Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Encyclopedia
This article discusses the organizational
and administrative structure
of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ("Nobility Commonwealth" or "Commonwealth of Both Nations", in Polish: Rzeczpospolita Szlachecka or Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów; in Lithuanian: Abiejų Tautų Respublika or sometimes Žečpospolita, in Belarusian: Рэч Паспалітая Абодвух Народаў) was a confederative
aristocratic
republic
of the period 1569 – 1795, comprising the Kingdom of Poland
, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
and their fiefs. The Commonwealth was governed by the Parliament (Sejm
) consisting of the King, the King-appointed Senate (Voivodes, Castellans, Ministers, Bishops) and the rest of hereditary nobility
either in person or through the Lower Sejm (consisting of deputies representing their lands). The nobility's constitutional domination of the state made the King very weak and the commoners (burgesses and peasants) almost entirely unrepresented in the Commonwealth's political system.
The Commonwealth's administrative system was a pre-bureaucracy
. In terms of Max Weber
's tripartite classification of authority
, it was, as with other contemporary monarchies
, largely based on "traditional domination". There was, however, evidence of "rational-legal authority
" in the nobility's
respect for law
s such as the Pacta conventa
.
The Privy council
and Upper chamber of the First Republic's Sejm
(parliament
, or diet
) was the Senat (now Senate
), comprising Bishop
s, Voivode, Castellan
and ministers (central officials). The list of dignitaries eligible to serve in the Senat had been finalized when, in the Union of Lublin
(1569), the Kingdom of Poland
and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
were transformed into the confederal state of Crown of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania
, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The most important official was the Primate
, who was the Archbishop of Gniezno. From 1572, the first time that Poland had been without a king (the Jagiellon Dynasty
having died out with King Zygmunt II August), the Archbishop of Gniezno served as interrex
, i.e. as interim head of state until a new king could be elected. He represented the country and prepared elections for a new king.
In addition, the Archbishop of Gniezno had the power to call a new Senat session, if he deemed it important to do so, even in the absence of the King. He could also invoke the "de non praestanda obedientia" article, giving the country the right to legally depose the King. From among other senators, he chose his own court marshal (often a Castellan
). That person acted as the Archbishop's messenger during Senat meetings, giving signs (by moving a cross) that conveyed how the Archbishop wished his allies to vote. The Archbishop of Gniezno had two deputies: the bishops of Wrocław and Poznań
.
Of secular Senators, the foremost was the Castellan (Kasztelan) of Kraków
. Other Castellans, however, were considered to be lesser dignitaries than the Voivodes.
The power of the Voivodes had declined since that title had been introduced about the 12th century; in the 17th century, however, they were still the highest regional dignitaries. They were the highest representatives of their Voivodeship
s to the Senat. They were the leaders of the Land Parliaments (Sejmiki Wojewódzkie, Voivodeship Sejmik
s). They were in charge of assembling local nobility's military forces in the event of a pospolite ruszenie
(levée en masse
). Each chose a Deputy Voivode, who was responsible for setting local prices and measures. Voivodes were chosen by the King, except for those of Połock Voivode and Vilna Voivode, who were elected by (and from) the local nobility (but still had to be appointed by the King).
Except for the Castellan
of Kraków Land (which has its seat in a privileged city, as the Commonwealth's capital to 1596), Castellans were often considered subordinate to Voivodes. A Castellan
was in charge of part of a Voivodship (till the 15th century called a Castellany
, and thereafter divided into provinces for Major Castellans and powiat
s for Minor Castellans).
From 1565, the principle of "incompatibilitas
" ("incompatibility") forbade Voivodes and Castellans to hold a second title as a Minister, except for the post of Hetman
. Ministers were comparable to modern central-government officials. They were 10 officials (5 for the Crown of Poland, 5 for Lithuania). The Ministers were the Grand Marshal of the Crown (Marszałek Wielki Koronny), Grand Marshal of Lithuania (Marszałek Wielki Litewski), Grand Chancellor of the Crown (Kanclerz Wielki Koronny), Grand Chancellor of Lithuania (Kanclerz Wielki Litewski), Vice-Chancellor of the Crown (Podkanclerzy Koronny), Vice-Chancellor of Lithuania (Podkanclerzy Litewski), Grand Treasurer of the Crown (Podskarbi Wielki Koronny), Grand Treasurer of Lithuania (Podskarbi Wielki Litewski), Court Marshal of the Crown (Marszałek Nadworny Koronny) and Court Marshal of Lithuania (Marszałek Nadworny Litewski). Court Marshals were considered subordinate to Grand Marshals. Lithuanian ministers, while vested with the same powers as Crown Ministers, were considered below them in precedence. Hetmans were also considered "Ministers" but had no seat in the Senat.
A Marshal's duties consisted in providing security to the King and keeping order where he was present. Marshals commanded two regiment
s of infantry
, a regiment of militia
, and a special court of law with a marshal's judge (sędzia marszałkowski), marshal's clerk (pisarz marszałkowski) and assessor
s (singular: asesor). These courts passed sentence
on the spot, without possibility of appeal
. For crime
s such as drawing a weapon in the King's presence, the penalty was death. A Marshal's court had jurisdiction
over all crimes committed against the royal court and by courtier
s.
When the King traveled, Marshals supervised the local Voivodes. The Marshals decided who would be admitted to royal audience. They were the organizers and masters of royal and court ceremonies (including weddings, funerals and the like). They were the masters of the court, kept track of lesser courtiers, and (where applicable) set their salaries. Each Marshal wielded a marshal's staff, which he had received from the Chancellor (Kanclerz
). In exchange, all Chancellor nominations were heralded by the Marshals. If no Marshal was present, his functions were carried out by a Grand Treasurer or secular Grand Chancellor. On formal occasions and during travel, where appropriate, a Marshal with his staff of office preceded the King. Close after the Marshals in the hierarchy were the Chancellors.
From 1507, the title of Grand Chancellor of the Crown was rotated between secular and ecclesiastic Chancellors. After the Union of Lublin
(1569), the two offices, Chancellor (Kanclerz) and Subchancellor (Podkanclerzy) were doubled (Chancellors of the Crown, for the Crown of Poland, and Chancellors of Lithuania). The Chancellor and his respective Subchancellor (who was not a direct subordinate of the Chancellor) were responsible for the work of two Chancelleries, a Major and a Minor. These were expected to be in constant contact and to develop common policies. Their responsibilities included foreign
and internal affairs.
The Chancellors' offices were the "Chancelleries" (Crown and Lithuanian, Major and Minor). The Chancelleries were staffed with a "Regens," Secretaries
(singular: Sekretarz), Scriptors (singular: Pisarz), clerks and "metrykants." The Regens divided the work among the clerks. Two Secretaries (one for private, the other for official, correspondence
) presented the ready letters to the King for signature. The Scriptors drafted the letters, the clerks prepared the final copies. The documents were also copied into books called "Metryki" (singular: Metryka), which were kept by two "metrykants", each, in Poland and Lithuania. The Grand Chancellor's Metrykant was called the Grand Metrykant, the Subchancellor's was the Lesser Metrykant. The Chancelleries' staffs, like the Chancellors, received no wages, but the middle of each reception room featured a box into which clients were expected to deposit varying amounts of money, and no one who planned to return could afford to be stingy.
The Chancellors also had judiciary
powers, exercised through assessors’ courts, which were the highest appellate courts for persons subject to crown law (i.e., not subject to ecclesiastic or magnate
courts). Each such court was staffed by a secretary, Referendary (Referendarz) and writer. In the 17th century, each such court was enlarged to include four assessors; and, in 1775, a metrykants and a regens.
The Chancellor often gave speeches representing the royal will. The symbol of his office was the Seal
, which was used to seal all documents passing through his office. He also sealed documents signed by the monarch, and could refuse to seal a document that he considered illegal or damaging to the state (such documents had no force without his seal). When the King died, the seal was destroyed at his funeral and a new one was issued to the Chancellor by the late King's succeessor. Therefore the Chancellors were considered the guardians of the King and state, ensuring that the King's folly would not endanger the state by forcing it into an unnecessary war (the wars that were prevented by the Chancellors included a great crusade against the Ottoman Empire
that King Władysław IV Waza had planned in the 1630s).
The Chancellor's powers tended to be reinforced by the fact that wars required funds that were appropriated by the Senate
. The richer nobles
who controlled the Senate were usually loath to increase and levy taxes upon themselves, which meant that Poland herself very rarely declared wars. Usually she was attacked by her neighbors, and while she repelled all attacks till the end of the 18th century, she almost never exploited her victories. The army was undermanned and underequipped (since usually any suggestion to augment the military budget
when an enemy was not on the Commonwealth's doorstep was labeled as warmongering) and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's lands were constantly ravaged by new invasions that crippled the economy.
Last among the ministers were the Grand Treasurers. They kept accounts of the state finances, cash flow and State Treasury, and controlled the minting of coin. Since, like the Chancellors, they received no wages, corruption ran rampant and a sizable portion of state finances was lost in their pockets. If a Treasurer moved to another post, he was obliged to render accounts of his disbursements, and if he died, his family were required to produce them. A telling story is that of Bogusław Leszczyński, who while a Grand Treasurer (1650–1658) was offered a Chancellor's post, which he accepted in 1658. He bribed the members of the Parliament to grant him "absolution", and when one of them later opposed him, he asked, curious: "Who's this son of a bitch that I failed to pay off?"
Grand Treasurers supervised lesser officials such as the Master of the Mint (mincerz), dyspensators, kurators, tax collectors (poborca podatkowy), superintendents (overseer of customs officers), customs officers (celnik) and subkolektors. It should be remembered that, in those times, goods – as well as people – were taxed not only at borders but at bridges, crossroads and city gates.
See Castellans of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for details.
The Senate also included Bishop
s of Poland. See Bishops of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for details. After 1668, though there was no law explicitly forbidding it, no non Roman Catholics were nominated to the senatorial offices. It is interesting to note, that even the 1717 laws did not forbid Calvinists or the Orthodox
known as "dyssydents" to sit in the Senate.
The most important such officials were the Great Secretaries (singular: sekretarz wielki), Crown and Lithuanian. Only a man of the cloth
could be a Great Secretary. These functionaries were considered more consequential than any district or court official, with the exception of the Court Marshal. They could act as Chancellors when no Chancellor was in attendance. They dealt with secret letters; in Senat they read out letters of the King's and resolutions of the Sejm
. The Great Secretaries often acted as Assessors and were called "innate Assessors."
Next were 4 Referendaries (singular: referendarz), 2 secular and 2 ecclesiastic, one each for the Crown and for Lithuania. They rarely left the royal court, and their duties consisted in hearing petitions and complaints, which they referred (hence their name) to the King. They also acted as judges in cases involving peasants from the King's lands, and often acted as Assessors at other courts. Close to the office of Referendary was that of the "Instygator" — what today would be termed a State Prosecutor. One each for Crown and for Lithuania, the Instygators were tasked with uncovering and dealing with crimes against the King and the country, and were authorized to prosecute any dignitary save the King. They had deputies known as "viceinstygators."
Then came the Great Writers (singular: pisarz wielki) – one for the Crown, three for Lithuania. It was their task to clarify royal decrees and send letters to those dignitaries who must hear of them. They often acted as ambassadors and Assessors.
The Crown Keeper (kustosz koronny) was the official responsible for safeguarding the Royal Treasury, where the royal insignia were kept. The keys to the Treasury were held by the Great Treasurer and six voivods, and without each of them, the Treasury could not be opened. Traditionally, the Crown Keeper was chosen from among the priests of Kraków Cathedral. The Lithuanian Keeper was actually called a Treasurer (skarbny).
From 1647, the ministers were joined by a Postmaster General (Poczmistrz generalny, also known as Poczmistrz naczelny or Generał poczmistrz), the supervisor of the Royal Post, founded in 1547.
In principle, Polish-Lithuanian officials enjoyed life tenure. Of several notable exceptions to that rule, the most important involved the Senat Marshal, who chaired Senat meetings and could suggest, but not determine, the subject of a meeting. Traditionally, the post of Senat Marshal rotated among Senators from the three prowincyje ("provinces" — major divisions) of the Republic, or Commonwealth: Wielkopolska ("Greater Poland") and Małopolska ("Lesser Poland"), in the "Polish Crown"; and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
.
The office of Marshal of the Sejm
(Marszałek Sejmu) existed only during sessions of the Commonwealth's parliament (the Sejm). The Marshal chose the Secretary of the Sejm
(sekretarz sejmowy), who kept the records of Sejm meetings.
The highest court for nobles was called the Crown Tribunal
(Trybunł Koronny, created 1579) and was headed by a Tribunal President and a Marshal. The Marshal was chosen from and by the judges themselves, while the President dealt with ecclesiastic matters (and was himself a high-ranking priest). There was also a Lithuanian Tribunal (Trybunał Litewski) and Crown and Lithuanian Treasury courts, created in 1613 (Trybunał Skarbowy Koronny, Trybunał Skarbowy Litewski). Salaries for all judges were set at Sejm meetings.
Salt mines (żupy solne) were supervised by a żupnik. Other less important dignitaries named by the King or Sejm to deal with specific short-term questions were called "commissars", "lustrates", "revisers", "delegates", "legates" or "deputies."
Court officials may be divided into those who served the King, and those who ensured the smooth running of his court (in the 16th century, comprising some 1,000-1,500 persons). Since the first group were not subject to the principle of incompatibilitas, they often held another title, usually that of a lesser district official such as a starosta
. Of those who served the King, the most important was the Master of the Kitchen, who supervised the kitchen staff and equipment and the preparation of foods. During feasts, he announced the successive dishes.
Second in importance was the Pantler, who began setting the table. During feasts, he directed the setting of the dishes, aided by the Steward. The Carver finished setting the table with plates and utensils, and during the feast carved all the dishes that required the knife. After carving, he tasted them (by the 17th century, this was merely a tradition, left over from the days when this official used to detect poison).
Drink was seen to by the Cupbearer and the Royal Cupbearer. The first tasted of the drinks, poured them and ordered them; the second, upon receiving them from the former, served them to the King. A description of a 1596 banquet in the reign of King Sigismund III Vasa
was set down by the secretary to the Papal Nuncio (ambassador), Giorgio Paolo Mucante: "Each dish was first given, with a bow, by the Master of the Kitchen to the Carver, who passed it to the Pantler. The latter dipped a prepared piece of bread into the dish, touched it to his tongue, then discarded it into a nearby silver bin. It took quite a while before the King and the Cardinal could begin eating, as they had to bear with all the ceremonies. The Carver bowed so often that I truly think that during the feast he bowed at least 3,000 times."
A second set of dignitaries was headed by the Court Marshal (see above):
The Queen had her own court, staffed with women; its influence in the country was much smaller.
s. As with most offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, "hetman" was a job for life and its holder could not be removed even if he was a poor commander. Until the beginning of the 18th century, hetman
s were not paid for their services.
Hetmans were very independent; they could maintain their own foreign contacts with the Ottoman Empire
, Russia and the Tatars
. They allocated their military budgets as they saw fit. As the highest military commanders and administrators, hetmans made administrative and juridical law concerning the military; from 1590, such law had the same force as the Sejm's legislation.
A Hetman's symbol of office was a mace (buława), which was added to his coat of arms
. There were two kinds of hetman (in addition to the division into Crown and Lithuanian) — "Great" and "Field." Field Hetmans were subordinate to Great Hetmans, and were sometimes called "Border Hetmans" (hetmani kresowi), since they had evolved from commanders of permanent garrisons on Poland's southeastern borders (a great school of warfare, since it was an area almost constantly under attack by the Ottoman Turks
and the Tatars).
The Hetmans chose a commissioner for a two-year period who commanded the Commonwealth's Cossack
troops. Below the Hetmans were Deputy Hetmans titled Regimentarz, who commanded voivodship levées en masse
.
Hetman and Regimentarz were accompanied by a staff of officers titled Great Guard, Field Guard, Field Clerk, Great Quartermaster and Field Quartermaster. These officers were salaried (the Lithuanian Field Guard, Field Clerk and Quartermaster received 15,000 Polish złotych per annum; the Crown Field Clerk, 30,000).
The Great Guard directed the scout forces while on the march and in camp and commanded the advance guard (however, if both Hetmans were present, the Field Hetman acted as Great Guard). Field Guards were found only on the eastern borders.
The Field Clerks kept accounts of men, equipment and weapons, and paid the soldiers' wages.
The Quartermasters selected campsites, built the camps, and provided logistics and camp security.
After 1635, several new military titles were created:
The combat readiness of troops was overseen by Inspector Generals (however, it is unclear exactly when "in the 17th century" they were created).
See: Coats of arms
of hetman
s and several other dignitaries here:http://www.bezuprzedzen.pl/urzedy/urzedygaleria.html.
rules were treated as mere suggestions. Thus Bełz Voivodeship had only 4 of the 15 prescribed dignitaries; most northern voivodships had about 5; and in Wołyń and Bracław Voivodeships the hierarchical order was almost reversed. Each province or district had its own set of officials — a list of provinces may be found in the article on provinces and geography of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
District officials were appointed by the King, with a few exceptions (local parliaments — sejmiki — chose Chamberlains, District Judges, Deputy District Judges, District Clerks, and in Lithuania also Standard-bearers and District Marshals). Chamberlains, except for the name, had nothing in common with the Court officials of the same name. They administered a court of law (the Chamberlain's Court) which had jurisdiction over property disputes. The District Judge headed the District Court, which had jurisdiction over civil and some criminal matters involving local nobility.
The Starosta
generalny ("General Starosta") was the official in charge of a specific territory. The Starosta grodowy ("City Starosta") was in charge of cities, while the Starosta niegrodowy ("Non-City Starosta") was responsible for administration of the Crown land
s. These were to be kept in good financial and military order. While in time these administrative responsibilities became smaller (as Kings gave away more and more land), the Starosta remained in charge of the City Courts (sądy grodzkie), which dealt with most criminal matters and had jurisdiction over all local and visiting nobility. They dealt with the most severe cases (killings, rapes, robberies) and were quite harsh (highway robbery was punishable with death), which generally made Poland a safer country than its neighbors. The Starostas also held the "power of the sword", which meant that they enforced the verdicts of all other courts. Non-City Starostas had no juridical powers.
Standard-bearers carried the local banner during Royal ceremonies, and in war when local troops served in the Army. During war, Wojski
s maintained order and security in their territories. In Lithuania, the responsibilities of Ciwuns were similar to those of non-city starostas (elders). District marshals presided over local parliaments (in the "Crown", District Marshals were chosen only for the duration of the parliament session, and so were much less powerful than those of Lithuania, who were chosen for life).
The most important official was the Starosta
. He was supported by a Borough Substarosta (podstarości grodowy), Burgrave
(Burgrabia), Notary (Notariusz) and Scriptor (Pisarz). The Borough Substarosta assisted the Starosta and in his absence acted in his name with all his powers. Lower city officials were the Borough Regent (rejent grodzki), Borough Notary (notariusz grodzki), Borough Scriptor (pisarz grodzki) and common clerks ("subclerks" — podpiskowie).
In the eastern territories bordering on Russia, from 1667, a "Border Judge" cooperated with Russian judges in cases involving parties from the two countries; his rulings were final.
Judges were chosen from among the local hereditary nobles and had little formal training; therefore the quality of the courts varied from judge to judge, and levels of corruption were high. Attorneys, on the other hand, were required to have professional training. Sometimes a court included an asesor, who assisted the judge and collected fines and fees. Prosecutors were extremely rare. Instygators maintained order and security on court grounds, and a court runner (woźny) delivered summons.
In 1717 the "Numb Diet" barred non-Roman Catholics from being elected Envoys (to the Parliament), and to any other land offices if there was another Roman Catholic contender. The rights of the "Dissidents", as they were called, were reinstated in 1768, and in 1772 their representation in the Diet was limited to a stautory of two members. These rules were finally abolished in 1792 by the 3rd May Constitution.
Every city (without exception) had a Council and a Bench, the Council being the administrative branch and the Bench the judicial branch. A new Council was chosen by the old one whose term had expired. The Council was responsible for administration, law, privileges, security, finances, guild oversight, and the like. The Council chose the Mayor, and its members' decision was final — even the Starosta or Voivode could only listen to the Mayor's swearing-in and could not refuse to give him his seal. The Council met daily in the larger cities, less often in smaller ones.
The Mayor headed the Council and controlled the executive branch. He was responsible for conciliation, the care of the poor, and maintaining order by suppressing alcohol abuse and games of chance. Second to the Mayor was the Council Clerk, who ran the City Chancellery. The City Clerk (Syndyk Miejski) collected city taxes and supervised the tax collectors. Security and order in the city were the responsibility of the Hutman. He also supervised the city jail and the keyman who unlocked and locked the city gates at dawn and dusk.
The Lonar was the city treasurer, who oversaw its finances. He supervised the officials who controlled marketplace scales to ensure fair trade. Large cities also had scores of less common officials, such as Pipemasters, responsible for pipes and wells; Fire Chiefs; and City Translators, who assisted foreigners and looked out for spies.
The Bench was chaired by a wójt. He and the other Bench members were chosen by the Council for a year's term from among lesser city officials (writers, clerks, etc.).
City Chief Executioners executed not only criminals sentenced by the Bench, but often criminals sentenced by other non-military courts in Poland. They were well paid, sometimes functioned as physicians, but were also often considered social outcasts and lived outside the city walls.
A village mayor was called the sołtys and was the administrative, executive and judicial chief for the village, responsible only to the village's owner.
Organizational structure
An organizational structure consists of activities such as task allocation, coordination and supervision, which are directed towards the achievement of organizational aims. It can also be considered as the viewing glass or perspective through which individuals see their organization and its...
and administrative structure
Public administration
Public Administration houses the implementation of government policy and an academic discipline that studies this implementation and that prepares civil servants for this work. As a "field of inquiry with a diverse scope" its "fundamental goal.....
of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dualistic state of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch. It was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th‑century Europe with some and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million at its peak in the early 17th century...
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ("Nobility Commonwealth" or "Commonwealth of Both Nations", in Polish: Rzeczpospolita Szlachecka or Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów; in Lithuanian: Abiejų Tautų Respublika or sometimes Žečpospolita, in Belarusian: Рэч Паспалітая Абодвух Народаў) was a confederative
Confederation
A confederation in modern political terms is a permanent union of political units for common action in relation to other units. Usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution, confederations tend to be established for dealing with critical issues such as defense, foreign...
aristocratic
Aristocracy
Aristocracy , is a form of government in which a few elite citizens rule. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning "rule of the best". In origin in Ancient Greece, it was conceived of as rule by the best qualified citizens, and contrasted with monarchy...
republic
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
of the period 1569 – 1795, comprising the Kingdom of Poland
History of Poland
The History of Poland is rooted in the arrival of the Slavs, who gave rise to permanent settlement and historic development on Polish lands. During the Piast dynasty Christianity was adopted in 966 and medieval monarchy established...
, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
and their fiefs. The Commonwealth was governed by the Parliament (Sejm
Sejm
The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Poseł in Polish . It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of the Sejm ....
) consisting of the King, the King-appointed Senate (Voivodes, Castellans, Ministers, Bishops) and the rest of hereditary nobility
Nobility
Nobility is a social class which possesses more acknowledged privileges or eminence than members of most other classes in a society, membership therein typically being hereditary. The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be...
either in person or through the Lower Sejm (consisting of deputies representing their lands). The nobility's constitutional domination of the state made the King very weak and the commoners (burgesses and peasants) almost entirely unrepresented in the Commonwealth's political system.
The Commonwealth's administrative system was a pre-bureaucracy
Bureaucracy
A bureaucracy is an organization of non-elected officials of a governmental or organization who implement the rules, laws, and functions of their institution, and are occasionally characterized by officialism and red tape.-Weberian bureaucracy:...
. In terms of Max Weber
Max Weber
Karl Emil Maximilian "Max" Weber was a German sociologist and political economist who profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the discipline of sociology itself...
's tripartite classification of authority
Tripartite classification of authority
Max Weber distinguished three ideal types of legitimate political leadership, domination and authority:# charismatic authority ,# traditional authority and...
, it was, as with other contemporary monarchies
Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
, largely based on "traditional domination". There was, however, evidence of "rational-legal authority
Rational-legal authority
Rational-legal authority is a form of leadership in which the authority of an organization or a ruling regime is largely tied to legal rationality, legal legitimacy and bureaucracy...
" in the nobility's
Szlachta
The szlachta was a legally privileged noble class with origins in the Kingdom of Poland. It gained considerable institutional privileges during the 1333-1370 reign of Casimir the Great. In 1413, following a series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of...
respect for law
Law
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...
s such as the Pacta conventa
Pacta conventa (Poland)
Pacta conventa was a contractual agreement, from 1573 to 1764 entered into between the "Polish nation" and a newly-elected king upon his "free election" to the throne.The pacta conventa affirmed the king-elect's pledge to respect the laws of the...
.
Senatorial offices
The Privy council
Privy council
A privy council is a body that advises the head of state of a nation, typically, but not always, in the context of a monarchic government. The word "privy" means "private" or "secret"; thus, a privy council was originally a committee of the monarch's closest advisors to give confidential advice on...
and Upper chamber of the First Republic's Sejm
Sejm
The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Poseł in Polish . It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of the Sejm ....
(parliament
Parliament
A parliament is a legislature, especially in those countries whose system of government is based on the Westminster system modeled after that of the United Kingdom. The name is derived from the French , the action of parler : a parlement is a discussion. The term came to mean a meeting at which...
, or diet
Diet (assembly)
In politics, a diet is a formal deliberative assembly. The term is mainly used historically for the Imperial Diet, the general assembly of the Imperial Estates of the Holy Roman Empire, and for the legislative bodies of certain countries.-Etymology:...
) was the Senat (now Senate
Senate of Poland
The Senate is the upper house of the Polish parliament, the lower house being the 'Sejm'. The history of the Polish Senate is rich in tradition and stretches back over 500 years, it was one of the first constituent bodies of a bicameral parliament in Europe and existed without hiatus until the...
), comprising Bishop
Bishop
A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, in the Assyrian Church of the East, in the Independent Catholic Churches, and in the...
s, Voivode, Castellan
Castellan
A castellan was the governor or captain of a castle. The word stems from the Latin Castellanus, derived from castellum "castle". Also known as a constable.-Duties:...
and ministers (central officials). The list of dignitaries eligible to serve in the Senat had been finalized when, in the Union of Lublin
Union of Lublin
The Union of Lublin replaced the personal union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with a real union and an elective monarchy, since Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellons, remained childless after three marriages. In addition, the autonomy of Royal Prussia was...
(1569), the Kingdom of Poland
Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)
The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state created by the accession of Jogaila , Grand Duke of Lithuania, to the Polish throne in 1386. The Union of Krewo or Krėva Act, united Poland and Lithuania under the rule of a single monarch...
and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
were transformed into the confederal state of Crown of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The most important official was the Primate
Primate (religion)
Primate is a title or rank bestowed on some bishops in certain Christian churches. Depending on the particular tradition, it can denote either jurisdictional authority or ceremonial precedence ....
, who was the Archbishop of Gniezno. From 1572, the first time that Poland had been without a king (the Jagiellon Dynasty
Jagiellon dynasty
The Jagiellonian dynasty was a royal dynasty originating from the Lithuanian House of Gediminas dynasty that reigned in Central European countries between the 14th and 16th century...
having died out with King Zygmunt II August), the Archbishop of Gniezno served as interrex
Interrex (Poland)
The institution of interrex existed in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, whose ruling classes liked to view their Republic or Commonwealth as an heir to Roman republican traditions...
, i.e. as interim head of state until a new king could be elected. He represented the country and prepared elections for a new king.
In addition, the Archbishop of Gniezno had the power to call a new Senat session, if he deemed it important to do so, even in the absence of the King. He could also invoke the "de non praestanda obedientia" article, giving the country the right to legally depose the King. From among other senators, he chose his own court marshal (often a Castellan
Castellan
A castellan was the governor or captain of a castle. The word stems from the Latin Castellanus, derived from castellum "castle". Also known as a constable.-Duties:...
). That person acted as the Archbishop's messenger during Senat meetings, giving signs (by moving a cross) that conveyed how the Archbishop wished his allies to vote. The Archbishop of Gniezno had two deputies: the bishops of Wrocław and Poznań
Poznan
Poznań is a city on the Warta river in west-central Poland, with a population of 556,022 in June 2009. It is among the oldest cities in Poland, and was one of the most important centres in the early Polish state, whose first rulers were buried at Poznań's cathedral. It is sometimes claimed to be...
.
Of secular Senators, the foremost was the Castellan (Kasztelan) of Kraków
Kraków
Kraków also Krakow, or Cracow , is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life...
. Other Castellans, however, were considered to be lesser dignitaries than the Voivodes.
The power of the Voivodes had declined since that title had been introduced about the 12th century; in the 17th century, however, they were still the highest regional dignitaries. They were the highest representatives of their Voivodeship
Voivodeship
Voivodship is a term denoting the position of, or more commonly the area administered by, a voivod. Voivodeships have existed since medieval times in Poland, Romania, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Russia and Serbia....
s to the Senat. They were the leaders of the Land Parliaments (Sejmiki Wojewódzkie, Voivodeship Sejmik
Sejmik
A sejmik was a regional assembly in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and earlier in the Kingdom of Poland. Sejmiks existed until the end of the Commonwealth in 1795 following the partitions of the Commonwealth...
s). They were in charge of assembling local nobility's military forces in the event of a pospolite ruszenie
Pospolite ruszenie
Pospolite ruszenie , is an anachronistic term describing the mobilisation of armed forces, especially during the period of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The tradition of wartime mobilisation of part of the population existed from before the 13th century to the 19th century...
(levée en masse
Levée en masse
Levée en masse is a French term for mass conscription during the French Revolutionary Wars, particularly for the one from 16 August 1793.- Terminology :...
). Each chose a Deputy Voivode, who was responsible for setting local prices and measures. Voivodes were chosen by the King, except for those of Połock Voivode and Vilna Voivode, who were elected by (and from) the local nobility (but still had to be appointed by the King).
Except for the Castellan
Castellan
A castellan was the governor or captain of a castle. The word stems from the Latin Castellanus, derived from castellum "castle". Also known as a constable.-Duties:...
of Kraków Land (which has its seat in a privileged city, as the Commonwealth's capital to 1596), Castellans were often considered subordinate to Voivodes. A Castellan
Castellan
A castellan was the governor or captain of a castle. The word stems from the Latin Castellanus, derived from castellum "castle". Also known as a constable.-Duties:...
was in charge of part of a Voivodship (till the 15th century called a Castellany
Castellany
A castellany was a district administered by a castellan.Castellanies appeared during the Middle Ages and in most current states are now replaced by a more modern type of country subdivision....
, and thereafter divided into provinces for Major Castellans and powiat
Powiat
A powiat is the second-level unit of local government and administration in Poland, equivalent to a county, district or prefecture in other countries. The term powiat is most often translated into English as "county", although other terms are also sometimes used...
s for Minor Castellans).
From 1565, the principle of "incompatibilitas
Incompatibilitas
Incompatibilitas was a principle instituted in the Kingdom of Poland which forbade an individual to hold two or more official administrative positions...
" ("incompatibility") forbade Voivodes and Castellans to hold a second title as a Minister, except for the post of Hetman
Hetman
Hetman was the title of the second-highest military commander in 15th- to 18th-century Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which together, from 1569 to 1795, comprised the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, or Rzeczpospolita....
. Ministers were comparable to modern central-government officials. They were 10 officials (5 for the Crown of Poland, 5 for Lithuania). The Ministers were the Grand Marshal of the Crown (Marszałek Wielki Koronny), Grand Marshal of Lithuania (Marszałek Wielki Litewski), Grand Chancellor of the Crown (Kanclerz Wielki Koronny), Grand Chancellor of Lithuania (Kanclerz Wielki Litewski), Vice-Chancellor of the Crown (Podkanclerzy Koronny), Vice-Chancellor of Lithuania (Podkanclerzy Litewski), Grand Treasurer of the Crown (Podskarbi Wielki Koronny), Grand Treasurer of Lithuania (Podskarbi Wielki Litewski), Court Marshal of the Crown (Marszałek Nadworny Koronny) and Court Marshal of Lithuania (Marszałek Nadworny Litewski). Court Marshals were considered subordinate to Grand Marshals. Lithuanian ministers, while vested with the same powers as Crown Ministers, were considered below them in precedence. Hetmans were also considered "Ministers" but had no seat in the Senat.
A Marshal's duties consisted in providing security to the King and keeping order where he was present. Marshals commanded two regiment
Regiment
A regiment is a major tactical military unit, composed of variable numbers of batteries, squadrons or battalions, commanded by a colonel or lieutenant colonel...
s of infantry
Infantry
Infantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of combat arms, they are the backbone of armies...
, a regiment of militia
Militia
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
, and a special court of law with a marshal's judge (sędzia marszałkowski), marshal's clerk (pisarz marszałkowski) and assessor
Assessor
An assessor may be:* Assessor , the assistant to a judge or magistrate* Assessor , a senior officer of the University of Oxford* Assessor , an expert who calculates the value of property...
s (singular: asesor). These courts passed sentence
Sentence (law)
In law, a sentence forms the final explicit act of a judge-ruled process, and also the symbolic principal act connected to his function. The sentence can generally involve a decree of imprisonment, a fine and/or other punishments against a defendant convicted of a crime...
on the spot, without possibility of appeal
Appeal
An appeal is a petition for review of a case that has been decided by a court of law. The petition is made to a higher court for the purpose of overturning the lower court's decision....
. For crime
Crime
Crime is the breach of rules or laws for which some governing authority can ultimately prescribe a conviction...
s such as drawing a weapon in the King's presence, the penalty was death. A Marshal's court had jurisdiction
Jurisdiction
Jurisdiction is the practical authority granted to a formally constituted legal body or to a political leader to deal with and make pronouncements on legal matters and, by implication, to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility...
over all crimes committed against the royal court and by courtier
Courtier
A courtier is a person who is often in attendance at the court of a king or other royal personage. Historically the court was the centre of government as well as the residence of the monarch, and social and political life were often completely mixed together...
s.
When the King traveled, Marshals supervised the local Voivodes. The Marshals decided who would be admitted to royal audience. They were the organizers and masters of royal and court ceremonies (including weddings, funerals and the like). They were the masters of the court, kept track of lesser courtiers, and (where applicable) set their salaries. Each Marshal wielded a marshal's staff, which he had received from the Chancellor (Kanclerz
Kanclerz
Kanclerz was one of the highest officials in the historic Poland. This office functioned from the early Polish kingdom of the 12th century until the end of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795. A respective office also existed in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania since the 16th...
). In exchange, all Chancellor nominations were heralded by the Marshals. If no Marshal was present, his functions were carried out by a Grand Treasurer or secular Grand Chancellor. On formal occasions and during travel, where appropriate, a Marshal with his staff of office preceded the King. Close after the Marshals in the hierarchy were the Chancellors.
From 1507, the title of Grand Chancellor of the Crown was rotated between secular and ecclesiastic Chancellors. After the Union of Lublin
Union of Lublin
The Union of Lublin replaced the personal union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with a real union and an elective monarchy, since Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellons, remained childless after three marriages. In addition, the autonomy of Royal Prussia was...
(1569), the two offices, Chancellor (Kanclerz) and Subchancellor (Podkanclerzy) were doubled (Chancellors of the Crown, for the Crown of Poland, and Chancellors of Lithuania). The Chancellor and his respective Subchancellor (who was not a direct subordinate of the Chancellor) were responsible for the work of two Chancelleries, a Major and a Minor. These were expected to be in constant contact and to develop common policies. Their responsibilities included foreign
Foreign Affairs
Foreign Affairs is an American magazine and website on international relations and U.S. foreign policy published since 1922 by the Council on Foreign Relations six times annually...
and internal affairs.
The Chancellors' offices were the "Chancelleries" (Crown and Lithuanian, Major and Minor). The Chancelleries were staffed with a "Regens," Secretaries
Secretary
A secretary, or administrative assistant, is a person whose work consists of supporting management, including executives, using a variety of project management, communication & organizational skills. These functions may be entirely carried out to assist one other employee or may be for the benefit...
(singular: Sekretarz), Scriptors (singular: Pisarz), clerks and "metrykants." The Regens divided the work among the clerks. Two Secretaries (one for private, the other for official, correspondence
Communication
Communication is the activity of conveying meaningful information. Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast...
) presented the ready letters to the King for signature. The Scriptors drafted the letters, the clerks prepared the final copies. The documents were also copied into books called "Metryki" (singular: Metryka), which were kept by two "metrykants", each, in Poland and Lithuania. The Grand Chancellor's Metrykant was called the Grand Metrykant, the Subchancellor's was the Lesser Metrykant. The Chancelleries' staffs, like the Chancellors, received no wages, but the middle of each reception room featured a box into which clients were expected to deposit varying amounts of money, and no one who planned to return could afford to be stingy.
The Chancellors also had judiciary
Judiciary
The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes...
powers, exercised through assessors’ courts, which were the highest appellate courts for persons subject to crown law (i.e., not subject to ecclesiastic or magnate
Magnate
Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus 'great', designates a noble or other man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities...
courts). Each such court was staffed by a secretary, Referendary (Referendarz) and writer. In the 17th century, each such court was enlarged to include four assessors; and, in 1775, a metrykants and a regens.
The Chancellor often gave speeches representing the royal will. The symbol of his office was the Seal
Seal (device)
A seal can be a figure impressed in wax, clay, or some other medium, or embossed on paper, with the purpose of authenticating a document ; but the term can also mean the device for making such impressions, being essentially a mould with the mirror image of the design carved in sunken- relief or...
, which was used to seal all documents passing through his office. He also sealed documents signed by the monarch, and could refuse to seal a document that he considered illegal or damaging to the state (such documents had no force without his seal). When the King died, the seal was destroyed at his funeral and a new one was issued to the Chancellor by the late King's succeessor. Therefore the Chancellors were considered the guardians of the King and state, ensuring that the King's folly would not endanger the state by forcing it into an unnecessary war (the wars that were prevented by the Chancellors included a great crusade against the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
that King Władysław IV Waza had planned in the 1630s).
The Chancellor's powers tended to be reinforced by the fact that wars required funds that were appropriated by the Senate
Senate of Poland
The Senate is the upper house of the Polish parliament, the lower house being the 'Sejm'. The history of the Polish Senate is rich in tradition and stretches back over 500 years, it was one of the first constituent bodies of a bicameral parliament in Europe and existed without hiatus until the...
. The richer nobles
Szlachta
The szlachta was a legally privileged noble class with origins in the Kingdom of Poland. It gained considerable institutional privileges during the 1333-1370 reign of Casimir the Great. In 1413, following a series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of...
who controlled the Senate were usually loath to increase and levy taxes upon themselves, which meant that Poland herself very rarely declared wars. Usually she was attacked by her neighbors, and while she repelled all attacks till the end of the 18th century, she almost never exploited her victories. The army was undermanned and underequipped (since usually any suggestion to augment the military budget
Military budget
A military budget of an entity, most often a nation or a state, is the budget and financial resources dedicated to raising and maintaining armed forces for that entity. Military budgets reflect how much an entity perceives the likelihood of threats against it, or the amount of aggression it wishes...
when an enemy was not on the Commonwealth's doorstep was labeled as warmongering) and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's lands were constantly ravaged by new invasions that crippled the economy.
Last among the ministers were the Grand Treasurers. They kept accounts of the state finances, cash flow and State Treasury, and controlled the minting of coin. Since, like the Chancellors, they received no wages, corruption ran rampant and a sizable portion of state finances was lost in their pockets. If a Treasurer moved to another post, he was obliged to render accounts of his disbursements, and if he died, his family were required to produce them. A telling story is that of Bogusław Leszczyński, who while a Grand Treasurer (1650–1658) was offered a Chancellor's post, which he accepted in 1658. He bribed the members of the Parliament to grant him "absolution", and when one of them later opposed him, he asked, curious: "Who's this son of a bitch that I failed to pay off?"
Grand Treasurers supervised lesser officials such as the Master of the Mint (mincerz), dyspensators, kurators, tax collectors (poborca podatkowy), superintendents (overseer of customs officers), customs officers (celnik) and subkolektors. It should be remembered that, in those times, goods – as well as people – were taxed not only at borders but at bridges, crossroads and city gates.
List of Senatorial offices
- Marszałek Wielki Koronny — Grand Marshal of the Crown
- Marszałek Wielki Litewski — Grand Marshal of Lithuania
- KanclerzKanclerzKanclerz was one of the highest officials in the historic Poland. This office functioned from the early Polish kingdom of the 12th century until the end of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795. A respective office also existed in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania since the 16th...
Wielki Koronny — Grand Chancellor of the Crown - Kanclerz Wielki Litewski — Grand Chancellor of Lithuania
- Podkanclerzy Koronny — Deputy Chancellor of the Crown
- Podkanclerzy Litewski — Deputy Chancellor of Lithuania
- PodskarbiPodskarbiPodskarbi in Poland then in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was minister responsible for the treasury. Since 1569 also a senatorial office. The title although meaning treasurer can be deconstructed as "under[King]-treasury" - treasury as an old-fashioned adjective...
Wielki Koronny — Grand Treasurer of the Crown - Podskarbi Wielki Litewski — Grand Treasurer of Lithuania
- Marszałek Nadworny Koronny — Court Marshal of the Crown
- Marszałek Nadworny Litewski — Court Marshal of Lithuania
- Voivodes (Palatines) (singular: Palatinus) — an ancient dignity, merged with that of PalatinePalatineA palatine or palatinus is a high-level official attached to imperial or royal courts in Europe since Roman times...
s: Governors of VoivodeshipVoivodeshipVoivodship is a term denoting the position of, or more commonly the area administered by, a voivod. Voivodeships have existed since medieval times in Poland, Romania, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Russia and Serbia....
s. The number of Voivodes slowly increased when new Voivodships were created; at its greatest extent, the Commonwealth had 37. See Voivodes of the Polish-Lithuanian CommonwealthVoivodes of the Polish-Lithuanian CommonwealthVoivodes of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were one of the highest ranking officials who could sit in the Senate of Poland. They were the officials in charge of the voivodeships of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The office first appears as Palatine who was the first person after the King...
for details. - Kasztelanowie (singular: Kasztelan) — CastellanCastellanA castellan was the governor or captain of a castle. The word stems from the Latin Castellanus, derived from castellum "castle". Also known as a constable.-Duties:...
s: heads of kasztelanie (castellanieCastellanyA castellany was a district administered by a castellan.Castellanies appeared during the Middle Ages and in most current states are now replaced by a more modern type of country subdivision....
s). Their number also varied. The most important Castellan was that of KrakówKrakówKraków also Krakow, or Cracow , is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life...
, whose position in the hierarchy was actually superior to that of a Voivode. The Castellans were of three categories:- Kasztelanowie Wyróżnieni — Distinguished Castellans (of KrakówKrakówKraków also Krakow, or Cracow , is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life...
, VilniusVilniusVilnius is the capital of Lithuania, and its largest city, with a population of 560,190 as of 2010. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County...
and TrakaiTrakaiTrakai is a historic city and lake resort in Lithuania. It lies 28 km west of Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania. Because of its proximity to Vilnius, Trakai is a popular tourist destination. Trakai is the administrative centre of Trakai district municipality. The town covers 11.52 km2 of...
). They were seated among the Voivodes. - Kasztelanowie Więksi (Krzesłowi) — Major Castellans (there were 31).
- Kasztelanowie Mniejsi (Drążkowi) — Minor Castellans (there were 49).
- Kasztelanowie Konarscy (Koniuszy) — Equerry Castellans (there were 3).
- Kasztelanowie Wyróżnieni — Distinguished Castellans (of Kraków
See Castellans of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for details.
The Senate also included Bishop
Bishop
A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, in the Assyrian Church of the East, in the Independent Catholic Churches, and in the...
s of Poland. See Bishops of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for details. After 1668, though there was no law explicitly forbidding it, no non Roman Catholics were nominated to the senatorial offices. It is interesting to note, that even the 1717 laws did not forbid Calvinists or the Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox Church
The Orthodox Church, officially called the Orthodox Catholic Church and commonly referred to as the Eastern Orthodox Church, is the second largest Christian denomination in the world, with an estimated 300 million adherents mainly in the countries of Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece,...
known as "dyssydents" to sit in the Senate.
Central non-Senat-related offices
As the name suggests, non-Senat-related officials were not entitled to a vote in the Senat.The most important such officials were the Great Secretaries (singular: sekretarz wielki), Crown and Lithuanian. Only a man of the cloth
Clergy
Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given religion. A clergyman, churchman or cleric is a member of the clergy, especially one who is a priest, preacher, pastor, or other religious professional....
could be a Great Secretary. These functionaries were considered more consequential than any district or court official, with the exception of the Court Marshal. They could act as Chancellors when no Chancellor was in attendance. They dealt with secret letters; in Senat they read out letters of the King's and resolutions of the Sejm
Sejm
The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Poseł in Polish . It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of the Sejm ....
. The Great Secretaries often acted as Assessors and were called "innate Assessors."
Next were 4 Referendaries (singular: referendarz), 2 secular and 2 ecclesiastic, one each for the Crown and for Lithuania. They rarely left the royal court, and their duties consisted in hearing petitions and complaints, which they referred (hence their name) to the King. They also acted as judges in cases involving peasants from the King's lands, and often acted as Assessors at other courts. Close to the office of Referendary was that of the "Instygator" — what today would be termed a State Prosecutor. One each for Crown and for Lithuania, the Instygators were tasked with uncovering and dealing with crimes against the King and the country, and were authorized to prosecute any dignitary save the King. They had deputies known as "viceinstygators."
Then came the Great Writers (singular: pisarz wielki) – one for the Crown, three for Lithuania. It was their task to clarify royal decrees and send letters to those dignitaries who must hear of them. They often acted as ambassadors and Assessors.
The Crown Keeper (kustosz koronny) was the official responsible for safeguarding the Royal Treasury, where the royal insignia were kept. The keys to the Treasury were held by the Great Treasurer and six voivods, and without each of them, the Treasury could not be opened. Traditionally, the Crown Keeper was chosen from among the priests of Kraków Cathedral. The Lithuanian Keeper was actually called a Treasurer (skarbny).
From 1647, the ministers were joined by a Postmaster General (Poczmistrz generalny, also known as Poczmistrz naczelny or Generał poczmistrz), the supervisor of the Royal Post, founded in 1547.
In principle, Polish-Lithuanian officials enjoyed life tenure. Of several notable exceptions to that rule, the most important involved the Senat Marshal, who chaired Senat meetings and could suggest, but not determine, the subject of a meeting. Traditionally, the post of Senat Marshal rotated among Senators from the three prowincyje ("provinces" — major divisions) of the Republic, or Commonwealth: Wielkopolska ("Greater Poland") and Małopolska ("Lesser Poland"), in the "Polish Crown"; and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
.
The office of Marshal of the Sejm
Sejm
The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Poseł in Polish . It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of the Sejm ....
(Marszałek Sejmu) existed only during sessions of the Commonwealth's parliament (the Sejm). The Marshal chose the Secretary of the Sejm
Sejm
The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Poseł in Polish . It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of the Sejm ....
(sekretarz sejmowy), who kept the records of Sejm meetings.
The highest court for nobles was called the Crown Tribunal
Crown Tribunal
Crown Tribunal – was the highest appeal court in the Crown of the Polish Kingdom for most cases, exceptions being the cases were a noble landowner was threatened with loss of life and/or property - then he could appeal to the Sejm court .In 1578 king Stefan Batory created the...
(Trybunł Koronny, created 1579) and was headed by a Tribunal President and a Marshal. The Marshal was chosen from and by the judges themselves, while the President dealt with ecclesiastic matters (and was himself a high-ranking priest). There was also a Lithuanian Tribunal (Trybunał Litewski) and Crown and Lithuanian Treasury courts, created in 1613 (Trybunał Skarbowy Koronny, Trybunał Skarbowy Litewski). Salaries for all judges were set at Sejm meetings.
Salt mines (żupy solne) were supervised by a żupnik. Other less important dignitaries named by the King or Sejm to deal with specific short-term questions were called "commissars", "lustrates", "revisers", "delegates", "legates" or "deputies."
Court offices
Official court posts are the most difficult to describe. Some court officials held responsibilities important to both the court and the country; the functions of others evolved over the centuries. In time (generally by the end of the 17th century), the titles of most had become merely honorary, and the King had to create another set of officials to deal with those responsibilities.Court officials may be divided into those who served the King, and those who ensured the smooth running of his court (in the 16th century, comprising some 1,000-1,500 persons). Since the first group were not subject to the principle of incompatibilitas, they often held another title, usually that of a lesser district official such as a starosta
Starosta
Starost is a title for an official or unofficial position of leadership that has been used in various contexts through most of Slavic history. It can be translated as "elder"...
. Of those who served the King, the most important was the Master of the Kitchen, who supervised the kitchen staff and equipment and the preparation of foods. During feasts, he announced the successive dishes.
Second in importance was the Pantler, who began setting the table. During feasts, he directed the setting of the dishes, aided by the Steward. The Carver finished setting the table with plates and utensils, and during the feast carved all the dishes that required the knife. After carving, he tasted them (by the 17th century, this was merely a tradition, left over from the days when this official used to detect poison).
Drink was seen to by the Cupbearer and the Royal Cupbearer. The first tasted of the drinks, poured them and ordered them; the second, upon receiving them from the former, served them to the King. A description of a 1596 banquet in the reign of King Sigismund III Vasa
Sigismund III Vasa
Sigismund III Vasa was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, a monarch of the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1587 to 1632, and King of Sweden from 1592 until he was deposed in 1599...
was set down by the secretary to the Papal Nuncio (ambassador), Giorgio Paolo Mucante: "Each dish was first given, with a bow, by the Master of the Kitchen to the Carver, who passed it to the Pantler. The latter dipped a prepared piece of bread into the dish, touched it to his tongue, then discarded it into a nearby silver bin. It took quite a while before the King and the Cardinal could begin eating, as they had to bear with all the ceremonies. The Carver bowed so often that I truly think that during the feast he bowed at least 3,000 times."
A second set of dignitaries was headed by the Court Marshal (see above):
- Chamberlain — in charge of the King's court and the domestic economy on Crown estates;
- Standard-bearer — carried the King's or the country's banner;
- Sword-bearerMiecznikMiecznik was a court office in Poland. Responsible for the arsenal of the King and for carrying his sword.Since the 14th Century an honorable title of district office, in Kingdom of Poland and after Union of Lublin in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth....
— carried the sword before the King; - Equerry — in charge of the King's stables and stud;
- Master of the Hunt — organized hunts, guarded the royal forests against poachers;
- Court Treasurer — managed the King's finances, kept accounts of his personal treasure, and supervised the court's treasures;
- Royal Secretaries — dealt with the King's personal correspondence;
- Royal Chaplain — conducted court masses, supervised the liturgical treasures, and oversaw the court musicians;
- and many other dignitaries, of progressively less importance, dealing with matters such as food supplies, transportation, etc.
The Queen had her own court, staffed with women; its influence in the country was much smaller.
List of court offices
- Sekretarz wielki koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Grand Secretary;
- Referendarz koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian ReferendaryReferendaryReferendary is the English form or rendering of a number of administrative positions, of various rank, in chanceries and other official organisations.-Secular:...
; - PodskarbiPodskarbiPodskarbi in Poland then in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was minister responsible for the treasury. Since 1569 also a senatorial office. The title although meaning treasurer can be deconstructed as "under[King]-treasury" - treasury as an old-fashioned adjective...
nadworny koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Court Treasurer; - Podkomorzy nadworny koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Court ChamberlainChamberlain (office)A chamberlain is an officer in charge of managing a household. In many countries there are ceremonial posts associated with the household of the sovereign....
; - ChorążyChorążyChorąży or Khorunzhyi is a military rank in Poland, Ukraine and some neighboring countries. A chorąży was once a knight who bore a standard — the emblem of an armed troop, a province , a land , a duchy, or the kingdom...
wielki koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Grand Standard-bearer; - ChorążyChorążyChorąży or Khorunzhyi is a military rank in Poland, Ukraine and some neighboring countries. A chorąży was once a knight who bore a standard — the emblem of an armed troop, a province , a land , a duchy, or the kingdom...
nadworny koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Court Standard-bearer; - MiecznikMiecznikMiecznik was a court office in Poland. Responsible for the arsenal of the King and for carrying his sword.Since the 14th Century an honorable title of district office, in Kingdom of Poland and after Union of Lublin in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth....
koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Sword-bearer; - Kuchmistrz koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Master of the Kitchen;
- Koniuszy koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian EquerryEquerryAn equerry , and related to the French word "écuyer" ) is an officer of honour. Historically, it was a senior attendant with responsibilities for the horses of a person of rank. In contemporary use, it is a personal attendant, usually upon a Sovereign, a member of a Royal Family, or a national...
; - PodczaszyPodczaszyPodczaszy was since the 13th century a court office in Poland and later in Lithuania. Podczaszy was the deputy of Cześnik, with the time more important than his superior....
koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Royal Cupbearer; - Krajczy koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Carver;
- StolnikStolnikStolnik was a court office in Poland and Muscovy, responsible for serving the royal table.- Stolnik in Crown of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania : In Crown of Poland under the first Piast dukes and kings, this was a court office....
koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Pantler; - PodstoliPodstoliPodstoli was a court office in Poland and Lithuania. A Podstoli was the deputy of a Stolnik, and was responsible for the King's pantry....
koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian StewardSteward (office)A steward is an official who is appointed by the legal ruling monarch to represent him or her in a country, and may have a mandate to govern it in his or her name; in the latter case, it roughly corresponds with the position of governor or deputy...
; - CześnikCzesnikCześnik was a court office in Poland and Lithuania until the end of the 13th century. The holder was responsible for the wine-cellar of the King and for serving him cups with wine at banquets...
korony — Crown Cupbearer; - Łowczy koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Master of the HuntMaster of the huntMaster of the Hunt or Huntmaster can refer to*an office held in the organization of hunting in a particular area, such as Master of foxhounds in hunts that use dogs....
; - Łowczy nadworny — Court Master of the HuntMaster of the huntMaster of the Hunt or Huntmaster can refer to*an office held in the organization of hunting in a particular area, such as Master of foxhounds in hunts that use dogs....
; - Regent kancelarii koronny i litewski — Court and Lithuanian Regent of the Chancellery;
- Metrykant koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Record-keeper;
- Pisarz sądowy koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Judicial Clerk;
- Pisarz wielki koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Great Clerk;
- Pisarz skarbowy koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian Treasury Clerk;
- Kusztosz koronny — Crown Keeper;
- Skarbny litewski — Lithuanian Treasurer;
- Instygator koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian State Prosecutor;
- Geometra litewski — Lithuanian Surveyor General;
- Wojski litewski — Lithuanian WojskiWojskiThe Wojski was an officer in medieval Poland, responsible for the security of voivodships or districts at times when voivods and castellans had accompanied the szlachta to war....
; - Piwniczy litewski — Lithuanian Cellar-Master.
Military offices
The highest military officials were the HetmanHetman
Hetman was the title of the second-highest military commander in 15th- to 18th-century Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which together, from 1569 to 1795, comprised the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, or Rzeczpospolita....
s. As with most offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, "hetman" was a job for life and its holder could not be removed even if he was a poor commander. Until the beginning of the 18th century, hetman
Hetman
Hetman was the title of the second-highest military commander in 15th- to 18th-century Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which together, from 1569 to 1795, comprised the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, or Rzeczpospolita....
s were not paid for their services.
Hetmans were very independent; they could maintain their own foreign contacts with the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, Russia and the Tatars
Tatars
Tatars are a Turkic speaking ethnic group , numbering roughly 7 million.The majority of Tatars live in the Russian Federation, with a population of around 5.5 million, about 2 million of which in the republic of Tatarstan.Significant minority populations are found in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan,...
. They allocated their military budgets as they saw fit. As the highest military commanders and administrators, hetmans made administrative and juridical law concerning the military; from 1590, such law had the same force as the Sejm's legislation.
A Hetman's symbol of office was a mace (buława), which was added to his coat of arms
Coat of arms
A coat of arms is a unique heraldic design on a shield or escutcheon or on a surcoat or tabard used to cover and protect armour and to identify the wearer. Thus the term is often stated as "coat-armour", because it was anciently displayed on the front of a coat of cloth...
. There were two kinds of hetman (in addition to the division into Crown and Lithuanian) — "Great" and "Field." Field Hetmans were subordinate to Great Hetmans, and were sometimes called "Border Hetmans" (hetmani kresowi), since they had evolved from commanders of permanent garrisons on Poland's southeastern borders (a great school of warfare, since it was an area almost constantly under attack by the Ottoman Turks
Ottoman Turks
The Ottoman Turks were the Turkish-speaking population of the Ottoman Empire who formed the base of the state's military and ruling classes. Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks is scarce, but they take their Turkish name, Osmanlı , from the house of Osman I The Ottoman...
and the Tatars).
The Hetmans chose a commissioner for a two-year period who commanded the Commonwealth's Cossack
Cossack
Cossacks are a group of predominantly East Slavic people who originally were members of democratic, semi-military communities in what is today Ukraine and Southern Russia inhabiting sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower Dnieper and Don basins and who played an important role in the...
troops. Below the Hetmans were Deputy Hetmans titled Regimentarz, who commanded voivodship levées en masse
Levée en masse
Levée en masse is a French term for mass conscription during the French Revolutionary Wars, particularly for the one from 16 August 1793.- Terminology :...
.
Hetman and Regimentarz were accompanied by a staff of officers titled Great Guard, Field Guard, Field Clerk, Great Quartermaster and Field Quartermaster. These officers were salaried (the Lithuanian Field Guard, Field Clerk and Quartermaster received 15,000 Polish złotych per annum; the Crown Field Clerk, 30,000).
The Great Guard directed the scout forces while on the march and in camp and commanded the advance guard (however, if both Hetmans were present, the Field Hetman acted as Great Guard). Field Guards were found only on the eastern borders.
The Field Clerks kept accounts of men, equipment and weapons, and paid the soldiers' wages.
The Quartermasters selected campsites, built the camps, and provided logistics and camp security.
After 1635, several new military titles were created:
- 1637 – General of Artillery (responsible for artillery forces and their logistics);
- 1670s – General of Logistics; General of Medics; General of Finances.
The combat readiness of troops was overseen by Inspector Generals (however, it is unclear exactly when "in the 17th century" they were created).
See: Coats of arms
Coat of arms
A coat of arms is a unique heraldic design on a shield or escutcheon or on a surcoat or tabard used to cover and protect armour and to identify the wearer. Thus the term is often stated as "coat-armour", because it was anciently displayed on the front of a coat of cloth...
of hetman
Hetman
Hetman was the title of the second-highest military commander in 15th- to 18th-century Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which together, from 1569 to 1795, comprised the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, or Rzeczpospolita....
s and several other dignitaries here:http://www.bezuprzedzen.pl/urzedy/urzedygaleria.html.
List of military offices
- Hetman Wielki KoronnyHetmanHetman was the title of the second-highest military commander in 15th- to 18th-century Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which together, from 1569 to 1795, comprised the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, or Rzeczpospolita....
— Crown Grand Hetman; - Hetman Wielki LitewskiHetmanHetman was the title of the second-highest military commander in 15th- to 18th-century Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which together, from 1569 to 1795, comprised the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, or Rzeczpospolita....
— Lithuanian Grand Hetman; - Hetman Polny KoronnyHetmanHetman was the title of the second-highest military commander in 15th- to 18th-century Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which together, from 1569 to 1795, comprised the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, or Rzeczpospolita....
— Crown Field Hetman; - Hetman Polny LitewskiHetmanHetman was the title of the second-highest military commander in 15th- to 18th-century Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which together, from 1569 to 1795, comprised the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, or Rzeczpospolita....
— Lithuanian Field Hetman; - Strażnik Wielki Koronny — Crown Great Guard;
- Strażnik Wielki Litewski — Lithuanian Great Guard;
- Strażnik Polny Koronny — Crown Field Guard;
- Strażnik Polny Litewski — Lithuanian Field Guard;
- Pisarz Polny Koronny — Crown Field Clerk;
- Pisarz Polny Litewski — Lithuanian Field Clerk;
- Oboźny Wielki Koronny — Crown Great Quartermaster;
- Oboźny Wielki Litewski — Lithuanian Great Quartermaster;
- Oboźny Polny Koronny — Crown Field Quartermaster;
- Oboźny Polny Litewski — Lithuanian Field Quartermaster;
- Sędzia Wojskowy Koronny — Crown Military Judge;
- Sędzia Wojskowy Litewski — Lithuanian Military Judge;
- Generał artylerii koronny i litewski — Crown and Lithuanian General of Artillery;
- Regent Wojski litewski — Lithuanian WojskiWojskiThe Wojski was an officer in medieval Poland, responsible for the security of voivodships or districts at times when voivods and castellans had accompanied the szlachta to war....
Regent; - RegimentarzRegimentarzRegimentarz was a military commander since the 16th century in Poland, of an army group or substitute of Hetman, nominated by the King or the Sejm....
— Deputy Hetman; - Rotmistrz — Commander of an infantry or cavalry regiment;
- TowarzyszTowarzyszA Towarzysz was sort of a junior cavalry officer or rather knight-officer in the autorament narodowy Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth National army, both in cavalry and infantry, from the 16th century until 1794 AD....
— CavalryCavalryCavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
officer (literally, "Companion"); - Towarzysz husarskiTowarzysz husarskiTowarzysz husarski or Husarz , was the name of a type of heavy cavalryman in Poland....
— HussarHussarHussar refers to a number of types of light cavalry which originated in Hungary in the 14th century, tracing its roots from Serbian medieval cavalry tradition, brought to Hungary in the course of the Serb migrations, which began in the late 14th century....
officer; - Towarzysz pancernyTowarzysz pancernyTowarzysz pancerny was a medium-cavalryman in 16th-18th century Poland, named for his chainmail armor...
— Light cavalryLight cavalryLight cavalry refers to lightly armed and lightly armored troops mounted on horses, as opposed to heavy cavalry, where the riders are heavily armored...
officer; - Pocztowy — CavalryCavalryCavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
trooperTrooper (rank)Trooper from the French "troupier" is the equivalent rank to private in a regiment with a cavalry tradition in the British Army and many other Commonwealth armies, including those of Australia, Canada, South Africa and New Zealand. Today, most cavalry units operate in the armoured role, equipped...
.
District offices
A 1611 Constitution (amended 1633 and 1635) prescribed many officials. Exceptions to the rule, however, were the rule; SejmSejm
The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Poseł in Polish . It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of the Sejm ....
rules were treated as mere suggestions. Thus Bełz Voivodeship had only 4 of the 15 prescribed dignitaries; most northern voivodships had about 5; and in Wołyń and Bracław Voivodeships the hierarchical order was almost reversed. Each province or district had its own set of officials — a list of provinces may be found in the article on provinces and geography of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
District officials were appointed by the King, with a few exceptions (local parliaments — sejmiki — chose Chamberlains, District Judges, Deputy District Judges, District Clerks, and in Lithuania also Standard-bearers and District Marshals). Chamberlains, except for the name, had nothing in common with the Court officials of the same name. They administered a court of law (the Chamberlain's Court) which had jurisdiction over property disputes. The District Judge headed the District Court, which had jurisdiction over civil and some criminal matters involving local nobility.
The Starosta
Starosta
Starost is a title for an official or unofficial position of leadership that has been used in various contexts through most of Slavic history. It can be translated as "elder"...
generalny ("General Starosta") was the official in charge of a specific territory. The Starosta grodowy ("City Starosta") was in charge of cities, while the Starosta niegrodowy ("Non-City Starosta") was responsible for administration of the Crown land
Crown land
In Commonwealth realms, Crown land is an area belonging to the monarch , the equivalent of an entailed estate that passed with the monarchy and could not be alienated from it....
s. These were to be kept in good financial and military order. While in time these administrative responsibilities became smaller (as Kings gave away more and more land), the Starosta remained in charge of the City Courts (sądy grodzkie), which dealt with most criminal matters and had jurisdiction over all local and visiting nobility. They dealt with the most severe cases (killings, rapes, robberies) and were quite harsh (highway robbery was punishable with death), which generally made Poland a safer country than its neighbors. The Starostas also held the "power of the sword", which meant that they enforced the verdicts of all other courts. Non-City Starostas had no juridical powers.
Standard-bearers carried the local banner during Royal ceremonies, and in war when local troops served in the Army. During war, Wojski
Wojski
The Wojski was an officer in medieval Poland, responsible for the security of voivodships or districts at times when voivods and castellans had accompanied the szlachta to war....
s maintained order and security in their territories. In Lithuania, the responsibilities of Ciwuns were similar to those of non-city starostas (elders). District marshals presided over local parliaments (in the "Crown", District Marshals were chosen only for the duration of the parliament session, and so were much less powerful than those of Lithuania, who were chosen for life).
Crown
- Podkomorzy — Chamberlain
- StarostaStarostaStarost is a title for an official or unofficial position of leadership that has been used in various contexts through most of Slavic history. It can be translated as "elder"...
grodowy — Mayor - Chorąży — Standard-bearer
- Sędzia ziemski — District Judge
- StolnikStolnikStolnik was a court office in Poland and Muscovy, responsible for serving the royal table.- Stolnik in Crown of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania : In Crown of Poland under the first Piast dukes and kings, this was a court office....
— Pantler - PodczaszyPodczaszyPodczaszy was since the 13th century a court office in Poland and later in Lithuania. Podczaszy was the deputy of Cześnik, with the time more important than his superior....
— Royal Cupbearer - Podsędek — Deputy District Judge
- PodstoliPodstoliPodstoli was a court office in Poland and Lithuania. A Podstoli was the deputy of a Stolnik, and was responsible for the King's pantry....
— Steward - CześnikCzesnikCześnik was a court office in Poland and Lithuania until the end of the 13th century. The holder was responsible for the wine-cellar of the King and for serving him cups with wine at banquets...
— Cupbearer - Łowczy — Master of the Hunt
- Wojski większy — Major Wojski
- Pisarz ziemski — District Clerk
- MiecznikMiecznikMiecznik was a court office in Poland. Responsible for the arsenal of the King and for carrying his sword.Since the 14th Century an honorable title of district office, in Kingdom of Poland and after Union of Lublin in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth....
— Sword-bearer - Wojski mniejszy — Minor Wojski
- Skarbnik — Treasurer
Lithuania
- Marszałek ziemski — District Marshal
- Ciwun — Bailiff
- Podkomorzy — Chamberlain
- StarostaStarostaStarost is a title for an official or unofficial position of leadership that has been used in various contexts through most of Slavic history. It can be translated as "elder"...
grodzki — Mayor - Chorąży — Standard-bearer
- Sędzia ziemski — District judge
- Wojski większy — Major Wojski
- StolnikStolnikStolnik was a court office in Poland and Muscovy, responsible for serving the royal table.- Stolnik in Crown of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania : In Crown of Poland under the first Piast dukes and kings, this was a court office....
— Pantler - PodstoliPodstoliPodstoli was a court office in Poland and Lithuania. A Podstoli was the deputy of a Stolnik, and was responsible for the King's pantry....
— Steward - Pisarz ziemski — District Clerk
- Podwojewódzki, Podstarosta — Deputy Voivod, Deputy Starosta
- Sędzia grodzki — City Judge
- Pisarz grodzki — City Clerk
- PodczaszyPodczaszyPodczaszy was since the 13th century a court office in Poland and later in Lithuania. Podczaszy was the deputy of Cześnik, with the time more important than his superior....
— Royal Cupbearer - CześnikCzesnikCześnik was a court office in Poland and Lithuania until the end of the 13th century. The holder was responsible for the wine-cellar of the King and for serving him cups with wine at banquets...
— Cupbearer - Horodniczy — Castellan
- Skarbnik — Treasurer
- Łowczy — Master of the Hunt
- MiecznikMiecznikMiecznik was a court office in Poland. Responsible for the arsenal of the King and for carrying his sword.Since the 14th Century an honorable title of district office, in Kingdom of Poland and after Union of Lublin in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth....
— Sword-bearer - Koniuszy — Equerry
- Oboźny — Quartermaster
- Strażnik — Guard
- Krajczy — Carver
- Leśniczy — Forester
- Mostowniczy — Custodian of Bridges
- Budowniczy — Architect
Prussia
- Podkomorzy — Chamberlain
- Chorąży — Standard-bearer
- Sędzia — Judge
- Ławnik — Alderman
- Pisarz — Clerk
- Podwojewoda — Deputy Voivod (Deputy Governor)
Borough and judicial offices
The most important official was the Starosta
Starosta
Starost is a title for an official or unofficial position of leadership that has been used in various contexts through most of Slavic history. It can be translated as "elder"...
. He was supported by a Borough Substarosta (podstarości grodowy), Burgrave
Burgrave
A burgrave is literally the count of a castle or fortified town. The English form is derived through the French from the German Burggraf and Dutch burg- or burch-graeve .* The title is originally equivalent to that of castellan or châtelain, meaning keeper of a castle and/or fortified town...
(Burgrabia), Notary (Notariusz) and Scriptor (Pisarz). The Borough Substarosta assisted the Starosta and in his absence acted in his name with all his powers. Lower city officials were the Borough Regent (rejent grodzki), Borough Notary (notariusz grodzki), Borough Scriptor (pisarz grodzki) and common clerks ("subclerks" — podpiskowie).
In the eastern territories bordering on Russia, from 1667, a "Border Judge" cooperated with Russian judges in cases involving parties from the two countries; his rulings were final.
Judges were chosen from among the local hereditary nobles and had little formal training; therefore the quality of the courts varied from judge to judge, and levels of corruption were high. Attorneys, on the other hand, were required to have professional training. Sometimes a court included an asesor, who assisted the judge and collected fines and fees. Prosecutors were extremely rare. Instygators maintained order and security on court grounds, and a court runner (woźny) delivered summons.
List of borough and judicial offices
- Podstarosta grodowy — Borough Substarost
- Burgrabia — BurgraveBurgraveA burgrave is literally the count of a castle or fortified town. The English form is derived through the French from the German Burggraf and Dutch burg- or burch-graeve .* The title is originally equivalent to that of castellan or châtelain, meaning keeper of a castle and/or fortified town...
- Notariusz — Notary
- Rejent grodzki — Borough Regent
- Sędzia grodzki — Borough Judge
- Podsędek grodzki — Borough Subjudge
- Pisarz grodzki — Borough Clerk
In 1717 the "Numb Diet" barred non-Roman Catholics from being elected Envoys (to the Parliament), and to any other land offices if there was another Roman Catholic contender. The rights of the "Dissidents", as they were called, were reinstated in 1768, and in 1772 their representation in the Diet was limited to a stautory of two members. These rules were finally abolished in 1792 by the 3rd May Constitution.
Town and village offices
These offices were very stable, having evolved about the 13th century and lasting almost unchanged to the end of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The administrative system had come from Germany together with Magdeburg law.Every city (without exception) had a Council and a Bench, the Council being the administrative branch and the Bench the judicial branch. A new Council was chosen by the old one whose term had expired. The Council was responsible for administration, law, privileges, security, finances, guild oversight, and the like. The Council chose the Mayor, and its members' decision was final — even the Starosta or Voivode could only listen to the Mayor's swearing-in and could not refuse to give him his seal. The Council met daily in the larger cities, less often in smaller ones.
The Mayor headed the Council and controlled the executive branch. He was responsible for conciliation, the care of the poor, and maintaining order by suppressing alcohol abuse and games of chance. Second to the Mayor was the Council Clerk, who ran the City Chancellery. The City Clerk (Syndyk Miejski) collected city taxes and supervised the tax collectors. Security and order in the city were the responsibility of the Hutman. He also supervised the city jail and the keyman who unlocked and locked the city gates at dawn and dusk.
The Lonar was the city treasurer, who oversaw its finances. He supervised the officials who controlled marketplace scales to ensure fair trade. Large cities also had scores of less common officials, such as Pipemasters, responsible for pipes and wells; Fire Chiefs; and City Translators, who assisted foreigners and looked out for spies.
The Bench was chaired by a wójt. He and the other Bench members were chosen by the Council for a year's term from among lesser city officials (writers, clerks, etc.).
City Chief Executioners executed not only criminals sentenced by the Bench, but often criminals sentenced by other non-military courts in Poland. They were well paid, sometimes functioned as physicians, but were also often considered social outcasts and lived outside the city walls.
A village mayor was called the sołtys and was the administrative, executive and judicial chief for the village, responsible only to the village's owner.
List of town and village offices
- Burmistrz — City Mayor;
- Wójt — Advocate-Mayor;
- Pisarz rady — Council Clerk;
- Syndyk miejski — City Clerk;
- Hutman — Constable;
- Lonar — City Treasurer.
Other
- Starosta grodowy, Starosta sądowy — City Starosta, Judicial Starosta;
- Starosta generalny wielkopolski — General Starosta of Wielkopolska;
- Starosta generalny małopolski — General Starosta of Małopolska;
- Burgrabia zamku krakowskiego — BurgraveBurgraveA burgrave is literally the count of a castle or fortified town. The English form is derived through the French from the German Burggraf and Dutch burg- or burch-graeve .* The title is originally equivalent to that of castellan or châtelain, meaning keeper of a castle and/or fortified town...
of KrakówKrakówKraków also Krakow, or Cracow , is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life...
Castle; - Surrogat — Surrogate.
See also
- List of szlachta
- Hetmans of Polish-Lithuanian CommonwealthHetmans of Polish-Lithuanian CommonwealthHetmans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were the highest-ranking military officers, second only to the King, in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The first Polish title of Grand Crown Hetman was created in 1505. The title of hetman was given to the leader of Polish Army and till 1581 it was...
- Order of precedence in the Polish–Lithuanian CommonwealthOrder of precedence in the Polish–Lithuanian CommonwealthThe order of precedence for members of the Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was created at the same time as the Commonwealth itself – at the Lublin Sejm in 1569...
- SzlachtaSzlachtaThe szlachta was a legally privileged noble class with origins in the Kingdom of Poland. It gained considerable institutional privileges during the 1333-1370 reign of Casimir the Great. In 1413, following a series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of...
- Table of Ranks