inquisition
Inquisition
The Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
at Birgu
Birgu
Birgu is an ancient city in Malta. It played a vital role in the Siege of Malta in 1565. Its population stood at 2,633 in December 2008.-History:...
while their lengthy proceedings were ongoing. They were probably also tortured.
Eventually, the larger part of the society members were let off with an admonition. However, Gesualdo and another member, Petit, who were considered to be the most pernicious (perniciosissimus hæreticus). They both refused to reject their beliefs, and were thus condemned to be burned at the stake
Burned at the Stake
Burned at the Stake is a 1981 film directed by Bert I. Gordon. It stars Susan Swift and Albert Salmi.-Cast:*Susan Swift as Loreen Graham / Ann Putnam*Albert Salmi as Captaiin Billingham*Guy Stockwell as Dr. Grossinger*Tisha Sterling as Karen Graham...
(uti pertinax et impœnitens ad ignem vivus damnatus). Their condemnation was publicly read at the church of St. Lawrence at Birgu
Birgu
Birgu is an ancient city in Malta. It played a vital role in the Siege of Malta in 1565. Its population stood at 2,633 in December 2008.-History:...
on November 5, 1545. The execution was implemented immediately afterwards on that same day at the main square of Birgu
Birgu
Birgu is an ancient city in Malta. It played a vital role in the Siege of Malta in 1565. Its population stood at 2,633 in December 2008.-History:...
. These were the first and, fortunately, the last execution of the sort ever performed in Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
.
After Gesualdo’s and Petit’s killing, the society was disbanded forever.
Known members
The following are certainly not the only member of the society. They are the ones whose names have been recorded in the records of the InquisitionInquisition
The Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
since they were considered the most ‘dangerous’ of all. The students, for instance, of both Gesualdo and Axac were never formally accused of heresy, and thus their names, unfortunately, have been lost.
- Francis Gesualdo (d. 1545) – A FrenchFrench peopleThe French are a nation that share a common French culture and speak the French language as a mother tongue. Historically, the French population are descended from peoples of Celtic, Latin and Germanic origin, and are today a mixture of several ethnic groups...
priestPriestA priest is a person authorized to perform the sacred rites of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particular, rites of sacrifice to, and propitiation of, a deity or deities...
considered by the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
as the leader of the society. He ran a private school, mostly at MdinaMdinaMdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
, for over twenty years, mainly teaching humane lettere (human arts). He founded the Society of True Christians around 1530 together with Andrew Axac. In 1545, accused before the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
, he was found guilty of heresyHeresyHeresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
, deemed impenitent, and burned at the stakeBurned at the StakeBurned at the Stake is a 1981 film directed by Bert I. Gordon. It stars Susan Swift and Albert Salmi.-Cast:*Susan Swift as Loreen Graham / Ann Putnam*Albert Salmi as Captaiin Billingham*Guy Stockwell as Dr. Grossinger*Tisha Sterling as Karen Graham...
.
- Andrew Axac – A MalteseMaltese peopleThe Maltese are an ethnic group indigenous to the Southern European nation of Malta, and identified with the Maltese language. Malta is an island in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea...
priestPriestA priest is a person authorized to perform the sacred rites of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particular, rites of sacrifice to, and propitiation of, a deity or deities...
from Rabat, MaltaRabat, MaltaRabat is a village just outside Mdina, Malta. The name of the village is derived from the Arabic word for 'suburb': الرباط, as it was the suburb of the old capital Mdina. Half of the present-day village core also formed part of the Roman city of Melita, before the latter was resized during the...
. Unfortunately, his dates of birth and death are not known yet. It seems probable that he studied abroad, perhaps SicilySicilySicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
or NaplesNaplesNaples is a city in Southern Italy, situated on the country's west coast by the Gulf of Naples. Lying between two notable volcanic regions, Mount Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields, it is the capital of the region of Campania and of the province of Naples...
, since he was well acquainted with the philosophy of the humanists. He had a private school, majorly at MdinaMdinaMdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
, before 1525 where he taught humane lettere (human arts). He founded the Society of True Christians around 1530 together with Francis Gesualdo. After 1545, when Gesualdo was burned at the stakeBurned at the StakeBurned at the Stake is a 1981 film directed by Bert I. Gordon. It stars Susan Swift and Albert Salmi.-Cast:*Susan Swift as Loreen Graham / Ann Putnam*Albert Salmi as Captaiin Billingham*Guy Stockwell as Dr. Grossinger*Tisha Sterling as Karen Graham...
for heresyHeresyHeresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
, and Axac left off with just an admonition, Axac continued with his former beliefs. In fact, in defiance to the law of celibacy, around 1550, he lived with a concubine. Before that, however, in 1553, he was entrusted with the school of the bishopBishopA bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, in the Assyrian Church of the East, in the Independent Catholic Churches, and in the...
’s cathedralCathedralA cathedral is a Christian church that contains the seat of a bishop...
at MdinaMdinaMdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
. In 1560, however, the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
sent him to RomeRomeRome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
, ItalyItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, to face charges of heresyHeresyHeresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
. He was interrogated at length and perhaps also tortured. He signed an abjurationAbjurationAbjuration is the solemn repudiation, abandonment, or renunciation by or upon oath, often the renunciation of citizenship or some other right or privilege. .-Abjuration of the realm:...
on March 10, 1561, and awarded ‘spiritual’ punishments. His whereabouts after this are not known. He probably died abroad.
- Petit (d. 1545) – Little is known of the man, though he was probably not of MalteseMaltese peopleThe Maltese are an ethnic group indigenous to the Southern European nation of Malta, and identified with the Maltese language. Malta is an island in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea...
origin. At some time, he seems to have joined the Society of True Christians, for when in 1545, formal accusations were brought before the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
against its members, Petit was considered to be one of the most staunch. He was thus found guilty and, together with Francis Gesualdo, was condemned on November 5, 1545, and burned at the stakeBurned at the StakeBurned at the Stake is a 1981 film directed by Bert I. Gordon. It stars Susan Swift and Albert Salmi.-Cast:*Susan Swift as Loreen Graham / Ann Putnam*Albert Salmi as Captaiin Billingham*Guy Stockwell as Dr. Grossinger*Tisha Sterling as Karen Graham...
in BirguBirguBirgu is an ancient city in Malta. It played a vital role in the Siege of Malta in 1565. Its population stood at 2,633 in December 2008.-History:...
’s main square.
- Matthew Falzun Sr. (d. c. 1574) – He was a member of the popular council of MdinaMdinaMdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
intermittently between 1534 and 1570. In 1545 he was accused before the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
together with its other members of the Society of True Christians, and at first was released. Then, however, he was accused once more and sentenced to keep MaltaMaltaMalta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
as his prisonPrisonA prison is a place in which people are physically confined and, usually, deprived of a range of personal freedoms. Imprisonment or incarceration is a legal penalty that may be imposed by the state for the commission of a crime...
. He was very much esteemed by his contemporaries. Years later, in 1574, he was again arrested by the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
, probably as part of some corrupt practices on the part of the inquisitorInquisitorAn inquisitor was an official in an Inquisition, an organisation or program intended to eliminate heresy and other things frowned on by the Roman Catholic Church...
, for there were on charges of heresyHeresyHeresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
against him. Eventually, he was spirited away to SicilySicilySicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
, killed, and had his body burnt. All his considerable property in MaltaMaltaMalta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
was appropriated by the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
, and this might have been the motive of his arrest and assassination. Since it was spread about that Falzun had, by some pact with the devilDevilThe Devil is believed in many religions and cultures to be a powerful, supernatural entity that is the personification of evil and the enemy of God and humankind. The nature of the role varies greatly...
, mysteriously vanished from the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
’s dungeons in MaltaMaltaMalta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
, it was rumoured that he was a witch (sahhar). Nevertheless, his effigyEffigyAn effigy is a representation of a person, especially in the form of sculpture or some other three-dimensional form.The term is usually associated with full-length figures of a deceased person depicted in stone or wood on church monuments. These most often lie supine with hands together in prayer,...
was put on public trial, sentenced to death, and burned at the stakeBurned at the StakeBurned at the Stake is a 1981 film directed by Bert I. Gordon. It stars Susan Swift and Albert Salmi.-Cast:*Susan Swift as Loreen Graham / Ann Putnam*Albert Salmi as Captaiin Billingham*Guy Stockwell as Dr. Grossinger*Tisha Sterling as Karen Graham...
in BirguBirguBirgu is an ancient city in Malta. It played a vital role in the Siege of Malta in 1565. Its population stood at 2,633 in December 2008.-History:...
’s main square.
- Matthew Falzun Jr. – Son of Matthew Falzun Sr., whose fate he would have shared to the end if he had not escaped to SicilySicilySicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
immediately upon the arrest of his father by the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
in 1574. Since the main intent of this arrest was the appropriation of his father’s property, as his principal inheritor he was likewise in mortal danger. In his absence, the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
in MaltaMaltaMalta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
accused him of heresyHeresyHeresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
just the same, brought his effigyEffigyAn effigy is a representation of a person, especially in the form of sculpture or some other three-dimensional form.The term is usually associated with full-length figures of a deceased person depicted in stone or wood on church monuments. These most often lie supine with hands together in prayer,...
to an open trial, passed sentence, and burned his effigyEffigyAn effigy is a representation of a person, especially in the form of sculpture or some other three-dimensional form.The term is usually associated with full-length figures of a deceased person depicted in stone or wood on church monuments. These most often lie supine with hands together in prayer,...
in BirguBirguBirgu is an ancient city in Malta. It played a vital role in the Siege of Malta in 1565. Its population stood at 2,633 in December 2008.-History:...
’s main square. Falzun Jr. was never apprehended, and his whereabouts after his escape to SicilySicilySicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
remain known.
- Lawrence Falzun – The nephew of Matthew Falzun Sr., and the cousin of Matthew Falzun Jr. He would have shared the same fate of his uncle if he had not escaped to FranceFranceThe French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
immediately upon the arrest of his uncle and cousin by the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
in 1574. Since the main intent of this arrest was the appropriation of his father’s property, as the next inheritor after his cousin he was likewise in mortal danger. In his absence, the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
in MaltaMaltaMalta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
accused him of heresyHeresyHeresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
just the same, brought his effigyEffigyAn effigy is a representation of a person, especially in the form of sculpture or some other three-dimensional form.The term is usually associated with full-length figures of a deceased person depicted in stone or wood on church monuments. These most often lie supine with hands together in prayer,...
to an open trial, passed sentence, and burned his effigyEffigyAn effigy is a representation of a person, especially in the form of sculpture or some other three-dimensional form.The term is usually associated with full-length figures of a deceased person depicted in stone or wood on church monuments. These most often lie supine with hands together in prayer,...
in BirguBirguBirgu is an ancient city in Malta. It played a vital role in the Siege of Malta in 1565. Its population stood at 2,633 in December 2008.-History:...
’s main square. Falzun was never apprehended, and his whereabouts after his escape to FranceFranceThe French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
remain known.
- Peter Stunica– Little is known about his personal life. In 1545, he was brought before the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
as a member of the Society of True Christians, and accused of heresyHeresyHeresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
. He was sentenced to a fine and some temporary ‘spiritual’ punishments. Nothing else is known of his whereabouts after that.
- Brandan Caxaro (c. 1508-1565) – A MalteseMaltese peopleThe Maltese are an ethnic group indigenous to the Southern European nation of Malta, and identified with the Maltese language. Malta is an island in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea...
priest from MdinaMdinaMdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
, today he is better known as the transcriber of Peter Caxaro’s famous CantilenaCantilenaIl Cantilena is the oldest known literary text in the Maltese language. It dates from the 15th century but was not found until 1966 or 1968 by Prof. Godfrey Wettinger and Fr. M. Fsadni . The poem is attributed to Pietru Caxaro, and was recorded by Caxaro's nephew, Brandano, in his notarial...
. He studied abroad, probably at NaplesNaplesNaples is a city in Southern Italy, situated on the country's west coast by the Gulf of Naples. Lying between two notable volcanic regions, Mount Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields, it is the capital of the region of Campania and of the province of Naples...
or PalermoPalermoPalermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
. In 1531 he was already ordained a priestPriestA priest is a person authorized to perform the sacred rites of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particular, rites of sacrifice to, and propitiation of, a deity or deities...
. He worked as a notaryNotaryA notary is a lawyer or person with legal training who is licensed by the state to perform acts in legal affairs, in particular witnessing signatures on documents...
, and it is in one of his tomes that he transcribed his relative’s CantilenaCantilenaIl Cantilena is the oldest known literary text in the Maltese language. It dates from the 15th century but was not found until 1966 or 1968 by Prof. Godfrey Wettinger and Fr. M. Fsadni . The poem is attributed to Pietru Caxaro, and was recorded by Caxaro's nephew, Brandano, in his notarial...
around 1535. In 1545, he was brought before the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
as a member of the Society of True Christians accused of heresyHeresyHeresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
. However, he pleaded guilty, declared himself penitent, demanded forgiveness, and was forgiven. Nevertheless, privately Caxaro did not give up his former beliefs. In fact, around 1550 he took a wife, Katarina Azopardo, without applying for dispensationDispensation (Catholic Church)In the canon law of the Roman Catholic Church, a dispensation is the suspension by competent authority of general rules of law in particular cases...
from the popePopeThe Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
. She bore him five children. In 1563, he was brought before the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
again, and sentenced to be indefinitely imprisoned at the dungeons of the place of the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
at BirguBirguBirgu is an ancient city in Malta. It played a vital role in the Siege of Malta in 1565. Its population stood at 2,633 in December 2008.-History:...
together with a host of other punishments, both spiritual and temporal. Caxaro submitted, and just a year later, in 1564, was allowed to work as a notary once more. Gradually, he was pardoned of the other punishments. Nevertheless, Caxaro was not to enjoy his new-found honour, for he died just two weeks after the end of the Great Siege of Malta of 1565, on September 22.
- Peter Cumbo – Nothing is known about his personal life except that in 1545 he was brought before the InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
as a member of the Society of True Christians, and accused of heresyHeresyHeresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
. He was sentenced to a fine and some temporary ‘spiritual’ punishments. Nothing else is known of his whereabouts after that.
Works
Up till now no work is known to have survived by the society or by any of its members. Since the members were all submitted to the scrutiny of the InquisitionInquisition
The Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
, the likelihood of any of their writings surviving is next to nil. However, neither is it impossible.
Appreciation
The Society of True Christians must be appreciated against the social, political, religious and historical background of its time. Considering all of this, what Gesualdo and Axac did was certainly outstanding and amazing. The whole group was truly exceptional. It was not only up to date in terms of knowledge (considering the limitations of the time) but also philosophically engaging and interesting. Its members must be also considered to be very courageous people.The period of their operation was indeed bleak. Nevertheless, these people dared to entertain a new philosophy and dream a new world-view. Their ruthless destruction only goes on to prove how extraordinary their endeavour was.
The main source of information about the society is practically only that of the annals of the Inquisition
Inquisition
The Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
. This not only means that the records are extremely difficult to research (if not by a thorough expert in the field) but also taken with a pinch of salt, since the objective of the archives is not to show its victims favourably or in their true light but, on the contrary, to heap upon them shame and dishonour.
Though the members of the society had the New Testament
New Testament
The New Testament is the second major division of the Christian biblical canon, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament....
as their basic text, this is certainly not the only reading they did. They were thoroughly familiar with the Greek and Latin classics, with major Christian philosophers, and with the new readings of people like Melanchthon and Erasmus, amongst others. Their ultimate objective was, it seems, to develop a kind of ethical philosophy which was innovative and refreshing, leaving behind them the thought categories of old and discovering a philosophy which was at once more authentic and sensible.